Emotions - Google Docs.pdf

‭ motions‬ E ‭Terminology‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotion: the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur‬ ‭when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals‬ ‭‬ ‭Mood: a short-lived emotional state, usually of low intensity; generally undir...

‭ motions‬ E ‭Terminology‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotion: the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur‬ ‭when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals‬ ‭‬ ‭Mood: a short-lived emotional state, usually of low intensity; generally undirected‬ ‭towards any particular target‬ ‭‬ ‭Affect: any experience of feeling or emotion, generally considered along a‬ ‭positive-negative dimension; both emotions and moods are affective states‬ ‭Discrete Emotion Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭The idea that basic emotions are…‬ ‭○‬ ‭Innate‬ ‭○‬ ‭Universal‬ ‭○‬ ‭Identifiable by unique facial expressions‬ ‭○‬ ‭Associated with distinctive bodily responses‬ ‭‬ ‭The most common classification identifies 6 primary emotions‬ ‭○‬ ‭Happiness, Sadness, Anger, Fear, Surprise, and Disgust‬ ‭‬ ‭But... There is evidence both for and against the idea of discrete,‬ ‭universal emotions‬ ‭Dimensional Approach‬ ‭‬ ‭(some) Important dimensions‬ ‭○‬ ‭Valence: Pleasant vs. unpleasant (or positive vs. negative)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Activation: High vs. low arousal (or intense vs. mild)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Motivation: Approach vs. avoidance‬ ‭‬ ‭Examples‬ ‭‬ ‭Anger = negative / high arousal / approach‬ ‭‬ ‭Excitement = positive / high arousal / approach‬ ‭‬ ‭Sadness = negative / low arousal / avoidance‬ ‭Theories of Emotion‬ ‭‬ ‭James-Lange Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Cannon-Bard Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Schachter-Singer Theory‬ ‭Emotion Regulation‬ ‭‬ ‭Up-regulation→strategies to increase an emotion‬ ‭‬ ‭Down-regulation→strategies to decrease an emotion‬ ‭Emotion Regulation Strategies‬ ‭‬ ‭Situation selection: exposing yourself to/avoiding emotional situations‬ ‭‬ ‭Situation modification: changing something about the situation you’re already in‬ ‭‬ ‭Attentional deployment: directing your attention towards/away from the‬ ‭situation/emotional stimulus‬ ‭‬ ‭Cognitive change: changing your interpretation of the situation‬  ‭‬ R ‭ esponse modulation: changing your direct behavioral/physiological response to‬ ‭the situation‬ ‭Emotion and the Brain‬ ‭‬ ‭Amygdala‬ ‭○‬ ‭Rapidly evaluates sensory information for its significance to‬ ‭survival or well-being and triggers bodily responses‬ ‭○‬ ‭Emotion is disrupted in those with injury‬ ‭○‬ ‭Emotion experience is positively correlated with activity‬ ‭‬ ‭Prefrontal cortex‬ ‭○‬ ‭Crucial for conscious emotional experience and deliberate‬ ‭action based on it‬ ‭○‬ ‭Regulation of emotion‬ ‭○‬ ‭Asymmetry: Left-approach vs. Right-avoidance‬ ‭ ehavioral Aspects of Emotion: An Overview‬ B ‭1. Definition of Emotion‬ ‭An emotion is defined as the coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes‬ ‭occurring when a situation becomes relevant to personal goals (Scherer et al., 2001).‬ ‭2. Behavioral Tendencies Associated with Emotion‬ ‭‬ ‭General patterns: Approaching positive stimuli, withdrawing from negative stimuli‬ ‭(Lang & Bradley, 2010)‬ ‭‬ ‭Specific patterns: Facial expressions (smiles, frowns, laughs, gapes, grimaces)‬ ‭3. Evolutionary Perspective on Emotional Expressions‬ ‭Charles Darwin (1872) hypothesized that facial expressions are part of our evolutionary‬ ‭heritage, representing vestiges of our ancestors' basic adaptive patterns.‬ ‭4. Evidence Supporting Evolutionary View‬ ‭‬ ‭Congenitally blind individuals express emotions similarly to sighted people‬ ‭(Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1970; Galati et al., 1997; Goodenough, 1932)‬ ‭‬ ‭Cross-cultural agreement on the interpretation of facial expressions (Ekman, 1994;‬ ‭Ekman & Friesen, 1969, 1971)‬ ‭5. Cross-Cultural Studies on Emotional Expressions‬ ‭Paul Ekman's research showed cross-cultural agreement on the meaning of facial‬ ‭expressions for happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, and anger.‬ ‭6. Recent Developments in Emotion Research‬ ‭‬ ‭Identification of up to 28 emotions from facial and bodily signs (A. S. Cowen &‬ ‭Keltner, 2019)‬ ‭‬ ‭Impact of context on the perception of facial expressions (Aviezer et al., 2008; L. F.