EESA01 Fall 2024 Final Exam PDF

Introduction to Environmental Science EESA01 Fall 2024  EESA01 Final Exam 25% of your final grade (unless otherwise arranged). 80 multiple choice questions. 2 hours in duration. In person. Monday, Dec. 16th, 2:00-4:00 pm, in-person...

Introduction to Environmental Science EESA01 Fall 2024  EESA01 Final Exam 25% of your final grade (unless otherwise arranged). 80 multiple choice questions. 2 hours in duration. In person. Monday, Dec. 16th, 2:00-4:00 pm, in-person Highland Hall (HL) Room 170, and HLB108 No study aids. Heavily weighted towards post-midterm content.  EESA01 Final Exam Section 1. Philosophy of environmental science 5 Section 2. Energy, matter, and the systems approach 4 Section 3. Energy inputs into the Earth 8 Section 4. Soil science 14 Section 5. Agriculture 16 Section 6. Biodiversity science 10 Section 7. Climate change science 12 Section 8. Figures and figure interpretation 11  Sample Questions Stating that “humans are the main cause of climate change” is stating a(n): A) expectation. B) hypothesis. C) scientific theory. D) prediction. E) hypothesis-driven prediction.  Sample Questions The large Earth system(s)/ sphere(s) in which the mechanisms of climate change are happening is the: A) atmosphere. B) atmosphere and cryosphere. C) atmosphere and hydrosphere. D) atmosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. E) hydrosphere.  Sample Questions Which of the following environmental process “operates” at the largest temporal scales: A) Plate tectonics. B) Nutrient cycles. C) Tornadoes. D) Groundwater replenishment. E) Glacial periods.  Sample Questions The large Earth system(s)/ sphere(s) in which the mechanisms of climate change are happening is the: A) atmosphere. B) atmosphere and cryosphere. C) atmosphere and hydrosphere. D) atmosphere, cryosphere, and hydrosphere. E) hydrosphere.  Sample Questions “Vavilovian Centres” refer to areas of the world where: A) the Green Revolution began. B) soil erosion is universally high due to industrial agriculture. C) current crop species and varieties were first domesticated, and soil erosion is universally high due to industrial agriculture. D) current crop species and varieties were first domesticated, and the Green Revolution began. E) current crops species and varieties were first domesticated. Image Example Example: 70% sand 10% clay 20% silt Energy Inputs into the Earth  EESA01 Week 7 Rundown 1. Energy inputs into Earth. 2. Short- vs. long-term mechanisms. 3. Implications of energy inputs for climate change.  Basics of Energy and Climate Earth’s climate driven by energy fluxes, the balance between outgoing vs. incoming energy. A warm substance holds more energy than a cold substance. If a warm substance becomes cooler, energy is leaving the substance (and vice versa). In a steady-state Earth, incoming energy equals outgoing energy over a year. If this is not true, the Earth will either warm up or cool down.  Energy Inputs to the Earth Earth receives all energy as incoming solar radiation (“Insolation”). The rate (amount per time) of energy (Joules) received at a surface is called Power (J s-1). 1 joule per second is equal to 1 Watt (W). Power per surface area is an Energy Flux and is measured in W m-2.  Insolation Fluxes on Earth Differs spatially leading to differences in energy inputs depending on location. Differs temporally leading to differences in energy inputs depending on time of year.  Energy inputs to the Earth The sun strikes the Earth more directly at the equator, compared to other regions of the world. Spatial Variability in Net Radiation Spatial Variability in Net Radiation  Energy inputs to the Earth Since different parts of the Earth face the sun at different times of year, the area of highest radiation inputs changes through the seasons. Fig. 13.5 Fig. 13.5  Earth’s Energy Balance Fig. 14.1  EESA01 Week 7 Rundown 1. Energy inputs into Earth. 2. Short- vs. long-term mechanisms. 3. Implications of energy inputs for climate change.  Changes in Earth’s Energy Balance Earth’s energy balance can change in multiple ways: Increases in the amount of insolation striking Earth. Changes in the amount of insolation “trapped” on Earth. Changes in the amount of insolation reflected by Earth. Long vs. short-term mechanisms.  Long-term changes Incoming solar radiation at a given place at a given time should change very little. Over “geological” time periods (i.e. 10,000s of years). Called “Milankovitch Cycles”. Related to Earth’s orbit around the sun.  Earth’s Energy Balance Fig. 14.1  Short-term changes Earth’s balance of insolation and outgoing radiation influenced by factors that humans can/ have changed very quickly. Albedo: dictates how insolation is reflected/ absorbed. Greenhouse gases: dictates how outgoing radiation is trapped.  Albedo Earth reflects ~30% of insolation, and another ~70% is absorbed. This reflectivity is termed albedo. Albedo ranges between 0 and 1. Related to a substance’s properties: snow has high albedo (0.8-0.95), vs. asphalt with a low albedo (0.05-0.1).  