ENGL 92: Review of Philippine Languages PDF

ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer Major Languages: Tagalog and Ilocano A. Role of Tagalog in Shaping Their Communities Cultural Identity & Social Cohesion Tagalog, as the basis of the national language Filipino, has unified the ethnolinguistic...

ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer Major Languages: Tagalog and Ilocano A. Role of Tagalog in Shaping Their Communities Cultural Identity & Social Cohesion Tagalog, as the basis of the national language Filipino, has unified the ethnolinguistic diversity of the Philippines. It was officially designated in the 1935 Constitution to establish a shared medium for communication and education across the archipelago. By serving as a linguistic bridge, Tagalog fosters a sense of national identity and collective belonging. Literature and Arts The Tagalog language has produced a wealth of literary works that capture the values, struggles, and philosophies of its people. Traditional forms like tanaga (a short, four-line poem), bugtong (riddle), awit (romantic quatrain poetry), and korido (metrical romances) preserve folk wisdom and storytelling customs. These forms communicate cultural narratives and moral lessons, often passed down orally through generations. Architecture Traditional Tagalog architecture, such as the bahay kubo and bahay na bato, reflects the community’s practical adaptation to its tropical environment. These structures highlight innovation in using local materials and designing for ventilation, flood-resistance, and social interaction. Education and Language Shift Filipino, derived from Tagalog, plays a key role in classroom instruction, particularly in promoting cultural relevance and identity. Research indicates that using the native language in educational contexts improves engagement and comprehension among students. This shift aligns educational content with students’ lived experiences and linguistic backgrounds. Challenges and Adaptation While Tagalog remains dominant, it has undergone changes due to internal migration and contact with other languages. In linguistically diverse areas such as Mindoro and Palawan, Tagalog has emerged as a lingua franca. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 1  However, this shift sometimes contributes to the endangerment of indigenous languages in these regions. Summary Overall, Tagalog has shaped Filipino communities through its contributions to identity, literature, architecture, and education. Its adaptability and widespread use ensure its continued relevance, but preserving other local languages alongside it remains vital. B. Role of Ilocano in Shaping Their Communities Cultural Identity and Social Cohesion Ilocano is central to the cultural identity of its speakers, creating a shared sense of belonging. In La Union, around 82% of the population identifies as Ilocano, with most being Roman Catholic—illustrating the close ties between language, faith, and identity. The language is integral to traditional livelihoods such as abel (weaving), damili (pottery), and basi (sugarcane wine), which sustain economic practices rooted in heritage. Literature and Arts Ilocano literature is rich with epic tales, proverbs, and folk narratives. The epic Biag ni Lam-ang recounts the heroic adventures of Lam-ang, who embodies traits like bravery, loyalty, and familial duty. Such stories are not only entertainment but also cultural vessels that preserve the Ilocano worldview. Community Journalism and Cultural Preservation Community journalism, particularly through the publication Bannawag, has been key to preserving the Ilocano language and culture. These publications engage local readers with culturally relevant content, reinforcing pride and language use. Migration and Community Dynamics Ilocano people have a strong history of migration, moving both within the Philippines and abroad. Notable Ilocano communities exist in Mindoro, Palawan, Mindanao, and in U.S. states like Hawaii and California. Diasporic Ilocano groups maintain cultural ties through associations, traditions, and use of the language, illustrating resilience and adaptability. Challenges and Language Vitality Despite its widespread use, the Ilocano language is at risk due to generational language shift and the influence of technology. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 2  Studies show younger generations may prefer more dominant languages, necessitating early intervention to preserve Ilocano’s vitality. Summary Ilocano continues to shape communities by reinforcing identity, supporting traditional practices, enriching literature, and fostering diaspora solidarity. Preservation of the language is essential for sustaining the cultural fabric of Ilocano- speaking regions. C. Key Aspects of Tagalog 1. Foundation of the National Language Tagalog is the linguistic root of Filipino, the national language, which serves to unify a multilingual population. 