‬ ‭Barrett, 2017)‬ ‭7. Cultural Influences on Emotional Display‬ ‭Display rules: Cultural conventions that dictate appropriate facial expressions in particular‬ ‭contexts (Ekman & Friesen, 1969; Ekman et al., 1988)‬ ‭8. Variations in Display Rules‬ ‭‬ ‭Cross-cultural differences (e.g., Japan vs. Canada/US) (Safdar et al., 2009)‬  ‭‬ C ‭ ontext-specific rules (e.g., work environment, receiving unwanted gifts) (Grandey‬ ‭et al., 2010; P. M. Cole, 1985)‬ ‭‬ ‭Individual differences (Matsumoto et al., 2008)‬ ‭‬ ‭Gender differences in Western cultures (L. Brody & Hall, 2000; Kring & Gordon,‬ ‭1998)‬ ‭Experiential Aspects of Emotion‬ ‭Approaches to Classifying Emotions‬ ‭‬ ‭Discrete emotions approach: Defines specific categories of emotions‬ ‭‬ ‭Dimensional approach: Uses dimensions like pleasantness and activation to classify‬ ‭emotions‬ ‭Individual Differences in Emotional Experience‬ ‭‬ ‭Some people use a full range of emotion terms‬ ‭‬ ‭Others make more global distinctions between "feeling good" and "feeling bad"‬ ‭‬ ‭Alexithymia: Difficulty describing emotional experiences‬ ‭Cultural Differences in Emotional Experience‬ ‭‬ ‭Variations in emotion words across cultures (e.g., lack of words for "surprise" or‬ ‭"sadness" in some cultures)‬ ‭‬ ‭Unique emotion concepts in different cultures (e.g., fago in Ifalik, amae in Japanese,‬ ‭schadenfreude in German)‬ ‭Key Questions in Emotion Research‬ ‭‬ ‭Are emotional experiences universal across cultures?‬ ‭‬ ‭How do cultural labels affect emotional experiences?‬ ‭‬ ‭Do people in different cultures experience unique emotions?‬ ‭Note: Research is ongoing, and definitive answers to these questions are still being‬ ‭explored.‬ ‭ hat Makes People Happy?‬ W ‭Introduction‬ ‭Happiness is a universally valued emotional state. Aristotle defined it as the "ultimate good,‬ ‭the thing for which everything else is done." Research shows that happier people tend to‬ ‭have more friends, better relationships, better jobs, higher incomes, and longer lives.‬ ‭Factors Influencing Happiness‬ ‭Three main factors interact to determine an individual's happiness:‬ ‭1. Happiness Set Point (50% of variation)‬ ‭‬ ‭Substantially genetically determined‬ ‭‬ ‭Reflected in stable personality traits like high extraversion and low neuroticism‬ ‭2. Life Circumstances (10% of variation)‬ ‭‬ ‭Surprisingly small impact due to adaptation‬ ‭‬ ‭Example: Lottery winners and paralyzed individuals show similar contentment‬ ‭levels after a few months‬ ‭‬ ‭Individual differences exist in adaptation to major life changes‬ ‭3. Intentional Activities (40% of variation)‬ ‭‬ ‭Most controllable factor‬ ‭‬ ‭Activities that increase happiness: cultivating gratitude, savoring positive‬ ‭experiences, using personal strengths‬  ‭‬ C ‭ aution: Placing too high a value on happiness can lead to disappointment and‬ ‭reduced happiness‬ ‭The Power of Adaptation‬ ‭Adaptation is the ability to quickly grow accustomed to any stimulus or state to which one‬ ‭is continually exposed. This phenomenon explains why life circumstances have a relatively‬ ‭small impact on long-term happiness.‬ ‭Individual Differences in Happiness‬ ‭Recent research shows that there are significant individual differences in:‬ ‭1.‬ ‭The happiness set point‬ ‭2.‬ ‭The degree to which people return to their set point after major life changes‬ ‭Conclusion‬ ‭While genetics play a significant role in determining happiness, intentional activities offer‬ ‭the most potential for increasing personal happiness. However, it's important to strike a‬ ‭balance and avoid placing too much emphasis on the pursuit of happiness itself.‬ ‭Physiological Aspects of Emotion‬ ‭Introduction‬ ‭Emotions involve whole-body responses, including various bodily changes.‬ ‭Theories of Emotion‬ ‭1. James-Lange Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Proposes that different emotions are associated with distinct‬ ‭patterns of bodily responses.‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotion arises from our awareness of specific bodily changes‬ ‭produced by arousing stimuli.‬ ‭‬ ‭Criticisms: Time delay in bodily responses and lack of‬ ‭explanation for non-emotional bodily changes.‬ ‭2. Cannon-Bard Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Suggests that physiological responses in different emotional‬ ‭states are quite general.