ELS 2nd Quarter Final Examination PDF

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE EARTH AND LIFE BIOLOGY SCIENCE Deals with the structures, functions, and relationships of living o...

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE EARTH AND LIFE BIOLOGY SCIENCE Deals with the structures, functions, and relationships of living organisms with FINAL EXAMINATION the environment 1st Term: 2nd Quarter Study of living organisms and their © Fiona Galupe & Liane Esmatao interactions with the environment. TOPIC OVERVIEW 01 THE HIERARCHY OF LIFE 1. INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE THE HIERARCHY OF LIFE THE HIERARCHY OF LIFE smallest functional unit BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY > A cell is the smallest functional unit that BIOTECHNOLOGY can perform all of life’s tasks. ○ WHERE DID LIFE COME A living organism may consist of a single FROM? - cell or a huge number of cells. - In multicellular organisms, cells are 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE specialized and depend on other cells ORGANISM to maintain life. ○ CHARACTERISTIC OF The specialization and interdependence LIVING THINGS of cells contribute to a characteristic hierarchy of life, with each level defined 3. CELL DIVISION by its structure and functions. CELL CYCLE Life is hierarchical in nature. Biology structure, function and relationship -deals with the , of living organisms with the environment the environment - study of living organisms interaction with cell : smallest functional unit the alls specialized & depends on multicellular organisms : to maintain life TABLE OF HIERARCHY OF LIFE  Table of Hierarchy of life Cell The basic unit of life Ecosystem Examine how organisms [ level interact with each other and Tissue A group of specialized cells with their physical that work together for a environment. particular function Organ A distinct structure made up & Understanding these levels is essential to of different tissues that have appreciating how interconnected life is, from a specific function the smallest microbes to the largest animals and plants Organ A collection of organs that [ System carry out specific functions within an organism 02 BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY Organism A living thing that carries out all of life’s functions BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY Zoology Botany Microbiology SEVERAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (ANIMALS) (PLANTS) (MICROBES) Molecular Includes the basic building Taxon Protoz Pure Level blocks of life (DNA, proteins, omy oolog Applie carbohydrates, and lipids) Anato y d my IIchthy Cellular Level Where life’s fundamental unit Pathol ology (the cell) is found. All living ogy Mam things are made of cells, Geneti malog whether they are unicellular cs y like bacteria or multicellular Physio Ornith like humans logy ology Ecolog Entom Organismal Cells form tissues, which y ology Level group together to form Palae Herpet organs. Then, organs work ology ology together in systems, such as Embry the nervous system or ology digestive system, to maintain morph the body. ology Population Groups of organisms of the Level same species living together in a specific area Each branch has corresponding career paths 3.1 WHERE DID LIFE COME FROM? (e.g., a microbiologist could be developing vaccines in a laboratory). PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY The interconnectedness of these fields means that discoveries in one area, like genetics, can Earth’s atmosphere contains inorganic have profound impacts on others, such as molecules (methane, nitrogen, medicine or agriculture ammonia gases, but little oxygen.) Energy from the Sun or lightning spark fueled the chemical reactions. 03 BIOTECHNOLOGY Chemical reactions of gases leading to the formation of organic molecules BIOTECHNOLOGY precursors to life. One of the most revolutionary MILLER-UREY EXPERIMENT applications of biology in our time Involves using living organisms or their Stanley Miller and Harold Urey components like DNA or enzymes to conducted a famous experiment in 1953 make useful products (e.g., genetic that supported this theory. engineering allows scientists to alter the They created early earth conditions in DNA of crops to make them more the laboratory by mixing gases like resistant to pest or environmental stress) methane, ammonia, and hydrogen and and for improving agricultural yield. simulating lightning with electrical In the field of medicine, biotechnology sparks. has paved the way for groundbreaking After a week, they found that amino fat treatments like in gene therapy and acids (the building block of protein) the production of synthetic insulin for had formed. diabetics This experiment suggested that life’s In environmental science, biotechnology building blocks could arise from helps in cleaning up oil spills and non-living matter under the right breaking down harmful pollutants conditions through bioremediation This idea is central to the theory of Importance: It helps solve real-world Abiogenesis. problems by using biological systems to create new technologies that improve our lives ABIOGENESIS THEORY In the 1600s, John Needham was followed by Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Life is believed to have begun when Spallanzari, and then Louis Pasteur’s organic molecules were randomly experiment put Spontaneous Generation produced by energy such as lightning or to rest. UV rays and then interacted with each other in ways that reproduced FRANCISCO REDI’S EXPERIMENT themselves. These self-replicating molecules are Redi’s experiment disproved known as polymers, which are endless spontaneous generation. chains of repeating units that link In the 1960s, Francesco—already an together to create large structures. Italian physicist and