PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles PDF

PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles CHILD and Adolescent Learners And Learning Principles Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah M...

PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles CHILD and Adolescent Learners And Learning Principles Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 1  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Meaning, Concepts and Approaches Human Development  the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span  includes growth and decline  can be positive or negative Major Principles of Human Development: 1. Development is relatively orderly a.) Proximodistal Pattern Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. b.) Cephalocaudal Pattern Development proceeds from the head downward. 2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes and rate of development are likely to vary among individuals. 3. Development takes place gradually. 4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio- emotional processes. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 2  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Approaches to Human Development 1.) Traditional Perspective Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age 2.) Life-span Approach Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during childhood. Characteristics of a Life- Span Perspective a.) Development is LIFELONG- It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates development. b.) Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL- Development consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions. c.) Development is PLASTIC- Development is possible throughout the lifespan. d.) Development is CONTEXTUAL- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. e.) Development involves GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION- Growth, maintenance and regulation are 3 goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform Practice  All areas of development and learning are important.  Learning and development follow sequences.  Development and learning proceed at varying rates  Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.  Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.  Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self- regulation, and symbolic or representational capacities.  Children develop best when they have secure relationships.  Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.  Children learn in a variety of ways.  Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition, and social competence.  Development and learning advance when children are challenged.  Children‘s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning. ‗ Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 3  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 2: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks Prenatal Development Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns. Three Phases: 1.) Germinal Stage= first 2 weeks, conception, implantation, and formation of placenta 2.) Embryonic Stage= 2 weeks-2 months, formation of vital organs and systems 3.) Fetal Stage= 2 months –birth, bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells multiply age of viability. Infancy and Toddlerhood The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child. Extreme dependents on adult Beginning psychological activities Language of newborn is cry Usually eats every two to three hours Uncoordinated movements Toothless Poor vision Usually doubles weight by 9 months Responds to human voice and touches Responds to human voice and touch 1 year old Change from plump baby to a learner Begins to walk and talk Ability for passive language Tentative sense of independence Determined explorer Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 4  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 2 years old Begins to communicate verbally Can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences Famous for negative behavior ―NO‖ to everything! Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them Great imitators Early Childhood Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler‘s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old‘s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others. 3 years old Wants to be just like parents Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand Climbs stairs with alternating feet Can briefly stand on one foot 4 years old Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death) Years old Can hop on one foot and skip Can accurately copy figures May begin to read Socialize with other children their age Middle Childhood and Late Childhood The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 5  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one‘s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students. Both large and small muscles well-developed. Developed complex motor skills From independent activities to same sex group activities Acceptance by peers very important Parental approval still important Adolescence (13 to 18 years old) Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. Traumatic life stage for child and parent Puberty occurs Extremely concerned with appearance Trying to establish self- identity Confrontation with authorirty Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old) The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in their mid-30s tend to love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life. Physical development complete Emotional maturation continues to develop Usually learned to accept responsibity for for actions and accept responsibility for actions and accept criticism Usually knows how to profit from errors Socially progree from age- trelated peer groups to people with similar interests. Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old) The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 6  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in those economies (Weitz, 2007). Physical changes begin to occur:  Hair begins to begin to thin and gray  Wrinkles appear  Hearing and vision decrease  Muscles lose tone Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging Love and acceptance still take a major role Late Adulthood (61 years and above) This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the ―young old‖ and ―old old‖ or the ―young old‖, ―old old‖, and ―oldest old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between the ―young old‖ who are people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old‖ or those who are 80 and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being productive and active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently, but risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better way to appreciate the diversity of people in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). Fastest growing age bracket of society Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination Some memory problems Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment Very concerned with health and finances Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 7  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 3: Issues on Human Development There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:  Is development due more to genetics or environment?  Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?  Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events equally important? Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates  Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what many psychologists today believe about these issues. Nature vs. Nurture  The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.  Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.  Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.  Early Experience vs. Later Experience  A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?  Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.  In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life. Many people with less-than-perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.  Continuity vs. Discontinuity  A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly over time, or through a series of predetermined steps? Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 8  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Most theories of development fall under three broad areas: 1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages. 1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan. 2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment. 3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development. 