Albedo High albedo High reflectance Low albedo Low reflectance Albedo  Earth’s Energy Balance Fig. 14.1  Greenhouse Gases Trap reflected radiation in the atmosphere. Prevent it from leaving Earth. Increasing the amount of insolation that is retained within Earth’s atmosphere.  Greenhouse Gases Trap reflected radiation in the atmosphere. Prevent it from leaving Earth. Increasing the amount of insolation that is retained within Earth’s atmosphere.  Greenhouse Gases Trap reflected radiation in the atmosphere. Prevent it from leaving Earth. Increasing the amount of insolation that is retained within Earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse Gas Fluxes  Earth’s Energy Balance Fig. 14.1  EESA01 Week 7 Rundown 1. Energy inputs into Earth. 2. Short- vs. long-term mechanisms. 3. Implications of energy inputs for climate change.  A Major Issue in Env’tal Science What is causing climate change? Short-term changes: anthropogenic climate change. Long-term changes: “natural” climate change.  Evidence of Climate Change Searching for evidence of climate change means looking for climate anomalies. Difference in present climate, compared to past trends in temperature or precipitation.  Sahel Temperature Anomalies 0 Average temperature  Sahel Temperature Anomalies 0 Higher than average temperature  Sahel Temperature Anomalies 0 Lower than average temperature Temperature anomaly Climate Change Predictions and Impacts  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. Climate vs. weather. 2. A quick background on the IPCC. 3. What climate predictions depend upon. 4. Predictions of temperature. 5. Predictions of precipitation. 6. Likely Toronto scenarios. 7. Predictions on the impacts of climate change.  Climate vs. Weather The conditions of the atmosphere over a short period of time (i.e., hours, days). Daily temperature, short-term precipitation, wind, humidity, wind chill, fog, UV index.  Climate vs. Weather How the atmosphere "behaves" predictably over long periods of time (i.e., years, decades, centuries). Long-term temperature, precipitation, storm intensity and frequency.  Climate Change Alterations to the way the atmosphere "behaves" over long periods of time. Reductions in the predictability of atmospheric conditions over the course of years (at minimum).  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. Climate vs. weather. 2. A quick background on the IPCC. 3. What climate predictions depend upon. 4. Predictions of temperature. 5. Predictions of precipitation. 6. Likely Toronto scenarios. 7. Predictions on the impacts of climate change.  Key Points on Climate Change Predictions IPCC discusses “short-term” (2021-2040), ”medium-term” (2041- 2060), and “long-term” (2080-2100) climate change. Predictions on climate always 1) entail some uncertainty because they 2) depend on what we think will happen in the future.  Expectations of the Future Predictions of climate change, depend on predictions about greenhouse gas emissions. Depend on laws, regulation, economics, human behavior, ecosystem responses to disturbances. Different scenarios are captured as: Shared Socio-economic Pathways” (or SSPs). The IPCC uses five different Emissions Scenarios called SSPs A lot of GHG = a lot of climate change Moderate GHG = moderate climate change Limited GHG = limited climate change  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. Climate vs. weather. 2. A quick background on the IPCC. 3. What climate predictions depend upon. 4. Predictions of temperature. 5. Predictions of precipitation. 6. Likely Toronto scenarios. 7. Predictions on the impacts of climate change.  How much warming we expect in the near term (2021-2040) 1.6 °C 1.5 °C 1.5 °C 1.5 °C 1.5 °C  How much warming we expect in the medium term (2041-2060) 2.4 °C 2.1 °C 2.0 °C 1.7 °C 1.6 °C  How much warming we expect in the long term (2080-2100) 4.4 °C 3.7 °C 2.7 °C 1.8 °C 1.4 °C Let’s assume 1.5 °C Let’s assume 2.0 °C Let’s assume 4.0 °C  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. Climate vs. weather. 2. A quick background on the IPCC. 3. What climate predictions depend upon. 4. Predictions of temperature. 5. Predictions of precipitation. 6. Likely Toronto scenarios. 7. Predictions on the impacts of climate change. Let’s assume 1.5 °C Let’s assume 2.0 °C Let’s assume 4.0 °C  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. Climate vs. weather. 2. A quick background on the IPCC. 3. What climate predictions depend upon. 4. Predictions of temperature. 5. Predictions of precipitation. 6. Likely Toronto scenarios. 7. Predictions on the impacts of climate change.  A snapshot of well-supported impacts Several major disruptions to Earth’s spheres are occurring due to a shifting climate: Sea ice loss. Rising sea levels. Changes in species composition. Increased prevalence of forest fires. Threats to food production/ security. Sea Ice Decline Fig. 14-21  Sea Level Rise Fig. 14-22  Forest Fire Prevalence/ Extent Fig. 14-28 Ocean Acidification Biodiversity and Conservation  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species extinction and declines. 6. Species conservation.  