scientist—set out to Life arose from non-living chemical challenge the idea of spontaneous substances and was a widely accepted generation, particularly in the context of theory for a long time. However, during larger organisms like maggots. the mid-19th century, Louis Pasteur Redi hypothesized that challenged it through a series of maggots—commonly seen on rotting experiments. meat—were the offspring of life that lay Spontaneous Generation their eggs on the meat. There are pieces of raw meat in three SPONTANEOUS GENERATION different containers: one container was left open to the air (Flask open), another This idea—first believed by ancient Greek was sealed completely preventing any Egyptians and supported by flies from accessing the meat (Flask Arcetel—suggested that life could arise sealed), and the third container was from non-living matter again. (e.g., it covered with gauze (Flask covered with was taught that maggots spontaneously gauze), which allowed air to reach the appeared on rotting meat). meat but prevented flies from landing directly on it. BIOGENESIS After a week, the maggots appeared only in the open container where flies Non-spontaneous Generation had free access to the meat, and no The theory or the process wherein a maggots appeared in the sealed living thing comes from another living container or the gauze-covered thing. container.  However, in the gauze-covered He argued that boiling the broth would container, flies were seen laying eggs on have killed any pre-existing life, so the the gauze, and tiny maggots were life he observed must have arisen found on the gauze itself. spontaneously. This provided clear evidence that However, his experiment was flawed maggots were not spontaneously because, although he boiled it, he did generating from the meat but were not boil it long enough to kill instead the larvae of flies heat-resistant bacterial spores, which His findings showed that life did not can survive short periods of boiling. spontaneously arise from decaying Additionally, the cork seal was not matter but came from pre-existing airtight, allowing microorganisms from life—in this case, the flies. the air to contaminate the broth. Raw meat > Exposed to air > Maggots Raw meat > Covered by cheesecloth > LAZZARO SPALLANZANI’S EXPERIMENT Cover removed > Maggots Raw meat > Covered by paper > No Lazzaro Spallanzani’s experiment maggots. confirmed Redi’s result about a century later, in the mid-1700s. JOHN NEEDHAM’S EXPERIMENT He was an Italian biologist and priest who expanded upon Redi’s findings by John Needham was a naturalist and performing experiments in computing roman catholic priest who, in the spontaneous generation for mid-1700s, performed an experiment microorganisms. that he believed confirmed the theory Spallanzani was interested in addressing of spontaneous generation. the shortcomings of Needham’s John Needham boiled a broth or gravy experiment. made from meat to kill any existing He conducted the same experiment, but microorganisms, then sealed the flask this time, he boiled the broth much with a cork. longer, ensuring that all microorganisms After a few days, the broth became were killed. Then, he sealed the flask by cloudy and was steaming with melting the glass and creating an microscopic organisms, which were airtight environment. spontaneously generated from the non-living matter inside the broth.  No microorganisms appeared in the He boiled it in a swan neck flask to broth, and it remained clear, indicating sterilize it. It remained open to the air, that life was not spontaneously but due to the curved neck, no generated when the broth was properly microorganisms were able to enter. sterilized and sealed off from outside The broth remained clear, showing no contamination. signs of microbial life. However, when he Critics of Spallanzani’s experiment, broke the neck of the flask, exposing including Needham, argued that by the broth directly to air, sealing the flask completely, he had microorganisms appeared, and the prevented the vital force in the air from broth became cloudy. entering and allowing life to generate. This conclusively demonstrated that This argument persisted, keeping the microorganisms do not spontaneously debate on spontaneous generation generate; instead, they come from alive. pre-existing microorganisms in the air. Pasteur’s work laid the foundation for the LOUIS PASTEUR’S EXPERIMENT germ theory of disease, which states that microorganisms cause many diseases. This experiment put spontaneous The experiments of Redi, Spallanzani, generation to rest. and Pasteur disprove the long-held The final and most decisive blow to the belief in spontaneous generation, theory of spontaneous generation that showing that life comes from came in the 19th century. pre-existing life, a concept known as He was a French chemist and biologist biogenesis. These experiments also helped pave the who designed a clever experiment to way for modern microbiology and settle the debate. understanding of sterilization, In 1961, Pasteur used a specially contamination, and the toke of designed swan neck flask to disprove microorganisms in the composition and spontaneous generation. Its long curved disease. neck allowed air to enter but trapped Pasteur’s work had profound dust and airborne microorganisms in the implications for public health, leading to advancements in antiseptic techniques, bent, preventing them from reaching the the fasterization, and the development broth inside the flask. of vaccines. CREATIONISM  His theory also explains how species A theory that posits that life and the evolve over millions of years, providing a universe were created by a framework for studying the diversity of supernatural, divine being or beings. life on earth and also influencing how we ”Malakas at Maganda” is a local creation understand everything from