Earth Science Textbook PDF

Fourteenth edition earth Science edward J. tarbuck Frederick K. Lutgens Illustrated by dennis tasa Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River...

Fourteenth edition earth Science edward J. tarbuck Frederick K. Lutgens Illustrated by dennis tasa Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo  About Our Sustainability Initiatives Pearson recognizes the environmental challenges facing this planet and acknowledges our responsibility in making a difference. This book has been carefully crafted to minimize environmental impact. The binding, cover, and paper come from facilities that minimize waste, energy consumption, and the use of harmful chemicals. Pearson closes the loop by recycling every out-of-date text returned to our warehouse. Along with developing and exploring digital solutions to our market’s needs, Pearson has a strong commitment to achieving carbon neutrality. As of 2009, Pearson became the first carbon- and climate-neutral publishing company. Since then, Pearson remains strongly committed to measuring, reducing, and offsetting our carbon footprint. The future holds great promise for reducing our impact on Earth’s environment, and Pearson is proud to be leading the way. We strive to publish the best books with the most up-to-date and accurate content, and to do so in ways that minimize our impact on Earth. To learn more about our initiatives, please visit www.pearson.com/responsibility. Acquisitions Editor: Andrew Dunaway Project Manager, Full Service: Heidi Allgair Senior Marketing Manager: Maureen McLaughlin Photo Manager: Maya Melenchuk Project Manager: Crissy Dudonis Photo Researcher: Kristin Piljay Project Management Team Lead: Gina M. 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Chamberlain, “Some of the Objections to Wegener’s Theory,” In: THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT: A SYMPOSIUM, University of Chicago Press, pp. 83-87, 1928. Page 264: W. Mooney, USGS Seismologist. Page 349: From J. Hutton, Theory of Earth, 1700; From J. Hutton, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1788. Page 488: From A.J. Herbertson, “Outlines of Physiography,” 1901. Page 566: Sir Francis Bacon. Page 644: Copernicus, De Revolutionibus, Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres). Page 648: Joseph Louis Lagrange, Oeuvres de Lagrange, 1867. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009, 2006, 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging–in–Publication Data Tarbuck, Edward J. Earth science / Edward J. Tarbuck, Frederick K. Lutgens; illustrated by Dennis Tasa. – 14th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-321-92809-2 – ISBN 0-321-92809-1 1. Earth sciences – Textbooks. I. Lutgens, Frederick K. II. Title. QE26.3.T38 2015 550–dc23 2013012995 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—CKV—18 17 16 15 14 www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-10: 0-321-92809-1; ISBN-13: 978-0-321-92809-2 BrieF ContentS 1 Introduction to Earth Science 3 unit FiVe | the gLoBAL oCeAn 408 unit one | eArth MAteriALS 32 13 The Ocean Floor 409 2 Matter and Minerals 33 14 Ocean Water and Ocean Life 433 3 Rocks: Materials of the Solid Earth 59 15 The Dynamic Ocean 453 unit tWo | SCuLpting eArth’S SurFACe 94 unit SiX | eArth’S dynAMiC AtMoSphere 484 4 Weathering, Soil, and Mass Wasting 95 16 The Atmosphere: Composition, Structure, and Temperature 485 5 Running Water and Groundwater 131 17 Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation 517 6 Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 171 18 Air Pressure and Wind 551 unit three | ForCeS Within 208 19 Weather Patterns and Severe Storms 577 7 Plate Tectonics: A Scientific 20 World Climates and Global Climate Change 607 Revolution Unfolds 209 8 | the Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 245 unit SeVen eArth’S pLACe in 9 Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 277 uniVerSe 638 10 Crustal Deformation and 21 Origins of Modern Astronomy 639 Mountain Building 317 22 Touring Our Solar System 663 unit Four | deCiphering eArth’S hiStory 346 23 Light, Astronomical Observations, and the Sun 695 11 Geologic Time 347 24 Beyond Our Solar System 719 12 Earth’s Evolution Through Geologic Time 373 iii Find SMArt FigureS And MoBiLe FieLd trip FigureS In addition to the many informative and colorful illustrations and photos 5.9 Channel Changes from Head to Mouth (p. 137) throughout this text, you will find two kinds of special figures that offer additional 5.13 Formation of Cut Banks and Point Bars (p. 142) learning opportunities. These figures contain QR codes which the student can 5.20 Incised Meanders (p. 146) scan with a smart phone to explore exciting expanded online learning materials. 5.25 Broken Levee (p. 151) 5.32 Cone of Depression (p. 157) Find SmartFigures where you see this icon. 5.33 Artesian Systems (p. 157) Find Mobile Field trip Figures where you see this icon. Chapter 6 6.4 Movement of a Glacier (p. 175) 6.7 Zones of a Glacier (p. 178) Chapter 1 6.11 Glacial Abrasion (p. 180) 1.1 Internal and External Processes (p. 4) 6.12 Erosional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciers (p. 181) 1.6 Magnitude of Geologic Time (p. 8) 6.20 Common Depositional Landforms (p. 186) 1.8 Nebular Theory (p. 13) 6.27 Orbital Variations (p. 191) 1.15 Earth’s Layers (p. 19) 6.30 Dry Climates (p. 193) 1.21 The Continents (p. 24) 6.32 Landscape Evolution in the Basin and Range Region (p. 195) 6.38 White Sands National Monument (p. 199) Chapter 2 6.39 Cross Bedding (p. 200) 2.3 Most Rocks Are Aggregates of Minerals (p. 35) 6.40 Types of Sand Dunes (p. 201) 2.12 Color Variations in Minerals (p. 43) 2.15 Common Crystal Habits (p. 44) Chapter 7 2.16 Hardness Scales (p. 44) 7.2 Reconstructions of Pangaea (p. 211) 2.18 Cleavage Directions Exhibited by Minerals (p. 45) 7.10 Rigid Lithosphere Overlies the Weak Asthenosphere (p. 216) 7.15 Continental Rifting (p. 220) Chapter 3 7.17 Three Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries (p. 222) 3.1 The Rock Cycle (p. 61) 7.21 Transform Plate Boundaries (p. 225) 3.4 Composition of Common Igneous Rocks (p. 64) 7.23 Movement along the San Andreas Fault (p. 226) 3.5 Igneous Rock Textures (p. 65) 7.31 Time Scale of Magnetic Reversals (p. 233) 3.7 Classifications of Igneous Rocks, Based on Their Mineral Composition and Texture (p. 67) Chapter 8 3.14 Sedimentary Rocks Exposed in Capitol Reef National Park, Utah (p. 71) 8.5 Elastic Rebound (p. 248) 3.20 Bonneville Salt Flats (p. 75) 8.10 Body Waves (P and S waves) versus Surface Waves (p. 251) 3.21 From Plants to Coal (p. 76) 8.23 Turnagain Heights Slide (p. 258) 3.25 Metamorphic Rocks in the Adirondacks, New York. (p. 78) 8.31 Seismic Gaps: Tools for Forecasting Earthquakes (p. 265) 3.27 Confining Pressure and Differential Stress (p. 80) 3.35 Common Oil Traps (p. 88) Chapter 9 9.10 Anatomy of a Volcano (p. 286) Chapter 4 9.12 Cinder Cone (p. 290) 4.1 Excavating the Grand Canyon (p. 96) 9.20 Super-Eruptions at Yellowstone (p. 298) 4.3 Mechanical Weathering Increases Surface Area (p. 99) 9.25 Sill Exposed in Utah’s Sinbad Country (p. 302) 4.5 Ice Breaks Rock (p. 99) 9.33 Earth’s Zones of Volcanism (p. 308) 4.6 Unloading Leads to Sheeting (p. 100) 9.34 Subduction of the Juan Fuca Plate Produced the Cascade Volcanoes (p. 310) 4.8 The Formation of Rounded Boulders (p. 103) 4.9 Rock Types Influences Weathering (p. 104) Chapter 10 4.11 Monuments to Weathering (p. 105) 10.1 Deformed Sedimentary