What is Biodiversity? Assessed in three primary ways. i. Ecosystem diversity ii. Species diversity iii. Genetic diversity  Ecosystem Diversity Number of different ecosystems, habitats, environmental niches in a landscape. Ability of organisms to interact with one another, due to habitats connectedness. Critical and concept for landscape-level conservation.  Genetic Diversity Genetic variation that exists within and among species. Key in conservation biology, where conservation of different populations of the same species is the focus. Critical in fields of agriculture and agroecology.  Species Diversity Number or variety of species in the world or a particular location. Main concept in conservation biology and environmental impact assessments. Main policy-related interpretation of biodiveristy (e.g. conservation policy such as Species at Risk).  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species declines and extinctions. 6. Species conservation.  Biodiversity Systematics A classification system needed to make sense of all biological species, and understand relationship among them. In biodiversity, classification is referred to as “systematics”. A hierarchical system of organizing species.  Species are classified/ named hierarchically. More families = more genera = more species. Fewer families = fewer genera = fewer species.  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species declines and extinctions. 6. Species conservation.  Search to Count all Species on Earth Documenting number of species on Earth is among the earliest scientific/ philosophical pursuits. Aristotle (~ 350 BC): “how many organisms are there and how are they distributed around the world?”  Measuring Species Diversity is Not Easy In last 10 years, estimated ~ 8-9 million species across all different types of organisms. Number is very difficult to estimate, and is likely an underestimate. Especially for things like insects and micro-organisms.  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species declines and extinctions. 6. Species conservation.  Species Discoveries in the Past Few Years Generally, we continue to discover new species. We are considered as being in an era of rapid biodiversity discovery.  Species Discovery Three primary reasons why species discovery continues, and is incomplete: 1. Many species are tiny and overlooked. 2. Some areas of Earth little explored. 3. Many organisms are difficult to identify.  Species Discovery Three primary reasons why species discovery continues, and is incomplete: 1. Many species are tiny and overlooked. 2. Some areas of Earth little explored. 3. Many organisms are difficult to identify.  Species Discovery Three primary reasons why species discovery continues, and is incomplete: 1. Many species are tiny and overlooked. 2. Some areas of Earth little explored. 3. Many organisms are difficult to identify.  Biodiversity on Earth Due to molecular studies performed in lesser known ecosystems. In the last two years, estimates of global species diversity have skyrocketed.  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species declines and extinction. 6. Species conservation.  Biodiversity While species discovery continues at unprecedented rates…. Humans causing species declines and extinctions at a pace not seen since dinosaurs went extinct (65 million years ago).  Biodiversity Loss Terminology Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist. Extirpation = disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally. Endangered = species in imminent danger of becoming extirpated or extinct. Threatened = species likely to become endangered in the near future.  Mass Extinctions Events losing ~75% of species, over a “short” period of time. “Short” = roughly 2 million years. Mass extinctions are therefore related to biodiversity trends throughout Earth’s history. Earth has experienced five previous mass extinction episodes. In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species. Due to cataclysmic, world-altering events. Biodiversity through Time The Sixth Mass Extinction  Background Extinction Rates Background or “natural” extinction rates, are based on the fossil record. 2 out of one million species go extinct every year. This is what we would “normally” expect in nature. Anything above these, are considered “elevated.” The percent of species that the IUCN has monitored intensively, that have gone extinct. This many extinctions (over 114 years) should have taken…  Towards Extinction Human activity credited with increase in extinction rates. Things don’t just go extinct immediately. Rather they slowly lead to major declines in species populations. Ultimately may result in extinction.  EESA01 Week 8 Rundown 1. What is biodiversity? 2. Classification of organisms. 3. How many species are there? 4. Species discovery. 5. Species declines and extinction. 6. Species conservation.  Conserving Species Maintaining habitat (in situ conservation). Protect biodiversity and prevent species loss, by keeping people out. Major role of government and NGOs in conservation biology is protected area establishment/ enforcement.  