genetics to myth from Philippine mythology that ecology. provides an indigenous perspective on Those with advantageous traits are the origin of human life. more likely to survive and reproduce, According to this myth, the first humans passing on these traits to future were born from a bamboo stalk, which generations. represents the strength and beauty of Homologous organs have similar Filipino people. structures in different species because they share a common evolutionary THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION origin but serve different functions (e.g., the human arms and whale clifford) Charles Darwin Analogous organs that serve similar Empedocles functions but have different evolutionary One of the most important scientific origins (e.g., a bird’s wing and insect’s explanations for the origin of species. wing) The Origin of the Species, a landmark These ideas are central to book by Charles Darwin, explained that understanding evolutionary biology. life evolves through natural selection. Other notable scientists like Before Darwin, scientists like George-Louis Buffon, Jean-Baptiste Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed that Lamarck, and Carl Von Linné contributed organisms adapt to their environment. to the understanding of evolutionary Carl Von Linné: in terms of classification theory by proposing that species like morphological, anatomical change over time, which is influenced by similarities among species, homologous their environment. species, etc. Change must have taken place in the Homologous is important in discussing early history of Earth. zoology and anatomy of human beings Tree Diagram by George-Louis Buffon: and all animals. When it comes to natural selection, Darwin’s theory about natural selection provides the foundation for modern biology, which explains why organisms change over time to better adapt to their environment.  Tree of Life talks about the similarities of LESSON 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE the organisms and how they relate to each other. Buffon contributed to evolutionary CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE theory by suggesting that species changed over time and created the idea These characteristics will help us of this diagram to represent the understand why, for example, animals, relationships between species similar to plants, and even microscopic organisms modern evolutionary theory (how are considered living, while things like different organisms are related) your phones or even fires are not. Life Science is a broad field that covers ○ Cellular Organization everything from the origins of life. All living this are made up of cells (Unicellular and PANSPERMIA / COSMOZOIC THEORY Multicellular) ○ Metabolism Proposed by Svante Arrhenius All living things use energy Life did not originate on earth but was The sum of all chemical carried here from elsewhere in the processes that maintain cosmos, possibly via meteors, comets, the living state of an or cosmic dust organism. The building blocks of life or even 1. Anabolic - microorganisms could have traveled Synthesis of larger through space and eventually landed on molecules; Turning earth where they flourish in the right small to large conditions. molecules, This theory is interesting in the context of requiring energy. recent discoveries of organic molecules 2. Catabolic - on asteroids and the potential for life on Breakdown of other solar systems. Larger molecules; Turning large to By understanding concepts like biotechnology, smaller molecules, evolution, and the different theories of life origin, releasing energy. we gain a better appreciation of the natural ○ Homeostasis world and the life forms that inhabit it. Ability to maintain stable internal condition. Ex. Sweating when PHILIPPINE VERSION THEORY OF THE ORIGIN running/feeling hot. OF LIFE: MALAKAS AT MAGANDA ○ Growth and Reproduction A creation myth from Philippines All living things reproduce. mythology that provides an indigenous Reproduction is the perspective on the origin of human life. transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next.  1. Asexual - offspring Show the capacity for growth are identical to Respond to stimuli. parents (ex. Reproduce themselves Amoeba) Have the capacity to evolve. 2. Sexual - Union of sperm and egg MADE UP OF ONE OR MORE CELL cells to form a unique offspring Cells are the smallest unit capable of ○ Heredity life’s functions. (a mitochondria, cell The DNA carries the membrane, or an atom by themselves genetic information of are not capable of all life functions) organisms. Everything alive is made up of cells like ○ Response to Stimuli building blocks of life All living things respond to Stimuli MADE UP OF ONE OR MORE CELLS Stimuli - Anything that can trigger a physical or Unicellular organisms composed behavioral change. (Ex. Fly of one cell (ie bacteria, Trap) protists like amoeba, BIOLOGY and certain fungi like yeast Greek words bio, meaning life, and ology, meaning the study of Multicellular organisms composed Study of life of more than one cell Biologists recognize that all living things (ie animals, plants, all share certain characteristics. fungi other than yeast) They use these characteristics to classify. Everything you do depends on these tiny cells working together 01 ORGANISM ORGANIZATION anything that has, or once had all the Living things are arranged in an orderly characteristics which define life. way Inside our body, cells come together to 1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS make tissues like our muscle tissue that helps you move. Tissues for organs like heart that pumps Are both complex and organized blood. Acquire and use both materials and Each organized structure in an organism energy. has a specific function Exhibit some capacity to regulate their internal conditions (homeostasis).  