2. Literary and Artistic Legacy Classic works like Florante at Laura (Francisco Balagtas) and Noli Me Tangere (José Rizal) are written in Tagalog. Artistic expressions include balagtasan (poetic debates) and kundiman (traditional love songs), which celebrate emotions and social issues. 3. Historical and Political Significance Tagalog was the language of the 1899 Malolos Constitution. It played a strategic role in anti-colonial resistance during the Spanish and American periods. 4. Social and Economic Influence As the primary language in Metro Manila, Tagalog shapes business, media, and education. It is the language of television, film, and pop culture, giving it wide social reach. 5. Cultural Expression Expressions like bayanihan (community effort) and utang na loob (debt of gratitude) articulate key Filipino values. D. Key Aspects of Ilocano 1. Widespread Usage Ilocano is the third most spoken language in the Philippines and is used across Luzon and in global diaspora communities. 2. Rich Literary and Oral Traditions Beyond Biag ni Lam-ang, Ilocano culture includes proverbs (panangam-amin), riddles (burburtia), and songs (dallot). 3. Resilient Community Identity ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 3  Ilocanos are known for diligence, frugality, and resilience, traits that are evident in their work as OFWs and entrepreneurs. 4. Traditional Crafts and Industries Crafts like abel Iloko, damili, and basi contribute to the economy and cultural identity. The city of Vigan, with its Spanish colonial architecture, symbolizes Ilocano artistic legacy. 5. Culinary Contributions Ilocano cuisine features hearty dishes like pinakbet, bagnet, and dinengdeng, which are now part of the broader Filipino food culture. E. Significance in Philippine Culture Linguistic Unity and Diversity Tagalog (as Filipino) unifies the country while Ilocano preserves regional uniqueness and pride. Cultural Continuity Both languages are key to maintaining oral traditions, folklore, and values that might otherwise be lost. Economic Impact Ilocano labor migration boosts the economy, while Tagalog dominates the economic capital (Manila) and influences commerce. Historical Contributions Each language has played major roles in shaping national movements, ideologies, and literary heritage. Cultural Depth Together, Tagalog and Ilocano illustrate the multilingual and multicultural essence of the Philippines. F. The Role of Language in Shaping Identities Tagalog-Speaking Individuals Typically feel close to mainstream Filipino culture through media, education, and literature. Internalize values like bayanihan, paggalang (respect), and community responsibility. Ilocano-Speaking Individuals Tend to exhibit strong work ethic, resilience, and community loyalty. Language usage reinforces their identity, especially among migrants who wish to maintain ties with their roots. Bilingual and Multilingual Dynamics ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 4  For multilinguals, language switching offers adaptability but may lead to complex identity negotiation. Proficiency in multiple languages allows individuals to navigate diverse cultural and social contexts. Language and Relationships Language shapes how people relate to others; for example, po and opo in Tagalog signify politeness and hierarchy. Ilocano expressions foster community bonds and reflect social values. Major Languages: Hiligaynon and Waray A. Role of Hiligaynon in Shaping Their Communities Cultural Identity and Social Cohesion Hiligaynon, also known as Ilonggo, plays a key role in uniting communities in Western Visayas and parts of Mindanao. It fosters a collective identity among its speakers, promoting shared values, customs, and communication. Literature and Arts Hiligaynon has a vibrant literary tradition, expressed through short stories, poetry, plays, and oral literature. Notable works are published in Hiligaynon magazine, a key platform for preserving and promoting the language. The komedya and zarzuela are two important theatrical forms that use the Hiligaynon language to convey stories rooted in local life and moral lessons. Education and Media In schools across the Western Visayas region, Hiligaynon is used as a medium of instruction in early education. Its inclusion in the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) program strengthens language preservation and improves comprehension among young learners. Local radio stations and newspapers use Hiligaynon, keeping the language relevant in daily life and accessible through media. Community and Identity The use of Hiligaynon in family and community settings helps reinforce cultural norms and social ties. The language expresses values like pagpalangga (love) and pagrespeto (respect), which are integral to Ilonggo culture. Challenges and Resilience Urbanization and migration have introduced shifts in language use, with some younger speakers leaning toward Filipino and English. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 5  Despite these trends, efforts in education, literature, and media continue to sustain the language’s relevance. B. Role of Waray in Shaping Their Communities Cultural Identity and Regional Unity Waray, spoken mainly in Eastern Visayas, strengthens regional identity and pride among its speakers. The language is a key marker of belonging and solidarity within the provinces of Samar and Leyte. Literature and Folk Traditions Waray has a rich tradition of oral literature, including siday (poetry), komposo (songs), and rawit-dawit (rhymes). These forms preserve historical memory and express community values, often passed down through generations. Media and Public Discourse Radio programs and local publications in Waray serve as platforms for community dialogue and public service announcements. The language’s presence in mass communication empowers locals to engage with regional issues in their mother tongue. Language in Education Like Hiligaynon, Waray is part of the MTB-MLE curriculum, allowing young learners to develop literacy in their first language before transitioning to Filipino and English. This educational approach promotes inclusivity and enhances academic performance by using a language familiar to students. Community Practices and Social Life Waray is spoken in homes, markets, churches, and public gatherings, underscoring its role in everyday interactions. Key Waray expressions and idioms reflect cultural values like kabubut-on (will), karuyag (want), and pagtim-os (perseverance). Migration and Language Adaptation Many Waray speakers migrate to urban centers or abroad, leading to language contact and potential shifts in usage. Despite these influences, the Waray language remains a strong symbol of identity among migrants, often retained in family conversations and community events. C. Key Aspects of Hiligaynon and Waray Hiligaynon 1. Widespread Use: Spoken in Iloilo, Negros Occidental, Capiz, and parts of Mindanao. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 6  2. Linguistic Characteristics: Known for its soft, melodic tone and politeness markers like ‘man’ and ‘gani’. 3. Cultural Symbols: Ilonggo values like pagpalangga (love/affection) and gentle speech are embedded in language use. 4. Artistic Expression: Songs, poetry, and drama in Hiligaynon reflect rural life, courtship, and moral themes. 5. Adaptation and Influence: The language incorporates Spanish and English loanwords, adapting flexibly to modern contexts. Waray 1. Geographic Range: Predominantly spoken in Samar and parts of Leyte. 2. Phonological Traits: Waray is more guttural and direct compared to Hiligaynon, with distinct vocabulary and pronunciation. 3. Folk Culture: Waray poetry and folk songs are known for their wit, humor, and moral instruction. 4. Everyday Usage: Remains the primary language in many households and is actively used in local governance and community activities. 5. Language Preservation: Efforts to document and promote Waray include festivals, publications, and educational programs. E. Role of Language in Shaping Identity Both Hiligaynon and Waray are more than tools for communication; they are vessels of culture, memory, and identity. A person raised in a Hiligaynon-speaking home may value gentleness, emotional expression, and respect, reflecting Ilonggo social norms. A Waray speaker may identify with values like determination, pride in heritage, and directness in communication. Language influences not only how people express themselves but also how they view the world and relate to others. In both communities, language is used to pass down traditions, discipline, and moral values through stories, songs, and conversations. Migrants who maintain their native language reinforce intergenerational connections and preserve their regional identity. F. Summary and Significance Hiligaynon and Waray illustrate the rich linguistic diversity of the Philippines. Each language reflects a unique set of cultural practices, historical experiences, and social values. Through education, media, literature, and community life, both languages continue to shape identities and strengthen community bonds. Despite modern pressures like urbanization and migration, the resilience of these languages is evident in their continued use and institutional support. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 7  Preserving Hiligaynon and Waray is essential to maintaining the cultural heritage and linguistic plurality of the Philippines. Major Languages: Tausug and Bisaya A. Language and Ethnic Group Classification Tausug is an ethnolinguistic group from the Sulu Archipelago. Their language is Tausug, classified under the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family. The name “Tausug” means “people of the current” (tau – person, sug – current), reflecting their maritime culture. Bisaya refers to various ethnic groups who speak languages from the Visayan subgroup. Cebuano, the most common language among the Bisaya, is also under the Austronesian family. The Bisaya are the largest ethnolinguistic group in the Philippines. B. Geographic Location Tausug are concentrated in: Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Basilan, and parts of Zamboanga. Bisaya mainly live in: The Visayas region (e.g., Cebu, Bohol, Negros, Leyte, Samar), Parts of Mindanao and Luzon due to migration. C. Religion The Tausug are predominantly Muslim. They follow Islamic practices such as the five daily prayers, Ramadan fasting, and circumcision as a religious rite. The Bisaya are predominantly Christian, particularly Roman Catholic. They celebrate baptism, mass, and Catholic holidays like Christmas, Holy Week, and fiestas. D. Social Structure and Family The Tausug have a patriarchal and kinship-based society. Datu or sultan traditionally lead communities. Extended families are common, and clan honor is of great importance. The Bisaya have a nuclear family structure, but extended families are also valued. Their communities are more democratic, often with elected officials. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 8  E. Courtship and Marriage In Tausug culture: Courtship involves formal negotiations called panyuhuan. A bride price (bigay-kaya) is offered. Weddings are often elaborate, following Islamic rituals, and may include kulintang music, dancing, and feasting. In Bisaya culture: Courtship may involve serenades (harana) and personal efforts to impress the woman’s family. Marriage is typically preceded by a civil or church wedding. Fiestas and feasting follow, with sponsors called ninong/ninang (godparents). F. Death and Burial Practices Tausug follow Islamic burial customs: Burial occurs within 24 hours, with the body wrapped in a white cloth. The janazah prayer is performed, and the grave faces Mecca. Bisaya follow Christian traditions: Wakes can last several days, with prayers like the rosary and Mass. The burial is followed by novena prayers and commemorations (e.g., 9th day, 40th day, 1st year death anniversary). G. Beliefs and Superstitions Tausug: Believe in jinn (invisible beings), barang (sorcery), and duwende (dwarfs). Islamic teachings influence their views on fate and the unseen. Bisaya: Believe in aswang, kapre, tikbalang, and white ladies (ghosts). They observe superstitions like avoiding combing hair at night, or saying “tabi-tabi po” when passing by mysterious places. H. Traditional Attire Tausug: Men wear the baju (shirt) and sawal (pants), often with a pis syabit (headscarf). Women wear hijab, badu, and patadjong (wraparound skirt). Bisaya: Traditional clothing includes barong Tagalog for men and Maria Clara or terno for women, especially during cultural or formal events. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 9  I. Music and Dance Tausug: Perform the pangalay, a graceful dance with finger extensions. Musical instruments include kulintang, agong, and gabbang. Bisaya: Known for folk dances like tinikling and kuratsa. They use guitar, bandurria, and other string instruments. J. Food and Cuisine Tausug dishes: Tiula itum (black soup made with burnt coconut), Satti (grilled meat with spicy sauce), Pastil (rice with meat wrapped in banana leaves), Food is often halal, and they avoid pork. Bisaya dishes: Lechon (roast pig), Humba (braised pork), Binignit (sweet stew of root crops and bananas), They incorporate pork and use various sweet and savory combinations. H. Occupations and Daily Life Tausug: Engage in fishing, trading, weaving, and sometimes farming. Known as fearless warriors historically, often defending their land from colonizers. Bisaya: Commonly work in farming, fishing, teaching, government, and overseas employment. Known for their hospitality, humility, and resilience. J. Conflict and Coexistence Historical tension exists due to: Religious and cultural differences, Migration of Christian Bisaya into predominantly Muslim Mindanao. However, many communities show harmonious coexistence. Intermarriage, commerce, and political alliances occur. Government and NGOs work on peacebuilding initiatives in mixed communities. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 10  Conclusion The Tausug and Bisaya peoples showcase the rich diversity of the Philippines. Despite differences in religion, customs, and worldviews, they both contribute to the country’s multi-ethnic identity. Understanding and respect between groups can lead to peaceful coexistence and cultural appreciation. Major Languages: Meranao and Maguindanaon A. Role of the Meranao in Shaping Their Communities 1. Literature and Arts Meranao oral traditions are essential to their cultural preservation. The Darangen is a traditional epic that tells stories of bravery, love, and morality. Bayok, a Meranao poetic form, expresses wisdom, history, and values. 