Conserving Species Env’tal change may be irreversible and protected areas not enough to “save” species. Ex situ conservation includes preserving species in zoo, aquaria, seed banks, arboretums. Captive breeding: breeding and raising of individual species in zoos and botanical gardens with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild. De-extinction: Bringing things back from extinction. Soils  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management.  Why study soil science? Soil is crucial to life on Earth, a key resource. Environmental interface of minerals, air, water and living organisms. Principle medium of plant growth, supplies food. Recycles nutrients and water. Key aspect of climate change and feedbacks. Serves as an engineering medium.  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management.  Soil is a “System” Complex mixture of organic and inorganic matter, a wide diversity of organisms: – Bacteria – Protists – Fungi – Invertebrates The Large Things (Macrofauna) Macrofauna Macrofauna Macroflora Medium-Size Things (Mesofauna)  The small things (Microflora and fauna)  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management.  What is Soil? Dynamic natural bodies having properties from the combined effect of climate and biotic activities, as modified by topography, acting on parent material over periods of time. A specific soil depends on where it came from: the soil forming factors.  How Does Soil Form? A slow and gradual transformation of rock (termed: parent material) into smaller and smaller pieces. Change occurs due to mechanical or chemical weathering.  Physical/ Mechanical Weathering Disintegration of rocks into smaller and small pieces. – Temperature changes. – Abrasion from wind, small particles in air. – Plants and animals.  Chemical Weathering Decomposition of rocks due to biogeochemical processes. – Binding with water molecules. – Exposure to oxygen. – Exposure to acids from plants and animals. How Do Soils Form? Spatial and Temporal Scales in Environmental Systems  Soils are Highly Variable and Diverse Soil forming factors are rather unique, depending on time and place in the world. Weathering occurs in drastically different ways. Leading to wide diversity of soil types globally.  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management. The Pedon: Fundamental Unit of Soil Classification  Master Soil Horizons O horizon – Organic matter (recall: C-based compounds here); primarily plant and animal material in different stages of decomposition.  Master Soil Horizons A horizon – topmost mineral horizon; partially decomposed matter gives soil a darker color; coarser texture having lost many finer particles due to translocation (zone of eluviation).  Master Soil Horizons B horizon – undergone sufficient changes that original parent material is no longer discernable; small particles/ materials have accumulated (zone of illuviation).  Master Soil Horizons C horizon – unconsolidated parent material; below the zones of greatest biological activity; loose enough to be dug with a shovel.  Master Soil Horizons R horizon – Pure parent material; below areas of biological activity (so no chemical weather); unexposed to environment (so no mechanical weathering). Soil Taxonomy Soil Orders  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management.  Classifying Differences… Soils differ from one another based on four main abiotic characteristics: 1. Colour 2. Texture 3. Structure 4. Chemistry  1. Soil Color Soil colour is formalized. Soil colour determined by comparing a soil ped to standard Munsell colour chart. Colours assigned based on: i. hue – the dominant spectral colour. ii. value – the lightness or darkness of a colour. iii. chroma – the strength or purity of the dominant colour.  Classifying Differences… Soils differ from one another based on four main abiotic characteristics: 1. Colour 2. Texture 3. Structure 4. Chemistry  2. Texture The physical size of particles in soils. Defined as sands (largest), silt (medium size), and clays (smallest). The relative proportions/ percentage of each of these used to define soil textural class. Soil Textural Triangles Example: 70% sand 10% clay 20% silt Why texture matters  Classifying Differences… Soils differ from one another based on four main abiotic characteristics: 1. Colour 2. Texture 3. Structure 4. Chemistry  3. Structure Arrangement of primary soil particles into groupings. Aggregates or peds. Can take multiple forms depending on their arrangement, binding agents, textural classes. Spheroidal Plate-like Blocky Prismatic  Classifying Differences… Soils differ from one another based on four main abiotic characteristics: 1. Colour 2. Texture 3. Structure 4. Chemistry  4. Chemistry Multiple aspects of soil chemistry are important, but two main aspects area: Cation exchange capacity (CEC). Soil pH Both related to ability of soils to absorb ions in soils. Ions: Cations and Anions When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions. Anions (negatively charged) vs. cations (positively charged)  Cation Exchange Capacity Cation exchange capacity (CEC): a soil’s ability to hold onto cations. Cations are plant available nutrients like K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+, other cations. CEC is a roughly equivalent to soil fertility. More negatively charged surfaces on soil particles, means more positively charged ions can be held. Clay Particles and CEC Why texture matters  EESA01 Week 9 Rundown 1. Soils in current environmental issues. 