Strata (p. 318) 4.32 Gros Vestre Rockslide (p. 121) 10.6 Common Types of Folds (p. 322) 4.34 Creep (p. 123) 10.7 Sheep Mountain Wyoming (p. 323) 10.8 Domes Versus Basins (p. 323) Chapter 5 10.15 Normal Dip-Slip Fault (p. 326) 5.2 The Hydrologic Cycle (p. 133) 10.16 Normal Faulting in the Basin and Range Province (p. 326) 5.4 Mississippi River Drainage Basin (p. 134) 10.26 Collision and Accretion of Small Crustal Fragments to a Continental Margin (p. 333) iv  Find Smart FigureS and mobile Field trip FigureS v 10.29 India’s Continued Northward Migration Severely Deformed Much of China and Chapter 17 Southeast Asia (p. 335) 17.2 Changes of State Involve an Exchange of Heat (p. 519) 10.30 Formation of the Appalachian Mountains (p. 336) 17.8 Map Showing Dew-Point Temperatures on a Typical September Day (p. 523) 10.31 The Valley and Ridge Province (p. 337) 17.13 Surface Convergence Enhances Cloud Development (p. 527) 10.33 The Effects of Isostatic Adjustment and Erosion on Mountainous Topography 17.17 Atmospheric Conditions That Result in Absolute Stability (p. 529) (p. 340) 17.20 Classification of Clouds, Based on Height and Form (p. 532) Chapter 11 17.25 Map Showing the Average Number of Days per Year with Heavy Fog (p. 537) 17.30 Formation of Hailstones (p. 541) 11.7 Inclusions (p. 352) 11.8 Formation of an Angular Unconformity (p. 352) Chapter 18 11.13 Applying Principles (p. 355) 18.2 Inches and Millibars (p. 553) 11.18 Fossil Assemblage (p. 360) 18.7 Isobars on a Weather Map (p. 555) 11.21 Radioactive Decay Curve (p. 362) 18.8 Coriolis Effect (p. 556) 18.17 Idealized Global Circulation Proposed for the Three-Cell Circulation Model of a Chapter 12 Rotating Earth (p. 561) 12.4 Major Events That Led to the Formation of Early Earth (p. 378) 18.19 Sea and Land Breezes (p. 563) 12.10 Growth of Large Continental Masses Through the Collision and Accretion of Smaller Crustal Fragments (p. 383) Chapter 19 12.12 The Major Geologic Provinces of North America and Their Ages in Billions of 19.4 Snowfall Map (p. 580) Years (Ga) (p. 384) 19.8 Cold Front (p. 582) 12.16 Connection Between Oceans Circulation and the Climate in Antarctica (p. 386) 19.11 Idealized Structure of a Large, Mature Midlatitude Cyclone (p. 584) 12.28 Relationships of Vertebrate Groups and Their Divergence from Lobefin 19.19 Thunderstorm Development (p. 589) Fish (p. 395) 19.23 The Formation of a Mesocyclone Often Precedes Tornado Formation (p. 591) Chapter 13 Chapter 20 13.2 Distribution of Land and Water (p. 411) 20.7 Tropical Rain Forest (p. 614) 13.6 Satellite Altimeter (p. 413) 20.16 Examples of E Climates (p. 621) 13.12 Active Continental Margins (p. 418) 20.17 Highland Climate (p. 622) 13.19 Examples of Hydrogenous Sediment (p. 425) 20.21 Global Temperatures (p. 625) 20.28 Slope of the Shoreline (p. 632) Chapter 14 14.2 Variations in Surface Temperature and Salinity with Latitude (p. 435) Chapter 21 14.8 Variations in Ocean-Water Density with Depth for Low- and High-Latitude 21.3 Orientation of the Sun’s Rays at Syene (Aswan) and Alexandria, Egypt on Regions (p. 438) June 21 (p. 641) 14.12 Benthos (p. 441) 21.6 Ptolemy’s Explanation of Retrograde Motion (p. 643) 14.16 Productivity in Temperate Oceans (Northern Hemisphere) (p. 446) 21.15 Using a Telescope, Galileo Discovered That Versus Has Phases Like Earth’s 14.19 Ecosystem Energy Flow and Efficiency (p. 448) Moon (p. 647) 21.17 Orbital Motion of Earth and Other Planets (p. 649) Chapter 15 21.20 Locating the North Star (Polaris) from the Pointer Stars in the Big 15.2 Major Surface-Ocean Currents (p. 455) Dipper (p. 653) 15.5 Coastal Upwelling (p. 457) 21.23 Precession of Earth’s Axis (p. 655) 15.12 Passage of a Wave (p. 462) 21.25 Phases of the Moon (p. 656) 15.16 Wave Refraction (p. 464) 21.27 Lunar Eclipse (p. 658) 15.17 The Longshore Transport System (p. 465) 15.21 Some Depositional Features (p. 467) Chapter 22 15.31 East Coast Estuaries (p. 476) 22.1 Orbits of the Planets (p. 664) 15.35 Tidal Patterns (p. 478) 22.3 Bodies with Atmospheres Versus Airless Bodies (p. 667) 22.7 Formation and Filling of Large Impact Basins (p. 670) Chapter 16 22.14 Olympus Mons (p. 675) 16.5 Monthly CO2 Concentrations (p. 489) 22.33 Meteor Crater, Near Winslow, Arizona (p. 688) 16.7 Antarctic Ozone Hole (p. 490) 16.12 The Changing Sun Angle (p. 495) Chapter 23 16.16 Characteristics of the Solstices and Equinoxes (p. 497) 23.3 Formation of the Three Types of Spectra (p. 697) 16.19 The Three Mechanisms of Heat Transfer (p. 500) 23.6 The Doppler Effect (p. 700) 16.21 Paths Taken by Solar Radiation (p. 503) 23.11 Reflecting Telescope (p. 702) 16.24 The Greenhouse Effect (p. 504) 23.20 Diagram of the Sun’s Structure (p. 708) 16.26 Isotherms (p. 506) 16.28 Monthly Mean Temperatures for Vancouver, British Columbia, and Winnipeg Chapter 24 Manitoba (p. 507) 24.8 Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram (p. 725) 16.32 The Daily Cycle of Temperature at Peoria, Illinois, for Two July Days (p. 509) 24.10 Evolutionary Stages of Stars Having Various Masses (p. 728) 16.34 World Mean Sea-Level Temperatures in July, in Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit 24.16 Spiral Galaxies (p. 734) (°F) (p. 511) 24.22 Raisin Bread Analogy for an Expanding Universe (p. 737) ContentS 1 introduction to earth Science 3 unit one | eArth MAteriALS 32 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 3 What is earth Science? 4 Geology 4 Oceanography 5 2 Matter and Minerals 33 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 33 Meteorology 5 minerals: building blocks of rock 34 Astronomy 5 Defining a Mineral 34 Earth Science Is Environmental Science 5 What Is a Rock? 35 Scales of Space and Time in Earth Science 7 atoms: building blocks of minerals 36 the nature of Scientific inquiry 9 Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 36 Hypothesis 9 Elements: Defined by Their Number of Protons 36 geo grAphiCS | World population passes 7 billion 10 geo grAphiCS | gold 38 Theory 10 Why atoms bond 40 Scientific Methods 10 The Octet Rule and Chemical Bonds 40 EYE ON EARTH 11 Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred 40 Covalent Bonds: Electron Sharing 40 early evolution of earth 12 Metallic Bonds: Electrons Free to Move 41 Origin of Planet Earth 12 The Inner Planets Form 13 EYE ON EARTH 42 The Outer Planets Develop 14 properties of a mineral 42 earth’s Spheres 14 Optical Properties 42 Crystal Shape, or Habit 43 geo grAphiCS | Solar System: Size and Scale 15 Mineral Strength 44 Density and Specific Gravity 46 Hydrosphere 16 Other Properties of Minerals 46 Atmosphere 16 mineral groups 46 Biosphere 17 Silicate Minerals 47 EYE ON EARTH 17 EYE ON EARTH 47 Geosphere 18 Important Nonsilicate Minerals 50 a Closer look at the geosphere 18 natural resources 52 Earth’s Internal Structure 18 Renewable Versus Nonrenewable Resources 52 The Mobile Geosphere 20 Mineral Resources 52 the Face of earth 22 Major Features of the Continents 23 Major Features of the Ocean Basins 25 geo grAphiCS | gemstones 54 EYE ON EARTH 25 Concepts in review 55 | give it Some thought 56 | earth as a System 26 masteringgeology 57 Earth System Science 26 3 The Earth System 27 Concepts in review 28 | give it Some thought 29 | rocks: Materials of the masteringgeology 31 Solid earth 59 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 59 earth as a System: the rock Cycle 60 The Basic Cycle 60 Alternative Paths 60 igneous rocks: “Formed by Fire” 62 From Magma to Crystalline Rock 62 Igneous Compositions 63 What Can Igneous Textures Tell Us? 64 Common Igneous Rocks 66 How Different Igneous Rocks Form 69 EYE ON EARTH 69 Sedimentary rocks: Compacted and Cemented Sediment 71 Classifying Sedimentary Rocks 72 Lithification of Sediment 75 Features of Sedimentary Rocks 76 metamorphic rocks: new rock from old 78 What Drives Metamorphism? 