2. Cultural Identity and Social Cohesion Meranao identity is rooted in Islamic tradition, which shapes their social organization. The term “Meranao” translates to “People of the Lake,” referencing Lake Lanao. Their strong language and customs reinforce communal unity. 3. Traditional Architecture The torogan, a royal house, represents wealth, status, and leadership. Okir wood carvings are symbolic of Meranao artistry and cultural identity. 4. Education and Language Shift Many Meranao students are taught Arabic due to Islamic education. However, modern influences have led to a decline in Meranao usage, especially among youth who prefer Filipino and English. B. Key Aspects of Meranao The Meranao language has a strong Islamic influence, with Arabic used in religious contexts. Their oral tradition, including the UNESCO-recognized Darangen, preserves Meranao heritage. Torogan houses are architectural symbols of culture and authority. Meranaos have historically played major roles in business and trade. Language preservation is increasingly difficult as younger generations adopt national and global languages. C. Linguistic Features of Meranao ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 11  1. Phonology Vowel System: Contains four core vowels: /a/, /i/, /o/, /u/. The mid-central vowel /ə/ (schwa) affects consonant length, e.g., in tepad (“get off a vehicle”), the “t” is elongated due to the schwa. Consonant System: Includes “heavy consonants” such as /ph/, /th/, /kh/, and /z/, formed from historical consonant clusters. These heavy consonants can cause vowel raising in following syllables. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is phonemic and can change word meaning. 2. Grammar Case Markers: Nominative (subject): so (indefinite), i (definite) Ergative (object): sa (indefinite), o (definite) Oblique/Locative: ko Genitive (possessive): ki Personal Markers: Singular: si Plural: siki Pronouns: Pronouns may appear in free or bound forms. Examples for 1st person singular: Nominative (free): saken Nominative (bound): (a)ko Genitive/Ergative (bound): aken Oblique (free): raken D. Role of the Maguindanaon in Shaping Their Communities 1. Literature and Arts The Indarapatra at Sulayman epic is a core part of Maguindanaon tradition, focusing on heroism and spirituality. Folk songs and oral storytelling are used to transmit language and culture. 2. Cultural Identity and Social Cohesion Islam strongly influences Maguindanaon governance, social values, and traditions. Many Maguindanaons engage in farming and trade. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 12  The Maguindanaon language unites communities across Cotabato and nearby provinces. 3. Traditional Music and Dance The kulintang ensemble, made up of gongs, is central to rituals, ceremonies, and community celebrations. 4. Challenges and Language Vitality Like Meranao, language shift is a growing issue due to the rise of Filipino and English in urban areas. Despite being widely spoken, Maguindanaon is under pressure from modernization and mainstream media. E. Key Aspects of Maguindanaon Maguindanaon belongs to the Austronesian language family, specifically the Danao subgroup. It is closely related to Meranao and Iranun. Mainly spoken in: Maguindanao del Norte, Maguindanao del Sur Parts of Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Lanao del Sur The language was once written in Jawi script (Arabic-derived), now primarily uses the Latin alphabet. F. Linguistic Features of Maguindanaon Phonology Vowel System: Contains five vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. Vowel length is phonemic, meaning length can alter a word’s meaning. Consonant System: Comprises 19 consonants, including: Voiced and voiceless stops Nasals Fricatives Approximants Voiced stops and nasals are clearly articulated, aiding in word differentiation. G. The Role of Language in Shaping Identity Language defines cultural identity for both Meranao and Maguindanaon people. It connects them to religion, traditions, and ancestral roots. Speakers of both languages often navigate between Meranao/Maguindanaon, Filipino, and English, making their identities multifaceted. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 13  Despite external influences, many speakers remain proud of their heritage and actively seek to preserve it. H. Closing Message A Quranic quote from Surah Al-Hujurat (49:13) is shared to highlight unity through diversity: “O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another…” A Brief Syntactic Typology of Philippine Languages by Lawrence Reid and Hsiu-chuan Liao Introduction and Framework This paper presents a broad yet detailed syntactic typology of Philippine languages, focusing on their morphosyntactic properties. While recognizing the diversity among the over 100 Philippine languages, the authors emphasize common patterns—particularly the right-branching clause structures and the so-called “focus” system. They adopt a lexicalist dependency grammar approach, enabling consistent analysis across varied language data. The analysis avoids traditional concepts like “voice” and instead describes affixes and structures in terms of semantic roles, case relations, and derivational morphology. The authors use consistent terminology to ensure comparability. Case forms—such as nominative, genitive, and locative—are either morphologically or syntactically marked, while case relations—like Patient, Agent, Correspondent, Means, and Locus—are identified through semantic and syntactic context. All languages in this typology are treated as morphologically ergative, meaning that the undergoer (not the agent) appears in the nominative case. Notably, the term “nominative” is used instead of “absolutive” to generalize across typological traditions, and “genitive” replaces “ergative” to reflect morphological markers that also occur in possessive constructions. Predicate Structures and Clause Types Philippine languages lack a copula and are characterized by right-branching syntactic structures where the predicate comes first. Three main predicate types occur: nominal, prepositional, and verbal. Nominal predicate clauses are common, often serving classificational (e.g., “I am a child” – Motdeh=qako, Ivatan), identificational (e.g., “My child is the student” – Kapampangan), or possessive functions (e.g., “Tinoy is my relative” – Cagayan Agta). These predicates can use bare nouns, determiners, demonstratives, or possessive pronouns. Prepositional predicates occur where the prepositional phrase itself acts as the head, expressing meanings such as direction, source, or purpose. Examples include “The book is for Jose” (Para koni Jose ya libro, Botolan Sambal) and “The man is from Bonifacio” (Suban’on). Verbal predicates form the majority and also initiate the clause. These are categorized as either intransitive or transitive. Intransitive clauses accept one complement, typically in nominative case, and assign it either the actor or undergoer macrorole depending on the verb’s semantics. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 14  Examples include “Pedro went home” (Minuli si Pedro, Binukid) and “You might get imprisoned” (Mapurisu=ka, Binukid). There also exist double-complement intransitive constructions, where an additional genitive or locative phrase occurs. In Tagalog, for instance, “He held a book” appears as Humawak=siya ng libro, where ng libro is the genitive undergoer. When a full noun phrase is in nominative, it tends to follow the other complements (e.g., “The police caught a thief” – Humuli ng magnanakaw ang pulis). Transitive Constructions and Argument Order In transitive clauses, the verb expects both an Agent (actor) and a Patient (undergoer). In line with ergative alignment, the Patient is expressed in the nominative case and the Agent in genitive. The common word order is Genitive (Agent) before Nominative (Patient), as in Inila=n nan lalaki nan gayyem=na (“The man saw his friend” – Bontok). Pronominal arguments follow strict second-position clitic ordering: Genitive pronouns precede Nominative ones (e.g., Kanen=mo yaken – “You can eat me”, Ivatan). Some languages like Tagalog adjust pronoun order based on phonological length rather than grammatical role, with monosyllabic pronouns always preceding disyllabic ones (Nakita=ko=na=siya – “I already saw him/her”). Several languages also have portmanteau pronouns that combine Genitive and Nominative forms into a single affix (e.g., Benegan=taka – “I will leave you”, Pangasinan). When only one argument is a pronoun and the other a full noun, the preferred order remains Agent before Patient, although variations are allowed in some languages. This flexibility appears in examples such as Sinulat=ko ang liham (“I wrote the letter”, Tagalog) and Nakita=ka=niya (“He saw you”, Tagalog). Agreement Marking and Auxiliary Constructions A small group of Philippine languages feature pronominal agreement markers that appear on verbs as suffixes or enclitics, matching third-person Genitive or Nominative pronouns. For example, Ilokano marks third-person plural nominatives as in Natúrog=da dagiti ubbing (“The children are asleep”), while Kapampangan merges Genitive and Nominative into a single verb suffix (e.g., Seli=ne – “He bought it”). Auxiliary verbs appear in two configurations: 1. Closely-bound auxiliaries form verb complexes without a linking morpheme and require pronominal clitics to follow the auxiliary verb directly. For instance, Achi=yak omoy (“I will not go”, Eastern Bontok) and In=ka=n agdigos! (“Go take a bath!” Ilokano). 