2. Soils as systems. 3. Soil formation. 4. Soil classification. 5. Soil physical and chemical properties. 6. Soil management.  Major Issues in Soil Sustainability Many current environmental issues centre on sustainable soil management. Two key issues currently: i. Climate change. ii. Soil erosion/ degradation and its links with food security.  Global Carbon Cycle Soil represents the largest terrestrial reservoir for carbon. Soil carbon fluxes are driven by rates of soil respiration and decay or organic matter. These produce massive amounts of carbon dioxide and methane.  Global Carbon Cycle Fig. 7.8 Black text = reservoirs Black numbers = reservoir size (measured in Pg of C) Grey arrows = fluxes Red text = transfer processes Red numbers = flux rate (measured in Pg C / year)  Soil Erosion and Degradation Net loss of soils (erosion), and reduction in soil fertility (degradation) are among human’s largest impacts on the environment. Largely linked with intensive agriculture (and the multitude of things associated with it).  Soil Erosion/ Degradation Globally Figure 7.11 in text, which focuses on soil degradation in dryland areas.  Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security Alternative forms of agricultural management (or “sustainable farming”, take many forms. Organic production, non-GMO, fair trade, etc. Soil conservation a major theme in all sustainable food production systems.  Crop rotation Intercropping Planting different types of Alternating crops grown crops in alternating bands field from one season or or other spatially mixed year to the next. arrangements to increase ground cover. Contour Farming Terracing Plowing furrows Level platforms are cut sideways across a into steep hillsides, hillside, perpendicular to forming a “staircase” to its slope, to prevent rills contain water. and gullies.  Shelterbelts Reduced Tillage Furrows are cut in the Rows of tall, perennial plants soil, a seed is dropped are planted along the edges in and the furrow is of fields to slow the wind. closed. Agriculture and the Environment  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture. Plant-based Animal-based agriculture agriculture  Industrial Small-scale agriculture agriculture Organic agriculture Non-organic/ conventional Agriculture by definition Agricultural exists on a spectrum across these characteristics. Caution against making (or committing to an unquestioning trust in) broad characterizations. Each category/ subcategory of agriculture is a subdiscipline.  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture.  Agriculture and Human History Human history and population expansion intimately tied with agriculture. Human populations and settlement patterns directly related to agriculture. Begins with crop domestication and agricultural expansion, approximately 8,000 years ago. Fig. 8.2  Vavilovian Centres of Diversity Historically important areas where most crops were first domesticated. Important for future agriculture: areas where new crop varieties might emerge. Centres of Agriculture Human Expansion Broadly Matches Vavilovian Centres ~11,000 years ago ~9,000 years ago ~5,000 years ago ~5,000 years ago ~7,000 years ago The Columbian Exchange  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture.  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Modern agricultural acknowledged as starting with the “Green Revolution” Major investments/ transformations in agriculture research and infrastructure. Rise in pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, irrigation, energy use, and high yielding seed varieties. Traditional Industrial agriculture agriculture  Industrial Industrial agriculture agriculture  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Extensification = bringing more land into production. Intensification = better productivity per unit of land.  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Extensification = bringing more land into production. Intensification = better productivity per unit of land. Green Revolution (1950-70s)  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Extensification = bringing more land into production. Intensification = better productivity per unit of land.  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Purported benefits of the green revolution: Yields rose as prices fell.  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Purported benefits of the green revolution: Yields rose as prices fell.  Green Revolution (1950-70s) Purported benefits of the green revolution: Yields rose as prices fell. Biogeochemical Cycles  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture.  Agriculture and resource use Agriculture is the key consumptive human activity for many of our natural resources. Agriculture as a source of environmental issues surrounding: – water. – greenhouse gases. – biogeochemical cycles (N, P, K). 