Example: an anteater's snout is made of particular function (e.g. in different tissues specialized to hold its humans: muscle tissue) long tongue Example: a human heart is made of Organ Groups of cells and tissues muscle tissue and has four chambers to that work together to perform keep blood with oxygen and blood a particular function (e.g. in without oxygen separated. humans: heart) UNICELLULAR & MULTICELLULAR Organ Groups of cells, tissues, and ORGANIZATIONS System organs that work together to perform a particular function Unicellular atoms like carbon, (e.g. in humans: circulatory hydrogen, and oxygen system) are grouped into larger molecules like The levels of biological organization from carbohydrates, smallest to largest are: proteins, and fats. Multicellular Large multicellular organisms like have additional levels of organization. Atom > Molecule > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ System > Organism SEVERAL LEVELS Atom The smallest unit of matter (e.g. in humans: carbon) Molecule Groups of atoms that are Chemical from chemical level, for bonded together (e.g. in example, the chunky, the atoms, like humans: protein) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen phosphorus in our body Cell The smallest unit of life Cellular level, the molecules specifically (composed of atoms and our DNA molecules) (e.g. in humans: Tissue level muscle cell) Organ level Tissue Groups of cells that work System level together to perform a Organismal level REGULATION RESPONDS TO STIMULI Maintaining stable internal conditions Organism's Internal Environment = all despite changes in external conditions things inside of an organism NEED FOOD Homeostasis Organism's External Environment = all ○ when internal conditions are things surrounding an organism stable. Living things don’t just exist, they react to Example - Whatever the air temperature what’s happening around them. is outside, a human's internal e.g. we have 3Fs: Fight, Flight, Freeze temperature should remain stable at Living things constantly react to changes 98.6 F. Your body can REGULATE internal in their environment temperature by sweating when you're Stimulus = anything that is part of either hot or shivering when you're cold to an organism's external or an organism's reach stability again. internal environment that causes a Other conditions that must be kept reaction stable include water, oxygen, salt, sugar, Response = an organism's reaction to a and calcium levels in the blood. stimulus GROW AND DEVELOP REPRODUCTION Most organisms begin as one cell! Reproduction = the production of Growth = results in the addition of mass offspring and/or new cells No organism lives forever, so Development = changes that take place reproduction is how they ensure their to bring an organism to maturity genes "live on" after they die. Two types: asexual vs. sexual REQUIRES ENERGY Living things must reproduce or create offspring to keep their species alive All chemical reactions carried out within There are some reproduce by an organism require energy. Energy is themselves like bacteria when it comes stored in food, and that food is broken to sexual reproduction. down when energy is needed. Others, like humans and animals, need 2 Autotrophs = organisms that make their parents to reproduce sexual own food (using energy from sunlight reproduction. during photosynthesis) Even if an individual doesn't reproduce Heterotrophs = organisms that get their their species as a whole, they need to energy from consuming other organisms keep making new members to survive. All energy organisms use originally came from the SUN! Without energy, nothing in our body SEXUAL VS. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION would work. Sexual Reproduction Asexual  Heredity Reproduction All organisms store the complex Two parents are 1 parent is needed information they need to live, grow, and needed reproduce in a genetic code written in a molecule called DNA. Offsprings are not Offsprings are genetically identical genetically identical to parents to parents HOW DO I TELL: LIVING OR NOT? (remember, you have a mix of your parents' Living Once-living Nonliving DNA, so you are not identical to either Must have all Does not Does not one). 9 currently have all 9 characteristic have all 9 characteristic s of life characteristic s of life. Species = a group of organisms that can currently! s, but once Never did in breed with one another and produce (No did "Dead" the past. fertile offspring exceptions) # Never will in Hybrids = offspring of two different Usuall the future. species which interbreed y still have GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS EVOLVE OVER DNA TIME and cells. Evolution is defined as change in a population of organisms over many generations. They change in ways that help them survive better in their environments. LESSON 3: CELL DIVISION A population is a group of organisms of the same species: that live in a particular area. CELL DIVISION Adaptation = any inherited characteristic that results from changes In a healthy heart, cell division slows in a species over time significantly by the time a person Example - giraffe necks (they didn’t reaches adulthood. originally have long necks, but over time, Cell division is very slow and rare in the giraffes with slightly longer necks could reach the food more easily, so they heart because the heart is active and survive and adapt.) pumps throughout our lifetime. Cancer - uncontrolled growth of cells HAS A GENETIC CODE  eukaryotic cells, particularly bacterial TYPES OF CELL growth Somatic Cells Meiotic Cells Bacterial Growth undergoes binary fission; exponential process (n—>2n) (2n—>n) It is important for repairs and mitosis meiosis reproduction of cells. all cells in your responsible In eukaryotic division, there is