78  ContentS vii EYE ON EARTH 79 rapid Forms of mass Wasting 120 Metamorphic Textures 81 Slump 120 Common Metamorphic Rocks 81 Rockslide 121 resources from rocks and minerals 83 Debris Flow 121 Metallic Mineral Resources 83 Earthflow 122 Slow Forms of mass Wasting 122 geo grAphiCS | marble 84 Creep 122 Solifluction 123 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 87 Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels 87 Concepts in review 124 | give it Some thought 127 | EYE ON EARTH 89 masteringgeology 129 5 Concepts in review 90 | give it Some thought 92 | masteringgeology 93 running Water and groundwater 131 | FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 131 unit tWo SCuLpting earth as a System: the Hydrologic Cycle 132 Earth’s Water 132 eArth’S SurFACe 94 Water’s Paths 132 Storage in Glaciers 133 4 Water Balance 133 Weathering, Soil, running Water 133 Drainage Basins 134 and Mass Wasting 95 River Systems 134 Drainage Patterns 135 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 95 Streamflow 136 earth’s external processes 96 Factors Affecting Flow Velocity 136 Weathering 97 Changes from Upstream to Downstream 137 the Work of running Water 138 geo grAphiCS | Some everyday examples of Weathering 98 Stream Erosion 138 Mechanical Weathering 99 EYE ON EARTH 138 Chemical Weathering 101 EYE ON EARTH 101 geo grAphiCS | What are the largest rivers? 139 Transportation of Sediment 140 geo grAphiCS | the old man of the mountain 102 Deposition of Sediment 141 Stream Channels 141 rates of Weathering 104 Bedrock Channels 142 Rock Characteristics 104 Alluvial Channels 142 Climate 104 Shaping Stream Valleys 144 Differential Weathering 104 Base Level and Stream Erosion 144 Soil 105 Valley Deepening 144 An Interface in the Earth System 105 Valley Widening 145 What Is Soil? 106 Changing Base Level and Incised Meanders 145 Soil Texture and Structure 106 depositional landforms 147 Controls of Soil Formation 107 Deltas 147 Parent Material 107 Time 107 EYE ON EARTH 147 Climate 108 Natural Levees 148 Plants and Animals 108 Alluvial Fans 149 Topography 108 Floods and Flood Control 149 the Soil profile 109 Causes of Floods 149 Classifying Soils 110 Flood Control 149 EYE ON EARTH 111 Soil erosion: losing a Vital resource 112 geo grAphiCS | Flash Floods 150 mass Wasting: the Work of gravity 114 Landslides as Geologic Hazards 114 The Role of Mass Wasting in Landform Development 114 Slopes Change Through Time 114 geo grAphiCS | landslides as natural disasters 115 Controls and triggers of mass Wasting 116 The Role of Water 116 Oversteepened Slopes 117 Removal of Vegetation 117 Earthquakes as Triggers 118 Classifying mass-Wasting processes 118 Type of Motion 118 Rate of Movement 119 EYE ON EARTH 119 viii ContentS groundwater: Water beneath the Surface 152 Plate Tectonics 190 The Importance of Groundwater 152 Variations in Earth’s Orbit 191 Groundwater’s Geologic Roles 152 Other Factors 191 Distribution of Groundwater 152 deserts 192 EYE ON EARTH 153 Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands 193 Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater 154 Geologic Processes in Arid Climates 194 Groundwater Movement 155 basin and range: the evolution of a mountainous desert Springs, Wells, and artesian Systems 155 landscape 195 Springs 155 EYE ON EARTH 196 Artesian Systems 157 Wind erosion 197 EYE ON EARTH 158 Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement 197 environmental problems of groundwater 159 Wind Abrasion 198 Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource 159 Wind deposits 198 Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal 159 Loess 199 Groundwater Contamination 160 Sand Dunes 199 the geologic Work of groundwater 162 Types of Sand Dunes 200 Caverns 162 EYE ON EARTH 201 Karst Topography 163 Concepts in review 202 | give it Some thought 205 | Concepts in review 165 | give it Some thought 167 | masteringgeology 207 masteringgeology 169 6 glaciers, deserts, and Wind 171 unit three | ForCeS Within 208 7 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 171 glaciers and the earth System 172 plate tectonics: A Scientific Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles 172 Valley (Alpine) Glaciers 172 revolution unfolds 209 Ice Sheets 172 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 209 Other Types of Glaciers 174 How glaciers move 175 From Continental drift to plate tectonics 210 Observing and Measuring Movement 175 Continental drift: an idea before its time 211 Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle 211 geo grAphiCS | antarctica Fact File 176 Evidence: Fossils Matching Across the Seas 212 Evidence: Rock Types and Geologic Features 213 Budget of a Glacier: Accumulation Versus Wastage 178 Evidence: Ancient Climates 214 glacial erosion 179 the great debate 215 How Glaciers Erode 180 Rejection of the Drift Hypothesis 215 Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion 180 the theory of plate tectonics 216 glacial deposits 183 Rigid Lithosphere Overlies Weak Asthenosphere 216 Types of Glacial Drift 183 Earth’s Major Plates 217 EYE ON EARTH 183 Plate Boundaries 217 Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles 184 divergent plate boundaries and Seafloor Spreading 218 Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames 186 Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading 219 other effects of ice age glaciers 187 Continental Rifting 220 Changing Rivers 187 Convergent plate boundaries and Subduction 221 Crustal Subsidence and Rebound 187 Oceanic–Continental Convergence 222 Proglacial Lakes Created by Ice Dams 188 Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence 223 Sea-Level Changes 188 Continental–Continental Convergence 224 Pluvial Lakes 189 transform plate boundaries 225 extent of ice age glaciation 189 How do plates and plate boundaries Change? 227 Causes of ice ages 190 The Breakup of Pangaea 227 EYE ON EARTH 227 Plate Tectonics in the Future 228 testing the plate tectonics model 229 Evidence: Ocean Drilling 229 Evidence: Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 230 Evidence: Paleomagnetism 231 How is plate motion measured 234 Geologic Evidence for Plate Motion 234 Measuring Plate Motion from Space 236 What drives plate motions? 236 Forces That Drive Plate Motion 236 Models of Plate–Mantle Convection 237 EYE ON EARTH 238 Concepts in review 239 | give it Some thought 242 | masteringgeology 243  ContentS ix 8 earthquakes and earth’s interior 245 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 245 Parícutin: Life of a Garden-Variety Cinder Cone 290 Composite Volcanoes 291 geo grAphiCS | eruption of mount Vesuvius, ad 79 292 What is an earthquake? 