‬ ‭‬ ‭Argues it's not easy to distinguish bodily changes associated‬ ‭with different emotions.‬ ‭‬ ‭Supported by studies using epinephrine injections.‬ ‭3. Schachter-Singer Theory‬ ‭‬ ‭Postulates that both behavioral and physiological changes are‬ ‭crucial for emotional experience.‬ ‭‬ ‭Emphasizes the role of cognitive judgments about bodily‬ ‭changes in emotion.‬ ‭‬ ‭Tested through experiments involving epinephrine injections‬ ‭and confederate behavior.‬ ‭Current Research‬ ‭Physiological Differentiation‬ ‭‬ ‭Studies suggest modest physiological differentiation among emotions.‬ ‭‬ ‭Our perceptions of bodily differences among emotions may sometimes be illusory.‬ ‭Affective Neuroscience‬ ‭‬ ‭Examines patterns of central nervous system activation associated with different‬ ‭emotional states.‬ ‭‬ ‭Proposes that emotions arise from multiple interrelated neural circuits.‬  ‭‬ S‭ ome brain regions are activated in most emotions, while others show greater‬ ‭specificity.‬ ‭‬ ‭Example: Fear is often associated with amygdala activation, though this activation is‬ ‭not specific to fear.‬ ‭ unctions of Emotions‬ F ‭Behavioral Aspects‬ ‭‬ ‭Facial expressions influence perception of the world‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotional expressions facilitate interpersonal coordination‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotions signal social intent and help in social interactions‬ ‭Cognitive Functions‬ ‭‬ ‭Affect-as-information perspective: emotions guide problem-solving‬ ‭‬ ‭Fear directs attention to avoid negative outcomes‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotions influence perception (e.g., height estimation when afraid)‬ ‭Physiological Functions‬ ‭‬ ‭Prepare body for action (e.g., fight or flight response)‬ ‭‬ ‭Positive emotions may help "undo" negative emotional activation‬ ‭‬ ‭Enhance memory consolidation for emotional events‬ ‭Evolutionary Perspective‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotions likely evolved to address consequential situations‬ ‭‬ ‭Emotional memory enhancement may have survival value‬ ‭Research Findings‬ ‭‬ ‭Anesthetic studies show causal role of physiological changes in emotional memory‬ ‭‬ ‭PET imaging reveals amygdala-hippocampus connection in emotional memory‬ ‭formation‬ ‭This organization highlights the main aspects of emotional functions discussed in the text,‬ ‭including behavioral, cognitive, and physiological functions, as well as their evolutionary‬ ‭significance and supporting research findings.‬ ‭ motion Regulation: Strategies and Effects‬ E ‭1. Introduction‬ ‭Emotions can be both useful and harmful, depending on their timing, type, and intensity.‬ ‭Effective emotion regulation is crucial for mental health and well-being.‬ ‭2. Definition of Emotion Regulation‬ ‭Emotion regulation involves influencing which emotions we have, when we have them, and‬ ‭how we experience or express them. It may include decreasing, increasing, or maintaining‬ ‭behavioral, experiential, and physiological aspects of emotion.‬ ‭3. Five Basic Emotion Regulation Strategies‬ ‭‬ ‭Situation selection‬ ‭‬ ‭Situation modification‬ ‭‬ ‭Attentional deployment‬ ‭‬ ‭Cognitive change‬ ‭‬ ‭Response modulation‬ ‭4. Focus on Two Key Strategies‬ ‭4.1 Reappraisal (Cognitive Change)‬ ‭Definition: Changing the meaning of a situation to decrease emotional response‬ ‭Effects:‬ ‭‬ ‭Leads to more positive feelings‬ ‭‬ ‭No significant cognitive or physiological costs‬ ‭‬ ‭Activates prefrontal regions associated with self-regulation‬ ‭‬ ‭Decreases activation in the amygdala and regions associated with negative emotion‬ ‭4.2 Suppression (Response Modulation)‬ ‭Definition: Decreasing visible emotional expression‬ ‭Effects:‬ ‭‬ ‭Blocks display of emotion but doesn't eliminate feelings‬ ‭‬ ‭Increases sympathetic nervous system activation‬ ‭‬ ‭Has cognitive costs, including memory impairment‬ ‭5. Research Findings‬ ‭Studies using fMRI have shown that reappraisal is generally more effective than‬ ‭suppression in regulating emotions, with fewer negative side effects.‬ ‭6. Conclusion‬ ‭While both reappraisal and suppression can help regulate emotions, reappraisal appears to‬ ‭be the more effective strategy overall, offering better emotional outcomes without the‬ ‭physiological and cognitive costs associated with suppression.‬