body; for production differentiation: responsible of your for growth gametes (sex STAGES OF CELL CYCLE and cells) G1 Growing maintenance Reproductive Primary growth phase of body organ The duplication of cell divide by divide by parts mitosis, which meiosis at If a cell needs to enter will result in an testes or the division process or equational ovary, results M stage, it first needs division in a to grow or duplicate all a haploid to a reductional of its cell parts except deployed cell division for chromosomes a diploid to a haploid type of cell or S Synthesis Stage chromosome Copying DNA The replication of s chromosomes will undergo the S (Synthesis) stage. This process will end when there are two 01 CELL CYCLE identical chromosomes. Multiplying cells (not in growth) or replicating or cutting cells into numerous divisions Epetitive pattern of growth and division that occurs in both prokaryotic and  Condensed structure of DNA G2 Preparing for Division Secondary growth Once you have a chromosome, you are phase ready to divide. Centriole duplication MITOSIS PHASE will happen here, especially the animals Division of mother cell into 2 identical because they have daughter cells with the same amount centrioles, meaning and quality of genetic material (identical they are now ready to genetic information) divide. This process is for somatic cells First part is to break down the nuclear M Mitosis The nucleus divides envelope. into two nuclei, and Mitosis will start once the nuclear one set of DNA is envelope breaks down. transferred to the daughter cell, the MITOSIS PHASE (PMAT) chromosome. Prophase Chromosome condenses, and the We collectively call G1, S, and G2 as centrioles will travel to the opposite poles interface or living face of the cell. In there, you will see Cell obtains nutrients. some spindle fibers They respire, grow, transcribe their DNA, attaching to and have protein synthesis centromeres located Non-dividing stage in the middle of chromosomes. CHROMOSOMES Metaphase Aligning of Most important part of DNA chromosomes in the If you damage these chromosomes, you middle part. will end up with a mutated cell-like Metaphase plate cancer cell. Holds DNA Organized structure of DNA DNA is coiled into your proteins or histones and small things called keystones  CYTOKINESIS Anaphase Centromeres will divide, and Final stage of mitosis chromosomes will be Telophase will be followed by cytokinesis separated into two where cytoplasms divide. They will now travel to Once the cleavage furrow disappears or opposite poles the two cells separate completely, you You will divide are now under cytokinesis. chromatids The parents’ cells become 2 daughter Chromosomes will be cells with identical genetic information pulled towards the opposite poles. MITOSIS UNDER MICROSCOPE The pulling towards poles is done by centrioles. Their spindle fiber attachment to your centimeters. The chromosomes are pulled toward the poles Telophase Nuclear envelope will MEIOSIS start to reform Chromosomes relax To produce new offspring. Spindle fibers are Higher life forms (diversity), disappearing ○ Such as when eukaryotic They will now be reproduce in the body. converted into Responsible for the diversification of chromatin organisms Resting stage Produces gametes; takes place in Appearance of reproductive organ cleavage furrow: Creates genetically unique cells with half Curvature in the the number of chromosomes as the middle of two cells original cells  Chromatids lie side by side in a process The four Males have called synapses forming bivalent products of no limit to chromosomes meiosis 1 and creating It goes in crossing over which they 2, three are sperm cell exchange segments dissolved then throughout That’s the reason why you don’t look like will become their life your family; there’s slight differences part of 1 egg ○ Million it will undergo now PMAT cell; will serve s and After cytokinesis, each cell can now as a nutrient billions undergo phosphate two for the egg of This is the process that creates our cell. sperm sperm and egg cells. This is the cells From the mother cell, you will create 4 reason why In men, each daughter cells.s only 1 egg cell sperm cells ○ actually different from one every moth carry one another If the egg is type of not fertilized, chromosome. SPERMATOGENESIS VS. OOGENESIS menstruation Y = Male Spermatogenesis Oogenesis ○ Thicke (slower sperm ning of cell swimmer The four The process is the but survive daughter cells the three lining longer). are true here. other bodies in your For Males, 46 called endom XY polaries etrial chromosome disintegrate or s reprod uctive system where egg FEMALE VS. MALE cells Egg Cell Sperm Cell attach es. If fertilized, the Largest cell of SmallesT cell egg cell will the body of the body  undergo Estimation: unicycle 400 egg cells formation, / 12 months = which will 33 + 10 (add happen when the age when the sperm cell you got your is reached period) = 43 Females have years old > limitations: menopause Menopausal If you have a stage healthy ○ When lifestyle and female you keep s having consu children, there me all is a possibility their of delay in the egg menopausal cells: stage. estima As females ted get older, the 400 - quality of egg 500 cells egg deteriorates cells X = Female when (fast sperm women cell but dies reach easily) adoles For Females, cent 46 XX age chromosomes with menstr In humans, there are 23 pairs of ualual chromosomes = 46 chromosomes period Chromosomes can be understood by human cardiogram 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes  ○ all parts of different types of cells and the 1 pair is the sex Cri-du-chat (46 5P-) 5th pair chromosome and 1 pair of sex syndrome missing something (p chromosomes called as arm) = mentally allosomes which will be our x or y retarded The 23rd pair of chromosomes that can be seen in the cardiogram, we can determine whether it’s a female or male. If they are exactly the same size, it is a Down (47, 21+) trisomy 21 female. If not, it is male. syndrome extra chromosome; longer life than other GENETIC DISORDER disorder; GENETIC DISORDERS Aneuploidy not normal numbers of chromosomes Edward (47, 18+) = extra fingers syndrome very low survival rate Klinefelter XXY, you have extra x syndrome chromosome = u cannot produce sperm ; female features 47 Patau (47, 13+) 13th pair; syndrome mostly newborn Turner monosumi, X0 = syndrome webbed neck 45 LESSON 3: CELL TRANSPORT DIFFUSION Particles move from high concentration to low.  