1 million litres 1 km3 4000 km3 2000 km3 Global Water Use  Water Use Agriculture primary water extraction and use industry worldwide. Efficiency is quite low, only 43% of the water applied may be used by plants. Lead to waterlogging and salinization of soils. Irrigation strategies are key solutions.  Agriculture and resource use Agriculture is the key consumptive human activity for many of our natural resources. Agriculture as a source of environmental issues surrounding: – water. – greenhouse gases. – biogeochemical cycles (N, P, K).  Changes in Diet A narrowing of human diets post Green Revolution: 90% of food comes from 15 crop and 8 livestock species. The world is eating much more meat and seafood. Raising livestock is very energy intensive. To meet demand, operations have been densified.  Changes in Diet 45% of global grain production goes to feeding livestock. Lose up to 90% of energy moving between trophic levels. Some food production is more “efficient” than others. The lower you eat on the food chain, the less energy, land area, and natural resources you require. Changes in Diet  Agriculture and resource use Agriculture is the key consumptive human activity for many of our natural resources. Agriculture as a source of environmental issues surrounding: – water. – greenhouse gases. – biogeochemical cycles (N, P, K).  Human Impacts on the N Cycle Doubling of N fixation: due to Haber- Bosch process (fertilizer production) + increased production of legumes (soybeans). Major environmental impacts including acid rain, eutrophication. Cumulatively, these impacts are significant  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture.  Genetic Modification of Organisms and Recombinant DNA Genetic engineering = laboratory manipulation of genetic material. Creates a genetically modified (GM) organism. Recombinant DNA = DNA patched together from the DNA of multiple organisms.  Biotechnology Biotechnology = material application of biological science to create products derived from organisms. Transgenic organism = organism that contains DNA from another species. Transgenes = the genes that have moved between organisms.  GM Foods Globally 19 biotech “mega-countries” growing 50,000+ ha of biotech crops. These nations are the world’s major food exporters. 6 countries, 4 crops, 2 traits (herbicide tolerance and insect resistance) account for 99% of global area devoted to GM food production.  GMOs and development Considerable concern over health and environmental impacts of GMOs. These effects are very difficult to measure or prove. More immediate and concern is over ownership of crop resources. Further entrenching power of transnational companies.  EESA01 Week 11 Rundown 1. Definitions of agricultural systems. 2. A brief history of agriculture. 3. The Green Revolution. 4. Impacts of industrial agriculture. 5. GMOs. 6. Conservation of crop diversity, sustainable agriculture.  Genetic Diversity Most industrial agriculture exists as monocultures: large single-crop or single- genotype plantings. More efficient planting and harvesting. Highly susceptible to disease and insects. Require large inputs of fertilizers, irrigation, energy, pesticides, etc.  Sustainable Agriculture Agriculture that aims to conserve soils, water, and genetic diversity of crops. No-till agriculture = ploughing and tilling are kept to a minimum to protect soils. Low-input agriculture = pesticide, fertilizers, water, and fossil fuel energy are kept to a minimum. Organic agriculture = absence of synthetic fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides, or herbicides.  Seed Banks Climate change adaptation strategy to sustain future agriculture under climate change uncertainty. Conservation of crop genetic diversity in seed banks. Assuming current crop genetic diversity is critical for future agriculture.  Urban Agriculture Centering agricultural production in places where people live. Reducing “food miles.” Promotes conservation/ cultivation of culturally-appropriate foods. Minimized external applications.  Interdisciplinarity across Earth’s four spheres - Environmental science is interdisciplinary. - Environmental patterns, processes, and human impacts across Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere. Energy, Matter, the Systems Approach The Global Water Cycle Global Biogeochemical Cycles Other courses: EESA06 (Introduction to Planet Earth) EESA07 (Water) EESB04 (Principles of Hydrology) EESB22 (Environmental Geophysics) Other programs: Spec. Environmental Geoscience Energy Inputs into the Earth Other courses: EESA09 (Wind) EESB03 (Principles of Climatology) Other programs: Climate Change Minor Program Applied Climatology Energy Inputs into the Earth Biodiversity Other courses: BIOB50 (Ecology) EESC04 (Biodiversity & Biogeography) Other programs: Spec. Global Environmental Change  Soil Science Other courses: ESTA01 (Intro to Env’tal Studies) EESB05 (Princ. of Soil Science) EESB16 (Feeding Humans) IDSB02 (Development and Env’t) BIOB38 (Plants and Society) Agriculture and the Environment Other programs: Spec. Global Environmental Change Minor in Natural Sciences and Env’tal Management Spec. International Development Studies Major Environmental Studies Introduction to Environmental Science EESA01 Fall 2024