2. Less-closely-bound auxiliaries include modal verbs like “want” or “must”, which require a ligature (e.g., Tagalog Gusto=ko=ng mangisda – “I want to go fishing”). These auxiliaries carry tense and transitivity features and host second-position clitics. Topicalization and Information Structure Topicalized constructions bring a definite noun phrase (either Agent or Patient) to the beginning of a clause, followed by a resumptive pronoun. This construction is restricted to topicalizable arguments—Agents and Patients—and excludes locatives and obliques unless they are adjuncts. Examples include Hi Pedro ay hiniyawan=na ya kabayo (“Pedro, he saddled the horse” – Botolan Sambal) and Qía qam palangena qo pagad (“As for him, he is leading the carabao” – Ivatan). Possessors (Correspondents) can also be topicalized. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 15  Verbal Morphology: Rejection of Voice Analysis The authors reject the “voice” system interpretation (common in earlier studies) that labels affixes as active, passive, or focus markers. Instead, all affixes are treated as derivational, signaling semantic roles or action features, not grammatical agreement. These include derivations for causatives, distributives, and statives, as well as aspectual markers (e.g., perfective through reduplication or affixation). Intransitive Verb Classes Three major intransitive affix types are described: 1. UM Verbs (from um-, mu-, m-): Express intentional actions, punctuality, or inchoative states (e.g., Tumakder dagidiay babbái – “The women will stand up”, Ilokano). 2. MAG Verbs (from maR-): Indicate durative, reflexive, or reciprocal actions (e.g., Magbatì – “to greet each other”, vs. Bumati – “to greet someone”). 3. MANG Verbs (from maN-): Frequently distributive, applying across space or entities (e.g., Maŋan=kami tuŋŋa – “We’ll eat corn”, Bontok). Transitive Verb Classes and Semantic Features Philippine verbs often encode the semantic role of their Patient via derivational affixes: 1. EN Verbs (-ən): Mark direct affect—the undergoer is fully affected (e.g., Bonalen=mo ya baroy – “You will pound the leaf”, Mamanwa). 2. AN Verbs (-an): Mark local affect—partial/surface involvement or directionality (e.g., Bonalan=mo ya baroy – “Pound on the leaf”). 3. I Verbs (ʔi-): Mark manner or instrumental affect, often translated as “with” or “using” (e.g., Iyalim man nan kapi – “Bring my coffee”). 4. Beneficiary-marking varies: Ivatan uses I- verbs (e.g., Ipangamung ni Juan si Jose – “Juan fishes for Jose”). Others use AN-verbs, circumfixes (I-…-an), or both. Stative Verbs and Passive-like Constructions Stative verbs, marked typically by ma-, form a separate class where the Nominative Patient is an undergoer, not an actor. These verbs are often derived from transitive verbs and maintain affect features (direct, local, etc.). For example, Maála ti págay (“The rice is taken” – Ilokano) is a stative derived from a verb that would otherwise have a transitive EN form. Conclusion The paper concludes by reinforcing that while Philippine languages are diverse, they share significant syntactic and morphological features that justify their classification under a “Philippine Type” profile. This typology is primarily defined by: Right-branching clause structure, where predicates precede their arguments; A rich inventory of verbal affixation patterns signaling semantic roles rather than grammatical voice; A consistent system of case marking and clitic placement; The use of predicate-initial constructions across nominal, verbal, and prepositional clauses; ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 16  And a complex but systematic focus system, better understood as a set of derivational strategies marking undergoer roles (e.g., direct, local, instrumental, beneficiary). Importantly, the authors advocate for analyzing Philippine languages using a lexicalist, dependency-based model that avoids misleading voice or active/passive categorizations. Instead, it emphasizes semantic relations and morphological derivation. This approach not only provides clarity and consistency but also accommodates the syntactic fluidity found across the region’s languages. Ultimately, the paper underscores the value of adopting typologically sound, cross-linguistically comparative frameworks when describing Philippine linguistic systems—acknowledging their internal diversity while drawing out the unifying features that define their shared grammatical identity. BULLET POINT: A. Introduction and Scope The article offers a typological overview of syntactic structures in Philippine languages using a lexicalist theoretical framework. Focus areas include word order, predicate constructions, focus systems, morphological case marking, verbal