This movement until equally balanced or water will enter the cell spread out causing it to swell No energy; happens naturally as molecules spread out to fill the available space Hypertonic If plant cell is placed where Solution the water concentration FACILITATED DIFFUSION outside the cell is lower, the water will leave the cell causing it to shrink Used when molecules are too large or charged; move to protein channel. This allows larger molecules to enter the These changes are essential for maintaining cell cellular function OSMOSIS ACTIVE TRANSPORT Passive transport Does not require oxygen Requires energy The movement of water across a ATP provides the energy needed to move semi-permeable membrane moving molecules against the concentration water from low to high concentration region. (Low to high concentration) Crucial for cells because they need to This and facilitated diffusion are carry out their functions and for essential for maintaining the cell’s maintaining the balance of water and internal environment nutrients in the cell BULK TRANSPORT If too much water enters the cell, it might burst Endocytosis (cell membrane engulfs If too little, it will dry out large particles and brings them to the cell) and exocytosis (moving substances CELL TONICITY out of the cell) it involves movement of large particles in Water moves to hypertonic areas or out of cell uses vesicles to carry large amounts of CELL TONICITY material Hypotonic If plant cell is placed where ACTIVE TRANSPORT: TRANSPORT PROTEINS Solution the water concentration outside the cell is higher,  It requires energy because it moves cellular drinking substances against their concentration uptake of extracellular fluids and small gradient molecules by the cell ATP (energy currency) to carry out active transport SUMMARY Moves sodium ions outside the cell and Endocytosis is a process by which cell potassium ions inside membrane is invaginated around large Critical for maintaining proper cell macromolecule structures functions, especially in nerve cells. The urpose of phagocytosis is to break ACTIVE TRANSPORT: (BULK) VESICULAR down large molecules TRANSPORT Pinocytosis takes up molecules that have already been dissolved in fluids Sometimes, the cell needs to move very Both can play a role in the immune large molecules into or out of the cell. system. There are 2 types: Pinocytosis is not as important as ○ Endocytosis: cell membrane phagocytosis when it comes to cellular engulfs and grabs large breakdown and elimination particles/liquids, and brings them Phagocytosis is primarily used by cells of into the cell. the immune system ○ exocytosis: the cell’s vesicles fuse with the cell, releasing their contents outside the cell. SEVERAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ○ This is how cells expel waste GOALS (SDGs) products or send out important materials like hormones SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being - PHAGOCYTOSIS Understanding cells supports medical “to devour” (cell eating) research and health advancements. one type of endo SDG 4: Quality Education - Promotes cell engulfs solid particles scientific literacy and critical thinking in biology PINOCYTOSIS SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production - Cellular processes inform pinocytosis (pino - to drink, cyto - cell) sustainable practices in biotech and uptake of extracellular fluids and agriculture. dissolved solutes  SDG 14: Life Below Water - Studies of PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES marine microorganisms support ocean health and biodiversity. no nucleus; Its DNA has a true nucleus. SDG 15: Life on Land - Knowledge of plant only floats in the cytoplasm. cells and photosynthesis aids in sustaining ecosystems and biodiversity. No has membrane-bound membrane-bound LESSON #: CELL: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE organelles organelles They have ribosomes They have ribosomes CELL The Basic Unit of Life They are all They can be Examples. Amoeba Proteus, Plant Stem, unicellular unicellular or Bacteria, Cheek cell, and Blood cells. multicellular Cell Theory: They are ALWAYS They are NEVER All living organisms are composed of BACTERIA (ex. BACTERIA (ex. one or more cells Archaebacteria and Plantae, Animalia, The cell is the basic unit of structure and Eubacteria) Protista, and Fungi) organization in organisms Cells arise from pre-existing cells. Smaller than Larger and more Eukaryotes complex compared Microscope to Prokaryotes An optical instrument used for viewing small objects They can reproduce They can reproduce Micro - very small sexually sexually or asexually Scope - to look at (conjugation) & asexually (binary Robert Hooke fission Coined the term cell Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek Father of Microbiology Whether an organism is Prokaryote or a Eukaryote, It will ALWAYS have: 1. Cell Membrane THE 6 KINGDOMS OF LIFE 2. Cytoplasm 1. Animalia 3. DNA 2. Plantae 4. Ribosomes 3. Archaebacteria 4. Fungi 5. Eubacteria 6. Protista PARTS OF A CELL Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes A. SURROUNDING THE CELL  suppo rt to plant PARTS FUNCTION ANIMAL/PL cells. ANT CELL It is made 