246 Volcanic Hazards 293 Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes 247 Pyroclastic Flow: A Deadly Force of Nature 294 Aftershocks and Foreshocks 248 Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones 295 Faults and Large Earthquakes 249 Other Volcanic Hazards 295 EYE ON EARTH 249 other Volcanic landforms 297 Calderas 297 Seismology: the Study of earthquake Waves 250 Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus 299 Instruments That Record Earthquakes 250 EYE ON EARTH 299 Seismic Waves 251 determining the Size of earthquakes 252 Volcanic Necks and Pipes 300 Intensity Scales 252 intrusive igneous activity 301 Magnitude Scales 253 Nature of Intrusive Bodies 301 NATURE ON EARTH 301 geo grAphiCS | Finding the epicenter of an earthquake 255 Tabular Intrusive Bodies: Dikes and Sills 302 earthquake destruction 256 Massive Intrusive Bodies: Batholiths, Stocks, and Laccoliths 303 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations 256 partial melting and the origin of magma 304 Landslides and Ground Subsidence 258 Partial Melting 304 Fire 258 Generating Magma from Solid Rock 304 Decrease in Pressure: Decompression Melting 305 EYE ON EARTH 258 plate tectonics and Volcanic activity 306 What Is a Tsunami? 259 Volcanism at Convergent Plate Boundaries 306 earthquake belts and plate boundaries 261 Volcanism at Divergent Plate Boundaries 307 Intraplate Volcanism 307 geo grAphiCS | Historic earthquakes east of the rockies 262 Concepts in review 311 | give it Some thought 313 | Can earthquakes be predicted? 264 masteringgeology 315 Short-Range Predictions 264 10 Long-Range Forecasts 264 Crustal deformation and geo grAphiCS | Seismic risks on the San andreas Fault System 266 Mountain Building 317 earth’s interior 269 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 317 Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure 269 Crustal deformation 318 Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves 269 What Causes Rocks to Deform? 318 earth’s layers 270 Types of Deformation 319 Crust 270 Factors That Affect Rock Strength 320 Mantle 271 Folds: rock Structures Formed by ductile deformation 321 Core 271 Anticlines and Synclines 321 Concepts in review 272 | give it Some thought 274 | EYE ON EARTH 321 masteringgeology 275 Domes and Basins 322 9 Monoclines 323 Volcanoes and other igneous Faults and Joints: rock Structures Formed by brittle deformation 325 Activity 277 Dip-Slip Faults 325 Strike-Slip Faults 326 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 277 Joints 327 mount St. Helens Versus Kilauea 278 mountain building 329 the nature of Volcanic eruptions 279 Subduction and mountain building 330 Factors Affecting Viscosity 279 Island Arc–Type Mountain Building 330 Quiescent Versus Explosive Eruptions 280 Andean-Type Mountain Building 330 materials extruded during an eruption 281 EYE ON EARTH 331 Lava Flows 281 Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges, and Great Valley 332 Gases 283 Collisional mountain belts 332 Pyroclastic Materials 283 Cordilleran-Type Mountain Building 332 anatomy of a Volcano 284 Alpine-Type Mountain Building: Continental Collisions 334 | Comparison The Himalayas 334 geo grAphiCS of three types of Volcanic The Appalachians 335 Cones 285 What Causes earth’s Varied topography? 337 Shield Volcanoes 286 Mauna Loa: Earth’s Largest Shield Volcano 286 geo grAphiCS | the laramide rockies 338 Kilauea, Hawaii: Eruption of a Shield Volcano 287 The Principle of Isostasy 340 geo grAphiCS | Kilauea’s east rift Zone eruption 288 How High Is Too High? 340 Concepts in review 341 | give it Some thought 343 | Cinder Cones 290 masteringgeology 345 x ContentS unit Four | deCiphering eArth’S hiStory 346 12 earth’s evolution through geologic time 373 11 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 373 is earth unique? 374 geologic time 347 The Right Planet 374 The Right Location 375 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 347 The Right Time 375 Viewing Earth’s History 375 a brief History of geology 348 birth of a planet 377 Catastrophism 348 From the Big Bang to Heavy Elements 377 The Birth of Modern Geology 348 From Planetesimals to Protoplanets 377 Geology Today 349 Earth’s Early Evolution 377 Creating a time Scale: relative dating principles 349 origin and evolution of the atmosphere and oceans 379 The Importance of a Time Scale 349 Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere 379 Numerical and Relative Dates 349 Oxygen in the Atmosphere 379 Principle of Superposition 350 Evolution of the Oceans 380 Principle of Original Horizontality 350 precambrian History: the Formation of earth’s Continents 381 Principle of Lateral Continuity 351 Earth’s First Continents 381 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 351 EYE ON EARTH 351 EYE ON EARTH 381 Principle of Inclusions 352 The Making of North America 384 Unconformities 352 Supercontinents of the Precambrian 384 Applying Relative Dating Principles 354 geologic History of the phanerozoic: the Formation of earth’s modern Continents 386 EYE ON EARTH 354 Paleozoic History 386 Fossils: evidence of past life 355 Mesozoic History 387 Types of Fossils 356 Cenozoic History 389 earth’s First life 390 geo grAphiCS | How is paleontology different from archaeology? 357 Origin of Life 390 Earth’s First Life: Prokaryotes 390 Conditions Favoring Preservation 358 paleozoic era: life explodes 391 Correlation of rock layers 358 Early Paleozoic Life-Forms 391 Correlation Within Limited Areas 358 Fossils and Correlation 358 geo grAphiCS | evolution of life through geologic time 392 dating with radioactivity 360 EYE ON EARTH 393 Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure 361 Radioactivity 361 Vertebrates Move to Land 394 Half-Life 362 Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates 394 Using Various Isotopes 362 The Great Permian Extinction 395 Dating with Carbon-14 363 the geologic time Scale 364 geo grAphiCS | demise of the dinosaurs 396 Structure of the Time Scale 365 mesozoic era: age of the dinosaurs 398 Precambrian Time 365 Gymnosperms: The Dominant Mesozoic Trees 398 EYE ON EARTH 365 Reptiles: Dominating the Land, Sea, and Sky 398 Terminology and the Geologic Time Scale 366 Cenozoic era: age of mammals 400 determining numerical dates for Sedimentary Strata 366 From Reptiles to Mammals 400 Marsupial and Placental Mammals 400 EYE ON EARTH 367 Humans: Mammals with Large Brains and Bipedal Locomotion 401 Large Mammals and Extinction 401 geo grAphiCS | did Humans and dinosaurs ever Coexist? 368 Concepts in review 403 | give it Some thought 405 | Concepts in review 369 | give it Some thought 370 masteringgeology 407 unit FiVe | the gLoBAL oCeAn 408 13 the ocean Floor 409 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 409 the Vast World ocean 410 Geography of the Oceans 410 Comparing the Oceans to the Continents 411 an emerging picture of the ocean Floor 411 Mapping the Seafloor 411 Provinces of the Ocean Floor 414 Continental margins 416 Passive Continental Margins 416  ContentS xi EYE ON EARTH 417 EYE ON EARTH 461 Active Continental Margins 419 Circular Orbital Motion 462 Features of deep-ocean basins 419 Waves in the Surf Zone 462 Deep-Ocean Trenches 419 the Work of Waves 463 Wave Erosion 463 geo grAphiCS | explaining Coral atolls: darwin’s Hypothesis 420 Sand Movement on the Beach 463 Abyssal Plains 422 Shoreline Features 466 Volcanic Structures on the Ocean Floor 422 Erosional Features 466 the oceanic ridge 423 Depositional Features 466 Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge 423 The Evolving Shore 467 Why Is the Oceanic Ridge Elevated? 