affixation, and NP structure. Philippine languages are diverse but exhibit shared features often labeled as “Philippine Type,” particularly due to their focus system. The paper uses consistent grammatical terminology to reanalyze examples from over 100 Philippine languages, from Batanes to the Sulu Archipelago. B. Theoretical Foundation and Terminology The analysis follows a dependency-based grammatical model, influenced by Lexicase but not identical. Distinctions are made between: Case forms: Nominative, Genitive, Locative (morphologically/syntactically marked). Case relations: Patient, Agent, Correspondent, Means, Locus (semantic-grammatical roles). The paper assumes ergative morphosyntactic alignment across Philippine languages. Uses Nominative instead of “Absolutive” and Genitive instead of “Ergative” for broader typological applicability. C. Word Order and Predicate Types 1. Nominal Predicate Constructions Common in the absence of a copula. Types: Classificational (e.g., “I am a child” in Central Ivatan). Identificational (e.g., “My child is the student” in Kapampangan). ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 17  Possessive (e.g., “Tinoy is my relative” in Central Cagayan Agta). 2. Prepositional Predicate Constructions Prepositions act as heads of clauses (e.g., “The book is for Jose” in Botolan Sambal). 3. Verbal Predicate Constructions Verbs typically appear initially in the clause (right-branching syntax). Two types: Intransitive (e.g., “Pedro went home” in Binukid). Transitive (e.g., “The man saw his friend” in Bontok). D. Clause Structures and Argument Types 1. Intransitive Clauses Single nominal complement carrying either actor or undergoer roles. May include double complement intransitives (e.g., “He held a book” in Tagalog). 2. Transitive Clauses Verbs expect Agent and Patient arguments. Philippine ergative alignment = Undergoer = Nominative, Actor = Genitive. Clitic pronouns: strict ordering (Genitive before Nominative), e.g.: “You can eat me” – Ivatan: Kanen=mo yaken. Full NP order varies by language; some prefer Agent before Patient, others allow variation. 3. Three-complement Constructions Common in verbs like “give,” the third complement usually a Correspondent (e.g., “Pangchar gave me a candy” – Bontok). 4. Agreement Marking Some languages have pronominal agreement for Genitive/Nominative arguments (e.g., “Mother truly pitied her children” in Ivatan). E. Topicalization Allows definite constituents (usually Agents or Patients) to be fronted. Requires resumptive pronouns in most cases. E.g., “Pedro, he saddled the horse” – Botolan Sambal: Hi Pedro ay hiniyawan=na ya kabayo. Adjuncts like locatives and temporal phrases can also be topicalized. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 18  F. Auxiliary Verbs and Extended Predicates 1. Closely-Bound Auxiliaries Negatives, aspectual, and directional auxiliaries; agree with main verbs. Clitics attach to the first auxiliary. E.g., “I will not go” – Eastern Bontok: Achi=yak omoy. 2. Loosely-Bound Auxiliaries Require a ligature between auxiliary and main verb. Often verbs like “want, like, must,” e.g.: Gusto=ko=ng mangisdà (“I want to go fishing” – Tagalog). G. Verbal Morphology and Derivational Affixation Rejects the view that affixes mark voice. Treats affixes as derivational, not inflectional. Verbs fall into two major categories: Dynamic Verbs (actor = Nominative). Stative Verbs (undergoer = Nominative). H. Intransitive Verb Classes and Affixes 1. UM Verbs : Mark intransitive actor predicates; often punctual/inchoative. E.g., Tumakder (“stand up”) – Ilokano. 2. MAG Verbs : Derived from PEF maR–; reflexive/reciprocal and durative. E.g., maggamot vs. gumamot in Tagalog. 3. MANG Verbs : From PEF maN–; often distributive, sometimes with assimilation. E.g., maŋan=kami (“we will eat”) – Bontok. I. Transitive Verb Classes and Affixes 1. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 19  EN Verbs : Reflexes of PEF –ən; imply direct affect on undergoer. E.g., Bonalen=mo ya baroy (“You will pound the leaf”) – Mamanwa. 2. AN Verbs : Reflexes of PEF –an; indicate local affect or surface involvement. E.g., Bonalan=mo ya baroy (“pound on the leaf”) – Mamanwa. 3. I Verbs : Prefix i- from PEF ʔi-; imply instrumental or associative affect. E.g., Iyalim man nan kapi (“Please bring my coffee”) – Bontok. 4. Beneficiary Affect : Multiple marking strategies across languages: Ivatan: Ipangamung ñi Kwan si Kusi Maranao: Tabasan o bebai so dati sa dinis Balangaw: Iyanopan=yu ah Ama J. Stative Verbs (MA Verbs) Prefix ma- marks stative intransitives where the Nominative is an undergoer. Often derived from transitive verbs. Carry affect features (direct, local, etc.) like their dynamic counterparts. Examples: Direct affect: Maála ti págay (“The rice is taken”) – Ilokano. Local affect: Form with both ma- and -an. ENGL 92 Semi-Final Reviewer 20