1. Cell outer BOTH of a Memb memb rigid rane rane layer of the of cell polysa that cchari contr des ols called move cellul ment ose. of molec 3. Organ Struct BOTH ules in elles ures and Inside that out of the perfor the Cell m cells. specifi Regul c ates functi home ons ostasi within s a cell. It is a phosp holipid bilaye B. INSIDE THE CELL r. 2. Cell Provid PLANT CELL Wall es PARTS FUNCTION PLANT/ANIMAL shape CELL , 1. Cytopla Jelly BOTH protec sm Like tion, mixture and of water, struct sugars, ural  ions, floating and in the proteins cytopla ; It sm. contain sa 4. Vacuole Storage Found in both liquid s sac but are l in plant part Helps cells called plants cytosol. maintai this is n shape where and organell contain es are s water suspen solution ded in animal 5. Mitocho Powerh BOTH and ndria ouse of plant the cell cells Produce s 2. Nucleus Control BOTH energy Center (ATP) of the through Cell cellular Contain respirati s DNA on. site for transcri 6. Chlorop Site for PLANT CELLS ONLY ption in last Photosy protein nthesis synthesi A s plastid Directs that cell contain activitie s s chlorop hyll 3. Riboso The site BOTH mes for 7. Chlorop green PLANT CELLS ONLY translat hyll pigmen ion in t that protein traps synthesi sunlight s Found 8. Endopla helps in BOTH attache smic the d to the Reticulu movem rough m ent of endopl chemic asmic als reticulu within m and the cell  A series ed of cellular channel materia s that ls in are animal found cells. through out the 12. Peroxiso They BOTH cytopla mes contain sm enzyme s that 9. Golgi known BOTH degrad Bodies/ as Golgi e Apparat Appara hydroge us tus n Packagi peroxid ng site e and of the toxic cell compo Process unds, and protecti packag ng the es animal proteins and and plant lipids cells from 10. Vesicles Transpo BOTH oxidativ & rt e Endoso specific damag me materia e ls betwee 13. Cytoske provide BOTH n leton s organell support es and and the cell enables membr movem ane ent within 11. Lysoso suicide ANIMAL CELLS plant mes cells ONLY and Contain animal s cells digestiv e 14. Centriol microtu ANIMAL CELLS enzyme es bules s that that breakdo determi wn ne the molecul location es and of the unwant nucleus  in gametes having too many or too animal few chromosomes. cells Differentiate between aneuploidy and polyploidy Paired barrel-s Aneuploidy is when an organism haped has an abnormal number of organell es that chromosomes, meanwhile, are polyploidy is a type of aneuploidy important in cell and an organism that has more division than 2 sets of chromosomes. of animal cells What is translocation and how does it affect the organism? 15. Flagella flagella ANIMAL CELLS and Organis ONLY Translocation is when the other Cilia m with piece of one chromosome breaks a tail and combines with another, Cilia possibly causing genetic Hairlike structure disorders. s that are used for moveme nt TYPES OF GENETIC DISORDERS 1. Klinefelter This occurs Syndrome when there is an extra X LESSON #: GENETIC DISORDERS chromosome in Male genetics, Genetic disorder turning it into Any one of several diseases that XXY rather result in mutations of damaged than XY only genes, these are also often inherited 2. Turner This occurs 3 ways genetic disorders can arise Syndrome when the Mutations within genes female Changes in the number of chromosome chromosomes is missing an Changes in the structure of X chromosomes. chromosome. Nondisjunction 3. Cri-Du-Chat This occurs Nondisjunction is when the Syndrome when the short chromosome pairs or chromatids arm of the fail to separate during anaphase I Chromosome or Meiosis II. This results in 5 is removed.  4. Down This occurs ○ The sides of the ladder: made of Syndrome when there is alternating sugar and phosphate an extra molecules chromosome ○ The rungs of the ladder: consist of in nitrogenous bases (adenine with chromosome thymine (AT) or cytosine with #21. This is guanine (CG)) also known as This structure is very crucial because it Trisomy 21. allows DNA to store genetic information accurately and replicate itself during 5. Edward This occurs cell division. Syndrome when there is ○ also the key to its function as an extra hereditary molecule chromosome DNA is in every cell of every living thing in (in eukaryotic organisms like humans). It chromosome is found within the chromosomes of the #18. This is cell. also known as ○ DNA is stored inside the nucleus Trisomy 18. of each cell 6. Patau This occurs Syndrome when there is CHROMOSOMES an extra chromosome Chromosomes work to build proteins in and assist in duplication or division of chromosome the cells. #13. This is Organized cell that helps manage DNA also known as during cell division Trisomy #13. Plays a central role in ensuring that DNA LESSON #: CENTRAL DOGMA is distributed accurately. Each chromosome can contain thousands of genes DNA GENETIC CODE Blueprint of life Deoxyribonucleic acid language of instructions that tells the A vital molecule in the nucleus of cells cell how to make proteins that functions as a book of genetic instructions, determining how an GENES organism develops and operates. Structure: a unique double helix structure (often compared to a twisted ladder)  segments of DNA that contain specific sequences coding DISCOVERY OF DNA Reside along the DNA strand with Single gene might instruct cell on how to Early Key discovery Significance create protein (responsible for eye color, Mentions for instance) Together with chromosomes, they During the In 1953, The discovery determine an organism’s inherited traits. mid-1800s scientists of DNA's For example, humans have 23 pairs of and early discovered structure chromosomes in most cells each 1900s, the revolutionized carrying thousands of genes that scientists double-helix biology and provide instructions for various bodily explored trait structure of genetics, functions. inheritance in DNA, using