423 Stabilizing the Shore 468 Seafloor Sediments 424 Hard Stabilization 469 Types of Seafloor Sediments 424 Alternatives to Hard Stabilization 470 Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data 425 EYE ON EARTH 471 resources from the Seafloor 426 Contrasting america’s Coasts 472 Energy Resources 426 Atlantic and Gulf Coasts 472 Other Resources 427 Pacific Coast 472 EYE ON EARTH 427 Coastal Classification 473 EYE ON EARTH 473 Concepts in review 428 | give it Some thought 430 | masteringgeology 431 geo grAphiCS | a brief tour of america’s Coasts 474 14 tides 476 ocean Water and ocean Life 433 Causes of Tides 476 Monthly Tidal Cycle 477 Tidal Patterns 478 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 433 Tidal Currents 478 Composition of Seawater 434 Concepts in review 479 | give it Some thought 482 | Salinity 434 masteringgeology 483 Sources of Sea Salts 434 Processes Affecting Seawater Salinity 435 | Recent Increase in Ocean Acidity 436 Variations in temperature and density with depth 436 Temperature Variations 437 unit SiX eArth’S dynAMiC Density Variations 437 EYE ON EARTH 437 AtMoSphere 484 16 Ocean Layering 438 the diversity of ocean life 439 the Atmosphere: Composition, Classification of Marine Organisms 439 Marine Life Zones 441 Structure, and temperature 485 geo grAphiCS | deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents 442 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 485 Focus on the atmosphere 486 EYE ON EARTH 444 Weather in the United States 486 ocean productivity 445 Weather and Climate 486 Productivity in Polar Oceans 445 EYE ON EARTH 487 Productivity in Tropical Oceans 445 Composition of the atmosphere 488 Productivity in Midlatitude Oceans 446 Major Components 488 oceanic Feeding relationships 447 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 488 Trophic Levels 447 Variable Components 489 Transfer Efficiency 447 Ozone Depletion: A Global Issue 490 Food Chains and Food Webs 447 Concepts in review 449 | give it Some thought 450 | geo grAphiCS | acid precipitation 491 masteringgeology 451 15 the dynamic ocean 453 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 453 the ocean’s Surface Circulation 454 The Pattern of Ocean Currents 454 upwelling and deep-ocean Circulation 457 Coastal Upwelling 457 Deep-Ocean Circulation 457 the Shoreline: a dynamic interface 458 The Coastal Zone 459 Basic Features 459 Beaches 460 ocean Waves 461 Wave Characteristics 461 xii ContentS Vertical Structure of the atmosphere 492 the Weathermaker: atmospheric Stability 528 Pressure Changes 492 Types of Stability 528 Temperature Changes 493 Stability and Daily Weather 530 earth–Sun relationships 494 Condensation and Cloud Formation 531 Earth’s Motions 495 Types of Clouds 532 What Causes the Seasons? 495 EYE ON EARTH 533 Earth’s Orientation 496 Fog 535 Solstices and Equinoxes 496 Fogs Caused by Cooling 536 EYE ON EARTH 499 Evaporation Fogs 537 energy, Heat, and temperature 500 How precipitation Forms 538 Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Conduction 500 Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process 538 EYE ON EARTH 500 Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision–Coalescence Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Convection 501 Process 539 Mechanism of Heat Transfer: Radiation 501 Forms of precipitation 539 Heating the atmosphere 502 Rain 540 What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation? 502 Snow 540 Reflection and Scattering 502 Sleet and Glaze 540 Absorption 503 Hail 541 Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect 504 For the record: air temperature data 505 geo grAphiCS | our Water Supply 542 Why temperatures Vary: the Controls of temperature 506 Rime 544 Land and Water 506 measuring precipitation 544 Altitude 508 Measuring Snowfall 544 Geographic Position 508 Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar 544 Cloud Cover and Albedo 508 Concepts in review 545 | give it Some thought 548 | EYE ON EARTH 509 masteringgeology 549 World distribution of temperature 510 18 Concepts in review 511 | give it Some thought 514 | masteringgeology 515 Air pressure and Wind 551 17 Moisture, Clouds, and FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 551 precipitation 517 understanding air pressure 552 Visualizing Air Pressure 552 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 517 Measuring Air Pressure 553 Factors affecting Wind 554 Water’s Changes of State 518 Pressure Gradient Force 554 Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor 518 Coriolis Effect 555 Latent Heat 518 Friction with Earth’s Surface 556 EYE ON EARTH 519 Highs and lows 558 Humidity: Water Vapor in the air 520 Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Winds 558 Saturation 520 Weather Generalizations About Highs and Lows 558 Mixing Ratio 521 general Circulation of the atmosphere 560 Relative Humidity 521 Circulation on a Nonrotating Earth 560 Dew-Point Temperature 522 Idealized Global Circulation 560 Measuring Humidity 523 Influence of Continents 560 the basis of Cloud Formation: adiabatic Cooling 524 EYE ON EARTH 560 Fog and Dew Versus Cloud Formation 524 The Westerlies 562 Adiabatic Temperature Changes 525 local Winds 563 Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation 525 Land and Sea Breezes 563 processes that lift air 526 Mountain and Valley Breezes 563 Orographic Lifting 526 Chinook and Santa Ana Winds 564 Frontal Wedging 526 measuring Wind 565 Convergence 527 EYE ON EARTH 565 Localized Convective Lifting 527 el niño and la niña and the Southern oscillation 566 Impact of El Niño 566 Impact of La Niña 567 geo grAphiCS | the 1930s dust bowl 569 Southern Oscillation 570 global distribution of precipitation 570 The Influence of Pressure and Wind Belts 570 Other Factors 571 EYE ON EARTH 571 Concepts in review 572 | give it Some thought 574 | masteringgeology 575  ContentS xiii Humid tropical (a) Climates 612 The Wet Tropics 612 Tropical Wet and Dry 614 dry (b) Climates 615 Low-Latitude Deserts and Steppes 615 Middle-Latitude Deserts and Steppes 616 EYE ON EARTH 616 Humid middle-latitude Climates (C and d Climates) 617 Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C Climates) 617 Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Severe Winters (D Climates) 618 polar (e) Climates 620 Highland Climates 621 Human impact on global Climate 623 Rising CO2 Levels 623 EYE ON EARTH 623 The Atmosphere’s Response 624 The Role of Trace Gases 625 geo grAphiCS | 19 greenhouse gas (gHg) emissions 626 Weather patterns and Severe Climate-Feedback mechanisms 628 Storms 577 Types of Feedback Mechanisms 628 Computer Models of Climate: Important yet Imperfect Tools 629 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 577 How aerosols influence Climate 629 Some possible Consequences of global Warming 630 air masses 578 Sea-Level Rise 631 What Is an Air Mass? 578 The Changing Arctic 632 Source Regions 579 The Potential for “Surprises” 633 Weather Associated with Air Masses 579 Concepts in review 633 | give it Some thought 636 | EYE ON EARTH 580 masteringgeology 637 Fronts 581 Warm Fronts 582 Cold Fronts 582 | Stationary Fronts and Occluded Fronts 583 midlatitude Cyclones 584 Idealized Weather of a Midlatitude Cyclone 584 unit SeVen eArth’S pLACe in the The Role of Airflow Aloft 586 EYE ON EARTH 586 uniVerSe 638 21 thunderstorms 587 What’s in a Name? 587 Thunderstorm Occurrence 588 origins of Modern Astronomy 639 Stages of Thunderstorm Development 588 tornadoes 590 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 639 Tornado Occurrence and Development 590 ancient astronomy 640 Tornado Destruction and Loss of Life 592 The Golden Age of Astronomy 640 EYE ON EARTH 592 Ptolemy’s Model 642 Tornado Forecasting 593 the birth of modern astronomy 643 Hurricanes 595 Nicolaus Copernicus 643 Profile of a Hurricane 595 Tycho Brahe 644 Johannes Kepler 645 geo grAphiCS | Hurricane Katrina from Space 597 Galileo Galilei 646 Sir Isaac Newton 648 Hurricane Formation and Decay 598 positions in the Sky 649 Hurricane Destruction 598 Constellations 649 Tracking Hurricanes 600 Concepts in review 601 | give it Some thought 603 | geo grAphiCS | orion the Hunter 650 masteringgeology 605 The Equatorial System 652 the motions of earth 653 20 World Climates and global Rotation 653 Revolution 654 Climate Change 607 EYE ON THE UNIVERSE 654 Precession 655 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 607 motions of the earth–moon System 655 the Climate System 608 Lunar Motions 655 World Climates 609 Phases of the Moon 657 EYE ON EARTH 609 eclipses of the Sun and moon 657 Climate Classification 610 Concepts in review 659 | give it Some thought 660 | The Köppen Classification 610 masteringgeology 661 xiv ContentS 22 the active Sun 709 touring our Solar System 663 Sunspots 709 Prominences 711 Solar Flares 711 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 663 EYE ON THE UNIVERSE 711 our Solar System: an overview 664 Nebular Theory: Formation of the Solar System 665 geo grAphiCS | Hubble Space telescope 712 The Planets: Internal Structures and Atmospheres 666 Planetary Impacts 667 the Source of Solar energy 714 earth’s moon: a Chip off the old block 669 Concepts in review 715 | give it Some thought 717 | How Did the Moon Form? 669 masteringgeology 717 EYE ON THE UNIVERSE 669 24 terrestrial planets 672 Mercury: The Innermost Planet 672 EYE ON THE UNIVERSE 672 Beyond our Solar System 719 Venus: The Veiled Planet 673 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 719 Mars: The Red Planet 674 the universe 720 geo grAphiCS | mars exploration 676 How Large Is It? 720 A Brief History of the Universe 721 Jovian planets 679 interstellar matter: nursery of the Stars 722 Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens 679 Bright Nebulae 722 Saturn: The Elegant Planet 681 Dark Nebulae 724 Uranus and Neptune: Twins 683 Classifying Stars: Hertzsprung–russell diagrams (H-r Small Solar System bodies 685 diagrams) 724 Asteroids: Leftover Planetesimals 685 Stellar evolution 726 Comets: Dirty Snowballs 686 Stellar Birth 726 Meteoroids: Visitors to Earth 687 Protostar Stage 727 Dwarf Planets 689 Main-Sequence Stage 727 Concepts in review 690 | give it Some thought 692 | Red Giant Stage 727 masteringgeology 693 EYE ON THE UNIVERSE 727 Burnout and Death 728 23 Light, Astronomical observations, Stellar remnants 729 White Dwarfs 729 and the Sun 695 Neutron Stars 730 Black Holes 730 FOCUS ON CONCEPTS 695 galaxies and galactic Clusters 731 Signals from Space 696 Nature of Light 696 geo grAphiCS | the milky Way 732 Light as Evidence of Events and Processes 698 Types of Galaxies 734 Spectroscopy 698 Galactic Clusters 735 Continuous Spectrum 698 Galactic Collisions 736 Dark-Line Spectrum 699 the big bang theory 736 Bright-Line Spectrum 699 Evidence for an Expanding Universe 736 The Doppler Effect 699 Predictions of the Big Bang Theory 737 Collecting light using optical telescopes 700 What Is the Fate of the Universe? 737 Refracting Telescopes 700 Concepts in review 739 | give it Some thought 741 | Reflecting Telescopes 700 masteringgeology 742 Light Collection 702 radio- and Space-based astronomy 704 Radio Telescopes 704 appendiX a metric and english units Compared 743 Orbiting Observatories 705 appendiX b relative Humidity and dew-point tables 744 the Sun 706 Photosphere 707 appendiX C Stellar properties 745 Chromosphere 708 gloSSarY 748 Corona 708 indeX 761 PREFACE Earth Science, 14th edition, is a college-level text designed for an intro- Eye on Earth. Within every chapter are two or three images, often ductory course in Earth science. It consists of seven units that emphasize aerial or satellite views, that challenge students to apply their under- broad and up-to-date coverage of basic topics and principles in geology, standing of basic facts and principles. A brief explanation of each oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy. The textbook is intended to be image is followed by questions that help focus students on visual a meaningful, nontechnical survey for undergraduate students who have lit- analysis and critical thinking. tle background in science. Usually these students are taking an Earth science GEOgraphics. As you turn the pages of each chapter, you will encoun- class to meet a portion of their college’s or university’s general requirements. ter striking visual features that we call GEOgraphics. They are engaging In addition to being informative and up-to-date, Earth Science, 14th edi- magazine-style “geo-essays” that explore topics that promote greater tion, strives to meet the need of beginning students for a readable and understanding and add interest to the story each chapter is telling. user-friendly text and a highly usable tool for learning basic Earth science An unparalleled visual program. In addition to more than 200 principles and concepts. new, high-quality photos and satellite images, dozens of figures are new or have been redrawn by renowned geoscience illustrator Dennis Tasa. Maps and diagrams are frequently paired with photographs for NEw to this EditioN greater effectiveness. Further, many new and revised figures have additional labels that narrate the process being illustrated and guide SmartFigures—art that teaches. Inside every chapter are several students as they examine the figures. The result is a visual program SmartFigures. Earth Science, 14th edition, has more than 100 of these that is clear and easy to understand. figures. Just use your mobile device to scan the Quick Response (QR) MasteringGeology™. MasteringGeology delivers engaging, dynamic code next to a SmartFigure, and the art comes alive. Each 3- to 5-minute learning opportunities—focused on course objectives and responsive feature, prepared and narrated by Professor Callan Bentley, is a mini- to each student’s progress—that are proven to help students absorb lesson that examines and explains the concepts illustrated by the figure. course material and understand difficult concepts. Assignable activities It is truly art that teaches. in MasteringGeology include Encounter Earth activities using Google Mobile Field Trips. Scattered through this new edition of Earth Sci- Earth™, SmartFigure activities, Mobile Field Trips, GeoTutor activi- ence are thirteen Mobile Field Trips. On each trip, you will accom- ties, GigaPan® activities, Geoscience Animation activities, GEODe pany geologist–pilot–photographer Michael Collier in the air and on tutorial activities, and more. MasteringGeology also includes all in- the ground to see and learn about landscapes that relate to discussions structor resources and a robust Study Area with resources for students. in the chapter. These extraordinary field trips are accessed in the same Significant updating and revision of content. A basic function of a way as SmartFigures. You will scan a QR code that accompanies a college science text book is to provide clear, understandable presentations figure in the chapter—usually one of Michael’s outstanding photos. that are accurate, engaging, and up-to-date. Our number-one goal is to New and expanded active learning path. Earth Science, 14th edi- keep Earth Science current, relevant, and highly readable for beginning tion, is designed for learning. Every chapter begins with Focus on students. Every part of this text has been examined carefully with this goal Concepts. Each numbered learning objective corresponds to a major in mind. Many discussions, case studies, and examples have been revised. section in the chapter. The statements identify the knowledge and skills This 14th edition represents perhaps the most extensive and thorough students should master by the end of the chapter, helping students pri- revision in the long history of this textbook. oritize key concepts. Within the chapter, each major section concludes Learning Catalytics™. Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own with Concept Checks that allow students to check their understanding device” student engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence and comprehension of important ideas and terms before moving on to system. Learning Catalytics is a technology that has grown out of the next section. Chapters conclude with sections called Give It Some twenty years of cutting edge research, innovation, and implementa- Thought and Examining the Earth System. The questions and problems tion of interactive teaching and peer instruction. Available integrated in these sections challenge learners by involving them in activities that with MasteringGeology. require higher-order thinking skills such as application, analysis, and synthesis of material in the chapter. The questions and problems in Ex- amining the Earth System are intended to develop an awareness of and appreciation for some of the Earth system’s many interrelationships. distiNguishiNg FEAtuREs Concepts in Review. This all-new end-of-chapter feature is an im- portant part of the text’s revised active learning path. Each review is Readability coordinated with the Focus on Concepts at the beginning of the chap- The language of this textbook is straightforward and written to be under- ter and with the numbered sections within the chapter. It is a readable stood. Clear, readable discussions with a minimum of technical language and concise overview of key ideas, which makes it a valuable review are the rule. The frequent headings and subheadings help students follow tool for students. Photos, diagrams, and questions also help students discussions and identify the important ideas presented in each chapter. In focus on important ideas and test their understanding. this 14th edition, we have continued to improve readability by examining xv xvi PREFACE chapter organization and flow and by writing in a more personal style. Sig- Add your own questions to make Learning Catalytics fit your course nificant portions of several chapters have been substantially rewritten in an exactly. effort to make the material easier to understand. Manage student interactions with intelligent grouping and timing. Learning Catalytics is a technology that has grown out of twenty years Focus on Basic Principles of cutting edge research, innovation, and implementation of interactive Although many topical issues are treated in this 14th edition of Earth Sci- teaching and peer instruction. Available integrated with MasteringGeology. ence, it should be emphasized that the main focus of this new edition re- www.learningcatalytics.com mains the same as the focus of each of its predecessors: to promote student understanding of basic Earth science principles. As much as possible, we Instructor’s resource DVD have attempted to provide the reader with a sense of the observational tech- The Instructor’s Resource DVD puts all your lecture resources in one easy- niques and reasoning processes that constitute the Earth sciences. to-reach place: Three PowerPoint® presentations for each chapter A Strong Visual Component The Geoscience Animation Library Earth science is highly visual, and art and photographs play a critical role in All the line art, tables, and photos from the text, in.jpg files an introductory textbook. As in all previous editions, Dennis Tasa, a gifted “Images of Earth” photo gallery artist and respected geoscience illustrator, has worked closely with the au- Instructor’s Manual in Microsoft Word thors to plan and produce the diagrams, maps, graphs, and sketches that are Test Bank in Microsoft Word so basic to student understanding. The result is art that is clearer and easier TestGen test-generation and management software to understand than ever before. Our aim is to get maximum effectiveness from the visual component of PowerPoints® the text. Michael Collier, an award-winning geologist–photographer aided The Instructor’s Resource DVD provides three PowerPoint files for each greatly in this quest. As you read through this text, you will see dozens chapter to cut down on your preparation time, no matter what your lecture of his extraordinary aerial photographs. His contribution truly helps bring needs: geology alive for the reader. Art. All the line art, tables, and photos from the text have been pre- loaded into PowerPoint slides for easy integration into your presentations. For the InStruCtor Lecture outline. This set averages 35 slides per chapter and includes customizable lecture outlines with supporting art. Pearson continues to improve the instructor resources for this text, with the Classroom Response System (CRS) questions. These questions have goal of saving you time in preparing for your classes. been authored for use in conjunction with any classroom response system. MasteringGeology from Pearson is an online homework, tutorial, and You can electronically poll your class for responses to questions, pop assessment system designed to improve results by helping students quickly quizzes, attendance, and more. master concepts. Students using MasteringGeology benefit from self-paced tutorials that feature specific wrong-answer feedback and hints to keep them Animations and “Images of earth” engaged and on track. MasteringGeology™ offers: The Pearson Prentice Hall Geoscience Animation Library includes more Assignable activities, including Encounter Earth activities using Google than 100 animations illustrating many difficult-to-visualize topics in Earth Earth™, SmartFigure activities, GeoTutor activities, GigaPan® activities, science. Created through a unique collaboration among five of Pearson Geoscience Animation activities, GEODe tutorial activities, and more Prentice Hall’s leading geoscience authors, these animations represent a Additional Give It Some Thought questions, Test Bank questions, and significant step forward in lecture presentation aids. They are provided Reading Quizzes both as Flash files and, for your convenience, preloaded into PowerPoint A student Study Area with Geoscience Animations, GEODe: Earth slides. Science activities, SmartFigures, Video Field Trips In the News RSS “Images of Earth” allows you to supplement your personal and text- feeds, Self Study Quizzes, Web Links, Glossary, and Flashcards specific slides with an amazing collection of more than 300 geologic Pearson eText for Earth Science, 14th edition, which gives students photos contributed by Marli Miller (University of Oregon) and other access to the text whenever and wherever they can access the Internet professionals in the field. The photos are available on the Instructor’s and includes powerful interactive and customization functions Resource DVD. See www.masteringgeology.com Instructor’s Manual with test Bank Learning Catalytics The Instructor’s Manual contains learning objectives, chapter outlines, an- Learning Catalytics™ is a “bring your own device” student engagement, as- swers to end-of-chapter questions, and suggested short demonstrations to sessment, and classroom intelligence system. With Learning Catalytics you can: spice up your lecture. The Test Bank incorporates art and averages 75 multiple- Assess students in real time, using open-ended tasks to probe student choice, true/false, short-answer, and critical thinking questions per chapter. understanding. Understand immediately where students are and adjust your lecture testGen accordingly. Use this electronic version of the Test Bank to customize and manage your Improve your students’ critical-thinking skills. tests. Create multiple versions, add or edit questions, add illustrations, and Access rich analytics to understand student performance. so on. This powerful software easily addresses your customization needs.  