allowing for a organisms data from better CENTRAL DOGMA through other understandin experiments scientists. g of A principle that explains how genetic with peas This revealed inheritance information flows from DNA to the and flies. how DNA and proteins that carry out all cellular However, stores evolution. activities. they were not genetic Can be summarized as DNA, RNA, and able to get to information. protein complete understandin g of control PROTEIN mechanisms. the flow of genetic information the molecules that carry out the vast CHARLES DARWIN majority of cellular processes He developed a theory of evolution by WHY IS DNA IMPORTANT? natural selection, published in the Origin of the Species in 1859. DNA is the primary function device to This was crucial in establishing that traits store and transmit from one generation are heritable and that natural selection to the next drives evolution. By carrying the instructions for building His study on the pinches in the proteins, DNA essentially controls cell Galapagos island showed that certain function, which may influence an physical traits gave individual organisms organism’s physical characteristics, advantages in their environment, which can lead to variations in enabling them to survive and reproduce. organisms that are essential for evolution and natural selection. GREGOR MENDEL  He observed patterns of inheritance by ○ P-alindromic cross-breeding pea plants, which ○ R-epeats formulated the principles of dominant and recessive traits, which formed the CRISPR is often called as a genetic foundation of classical genetics. resource This confirmed that traits are passed Allowed scientist to edit DNA with high down through specific units we call precision genes. Can be used to target and modify specific genes which offer hope for MIESCHER treating genetic diseases and furthering our understanding of the genome. Miescher’s identification of DNA, which Originally discovered in bacteria, which provided clues about the molecular served as a natural defense mechanism basis of heredity against viruses When a virus infects a bacterium, the KEY DISCOVERY bacterium captures a segment of virus DNA and stores it as a memory within its In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick own DNA sequence. gathered together data from several Cas 9 is an enzyme that functions as the researchers, including Franklin’s x-ray molecular scissors in the bacterial images, to build a model of DNA’s double immune system helix. It uses stored viral DNA to recognize and This showed how DNA could carry cut the DNA and future invading viruses, genetic information and replicate itself effectively disenabling it. accurately during cell division. Scientists discovered that this cutting This showed how DNA functions at a mechanism class could be adapted to molecular level. edit DNA in virtually any organism. Their discovery revolutionized biology, helping scientists understand how HOW TO USE CRISPR CAS 9 FOR GENE genetic information is stored when EDITING? transmitted and expressed in all living organisms. To use CRISPR cas 9 for gene editing, scientists will harness the cas 9 enzymes CRISPR-CAS 9 Next, they will guide them to specific DNA sequences using a piece of RNA called CRISPR associated protein 9 by guide RNA (g rna - designed to match a Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer target DNA sequence within an Doudna organism’s genome) ○ C-lustered When the guide RNA binds to the target ○ R-egularly sequence, the role of the cas 9 as an ○ I-nterspaced enzyme acts like scissors to cut DNA at a ○ S-hort specific location.  Once cut, the cell naturally repair DNA resembles a twisted ladder with two mechanisms kick in. strands containing groups of four nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Thymine SCIENTISTS CAN TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THIS PROCESS IN TWO MAIN WAYS: (T). Rungs - made of pairs of nitrogenous Gene Disruption Gene Insertion/ bases. Replacement DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID By cutting DNA and By adding a piece of allowing it to repair repair DNA into the DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. imperfectly, the cell along with CRISPR It is a long molecule made up of purpose of the CRISPR cas 9 monomers called nucleotides. can now be to Deoxyribo - sugar disenable or knock Nucleic Acid - macro-molecule out a specific gene, ○ stored the genetic material effectively removing its function. Scientists can insert or replace genes, making it possible to introduce or correct a genetic trait. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE/PERSPECTIVE From a chemical perspective, DNA is a Nucleic acid: Phosphate group - yellow polymer of nucleotides, in other words, a in color polynucleotide. Deoxyribose sugar - sugar in DNA ○ Smaller units or monomers = Nitrogenous base - Adenine, Cytosine, nucleotides. Guanine, Thymine A polymer is a compound formed by ○ bases are paired in the helix many simple units connected to each Together, these form the basic unit of other. DNA which are strung together to form DNA is made of many nucleotides linked DNA molecules. together. Deoxy - loss of oxygen molecules When many nucleotides connect, this will now be a polynucleotide. COMPOSITION OF NITROGENOUS BASES COMPOSITION OF DNA Nitrogen bases form specific pairs. Double helix structure:  The bases are paired in the helix; nitrogenous base (A, C, G, or U for Uracil) specifically A pairs with T, and C pairs that encodes genetic information. with G. These bases are held together by DNA VS. RNA hydrogen bonds. Adenine and Thymine form 2 hydrogen Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid bonds. Cytosine and Guanine form 3 hydrogen bonds. Function: Function: This gives them DNA molecule stability. stores genetic Transmits and copies