PREFACE xvii Course Management The authors owe a special thanks to three people who were a very im- portant part of this project: Pearson Prentice Hall offers instructor and student media for the 14th edition of Earth Science in formats compatible with Blackboard and other course manage- Working with Dennis Tasa, who is responsible for all of the text’s out- ment platforms. Contact your local Pearson representative for more information. standing illustrations, is always special for us. He has been a part of our team for more than 30 years. We not only value his artistic talents, hard For the Student work, patience, and imagination but his friendship as well. As you read this text, you will see dozens of extraordinary photographs The student resources to accompany Earth Science, 14th edition, have been by Michael Collier, an award-winning geologist, author, and further refined, with the goal of focusing the students’ efforts and improving photographer. Most are aerial shots taken from his nearly 60-year-old their understanding of Earth science concepts. Cessna 180. Michael was also responsible for preparing the remarkable MasteringGeology from Pearson is an online homework, tutorial, and as- Mobile Field Trips that are scattered through the text. Among his many sessment system designed to improve results by helping students quickly master awards is the American Geological Institute Award for Outstanding concepts. Students using MasteringGeology benefit from self-paced tutorials that Contribution to the Public Understanding of the Geosciences. We think feature specific wrong-answer feedback and hints to keep them engaged and on that Michael’s photographs and field trips are the next best thing to track. MasteringGeology™ also offers students the Study Area, which contains: being there. We were very fortunate to have had Michael’s assistance Geoscience Animation Library. More than 100 animations illustrat- on Earth Science, 14th edition. Thanks, Michael. ing many difficult to understand Earth science concepts. Callan Bentley has been an important addition to the Earth Science GEODe: Earth Science. An interactive visual walkthrough of each team. Callan is an assistant professor of geology at Northern Virginia chapter’s content. Community College in Annandale, where he has been honored many In the News RSS Feeds. Current Earth science events and news ar- times as an outstanding teacher. He is a frequent contributor to Earth ticles are pulled into the site, with assessment. magazine and is author of the popular geology blog Mountain Beltway. SmartFigures and Mobile Field Trips Callan was responsible for preparing the SmartFigures that appear Pearson eText throughout Earth Science’s 24 chapters. As you take advantage of Optional Self Study Quizzes these outstanding learning aids, you will hear his voice explaining the Web Links ideas. Callan also helped with the preparation of the Concepts in Re- Glossary view feature found at the end of each chapter. We appreciate Callan’s Flashcards contributions to this new edition of Earth Science. Great thanks also go to our colleagues who prepared in-depth reviews. For the Laboratory Their critical comments and thoughtful input helped guide our work and clearly strengthened the text. Special thanks to: Applications and Investigations in Earth Science, 8th edition, was written Patricia Anderson, California State University—San Marcos by Ed Tarbuck, Fred Lutgens, and Ken Pinzke. This full-color laboratory J. Bret Bennington, Hofstra University manual contains 23 exercises that provide students with hands-on experi- Nahid Brown, Northeastern Illinois University ence in geology, oceanography, meteorology, astronomy, and Earth science Brett Burkett, Collin College skills. The lab manual is available at a discount when purchased with the Barry Cameron, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee text; please contact your local Pearson representative for more details. Haluk Cetin, Murray State University Natasha Cleveland, Frederick Community College aCknowLedgMentS Adam Davis, Vincennes University Writing a college textbook requires the talents and cooperation of many people. Anne Egger, Central Washington University It is truly a team effort, and the authors are fortunate to be part of an extraordi- Joseph Galewsky, The University of New Mexico nary team at Pearson Education. In addition to being great people to work with, Leslie Kanat, Johnson State College all are committed to producing the best textbooks possible. Special thanks to Mustapha Kane, Florida Gateway College at Lake City, FL our geology editor, Andy Dunaway, who invested a great deal of time, energy, Alyson Lighthart, Portland Community College and effort in this project. We appreciate his enthusiasm, hard work, and quest Rob Martin, Florida State College at Jacksonville for excellence. We also appreciate our conscientious project manager, Crissy Ron Metzger, Southwestern Oregon Community College Dudonis, whose job it was to keep track of all that was going on—and a lot Sadredin (Dean) Moosavi, Rochester Community and Technical College was going on. The text’s new design and striking cover resulted from the cre- Carol Mueller, Harford Community College ative talents of Derek Bacchus and his team. We think it is a job well done. Jessica Olney, Hillsborough Community College As always, our marketing manager, Maureen McLaughlin, provided helpful David Pitts, University of Houston—Clear Lake advice and many good ideas. Earth Science, 14th edition, was truly improved Steven Schimmrich, SUNY Ulster with the help of our developmental editor, Jonathan Cheney. Many thanks. Xiaoming Zhai, College of Lake County The production team was led by Gina Cheselka at Pearson Education and by Last, but certainly not least, we gratefully acknowledge the support and Heidi Allgair at Cenveo® Publisher Services. It was their job to make this text encouragement of our wives, Joanne Bannon and Nancy Lutgens. Prepa- into a finished product. The talents of copy editor Kitty Wilson, compositor ration of Earth Science, 14th edition, would have been far more difficult Annamarie Boley, and photo researcher Kristin Piljay were an important part without their patience and understanding. of the production process. We think they all did a great job. They are true pro- Ed Tarbuck fessionals, with whom we are very fortunate to be associated. Fred Lutgens  New learning path helps students master the concepts The new edition is designed to support a new four-part learning path, an innovative structure which facilitates active learning and easily allows students to focus on important ideas as they pause to assess their progress at frequent intervals. The chapter-opening Focus on Concepts lists the learning objectives for each chapter.