4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the ages at which certain skills and abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls slightly behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more common. 5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component of these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when describing child development. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 9  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 4: Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults. Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital. STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT The Role of Conflict Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she matures psychologically. To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage). But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation. Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence. Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 10  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviours, particularly when under stress. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed). Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions. This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform! Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 11  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage. In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent. Oedipus Complex The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright. The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes. In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable him to do so. Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops castration anxiety. The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviours. This is called identification, and is how the three-to- five year old boy resolves his Oedipus complex. Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviours of another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become the superego. Electra Complex For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 12  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension. The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the female gender role. Latency Stage (6 years to puberty) No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. Genital Stage (puberty to adult) This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse. PSYCHOANALYSIS Overview of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious ,motivation- main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious mind. It is both an approach to therapy and a theory of personality. Three Structures of Personality 1.) ID 2.) Ego Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 13  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 3.) Superego Tripartite Theory of Personality Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego (also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical. The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world (like a referee). It is the decision-making component of personality The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id‘s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. Trait Approach to Personality This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits which are the fundamental units of one‘s personality. Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means that traits should remain consistent across situations and over time, but may vary Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 14  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles between individuals. It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to genetic differences. These theories are sometimes referred to psychometric theories, because of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given numeric score to indicate how much of a trait they possess. Chapter 5 : Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Schema- Piaget used the term ―schema‖ to refer to the cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience. Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize their environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning about a thing experience. Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium this means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium Cognitive Development Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage The first stage corresponds for infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn, about him and the world.  Object permanence This is the ability of the child to know that and object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:  Symbolic Function This is the ability to represent object and events. Symbolic function gradually develops the period between 2 to 7 years. Reil, a two-year old may pretend that she is deinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretend the presence of water, the glass remain to be a glass at around for years of age, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 15  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles  Egocentrism/Self centered This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his mother‘s birthday. Or a three years old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy ―uncle‖ and not daddy  Centration This refers to the Tendency of the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and include other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses s transferred to an obviously taller buy narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused or ―centered‖ only one aspect for the new glass, that it is a taller glass.  Irreversibility Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand 5-3 is 2.  Animism This is the tendency of children to attribute human lie traits or characteristics to inanimate object. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, show will reply, ―Mr. Sun is asleep.‖ Stage 3. Concrete- Operational Stage This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in term of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8 - 11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:  Decentering This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to e more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations  Reversibility During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operation cannot be reversed  Conservation This is the ability to know that certain properties of object like number, mas, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. The concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.  Seriation Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 16  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles This refer to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based on one , dimension such as weigh, volume or size. Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve in general ideas or specific problems and can educated guess. This stage is characterized by the following  Hypothetical Reasoning This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final devision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects, The individuals can now deal with ―What if‖ questions.  Analogical reasoning Ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answer in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operation stage can make an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to Asia. The individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found what continent?. Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete object the individual can now understand relationship and do analogical reasoning  Deductive Reasoning This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures Greenland is near he north pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 17  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles CHAPTER 6: Erik Erikson’s Psycho- Social Theory of Development Erik Homburger Erikson The Father of Psychosocial Development Nationality American/ German Fields Developmental Psychology Influences Sigmund Freud/ Anna Freud Coined the term Lifespan Development He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s when he met Anna Freud, An Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna‘s encouragement, he began to study child psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn about the influence of society and culture on child development. From this, he developed a number of theories, the most famous being his psychosocial development. He believed that humans have to resolve different conflicts as they progress through each stage of development in the life cycle. Erikson‘s theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual. If a person is unable to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, they will be confront and struggle with it later in life. Elements Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human interaction and how an individual becomes more conscious of themselves and their surroundings. Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual becoming competent in different areas life, by becoming competent in life they feel more important. Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an individual struggles to attain some psychological quality. Sometimes referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be a time of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual works toward success or failure. 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 18  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Best known theories of personality and development. Personality develops in a series of predetermined stages. Psychosocial, and not psychosexual. In each stage of development conflicts acts as turning points in life Personality- consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought, behavior and emotional responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to surrounding situations. Psychosexual Development- Refers to the emotional and psychological changes across the life cycle that occurs in the context of the individual‘s social environment. Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½ 2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+ 1. Trust vs. Mistrust Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 19  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles 3. Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a ―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive." 4. Industry vs. Inferiority Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s life as they teach the child specific skills. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson‘s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 20  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 7: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each scenario. One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958) concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality At the pre-conventional level (most nine-year-olds and younger, some over nine), we don‘t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. Level 2 - Conventional morality At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 21  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz‘s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 22  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 9: Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory Lev Semonovich Vygotsky ―The Mozart of Psychology‖ Lev Semonovich Vygotsky was born in Western Russia on November 5, 1986.His father, Semi L‘vovich, founded the ―Society of Education in Gomel‖, and held a wide range of active interest including foreign language, history, literature, theater and arts. His mother was educated as teacher. His work began when he was studying learning and development to improve his own teaching. He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning and development and educating students with special needs. Sociocultural theory of development: Crucial influence that social interactions and language, embedded within a cultural context, have on cognitive development. Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learner‘s environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience. Language Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture. Every culture has the words it needs for its lifestyle. It opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. It is use to know and understand the world and solve problems. It serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner to regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Actual Development Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 23  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Which the child may perform certain level of competency she/ he may not immediately be at it. Zone of Proximal Development The difference between what the child accomplish alone and what he/she can accomplish with guidance of another. Scaffolding Refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she cannot accomplish independently. It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches. It is not about doing short cuts for the child It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 24  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 9: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development. According to Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children‘s lives. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 25  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children. Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow. Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships will understandably foster they children‘s improved development. One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same ecological system to experience very different environments. Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child‘s particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others. The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and community. According to Bronfenbrenner‘s theory, if a child‘s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, for example they invite their child‘s friends over to their house from time to time and spend time with them, then the child‘s development is affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness. However, if the child‘s parents dislike their child‘s peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development. The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 26  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents‘ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in. For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home. The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed of the children‘s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems. For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in peaceful environments. The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the children‘s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure, address, parents‘ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars. By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner‘s Ecological Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on children‘s development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize us to variations in the way children may act in different settings. For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that exist between these settings. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 27  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Chapter 10: Stages of Child Learning Development When planning, designing, implementing, and evaluating an educational program, the nurse as educator must carefully consider the characteristics of learners with respect to their developmental stage in life. The more heterogeneous the target audience, the more complex the development of an educational program to meet the diverse needs of the population. Conversely, the more homogeneous the population of learners, the more straightforward the approach to teaching. An individual‘s developmental stage significantly influences the ability to learn. Pedagogy, andragogy, and gerogogy are three different orientations to learning in childhood, young and middle adulthood, and older adulthood, respectively. To meet the health-related educational needs of learners, a developmental approach must be used. Three major stage-range factors associated with learner readiness—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation—must be taken into account at each developmental period throughout the life cycle. For many years, developmental psychologists have explored the various patterns of behavior particular to stages of development. Educators, more than ever before, acknowledge the effects of growth and development on an individual‘s willingness and ability to make use of instruction. DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS As noted earlier, actual chronological age is only a relative indicator of someone‘s physical, cognitive, and psychosocial stage of development. Unique as each individual is, however, some typical developmental trends have been identified as milestones of normal progression through the life cycle. When dealing with the teaching-learning process, it is imperative to examine the developmental phases as individuals progress from infancy to senescence so as to fully appreciate the behavioral changes that occur in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. As influential as age can be to learning readiness, it should never be examined in isolation. Growth and development interact with experiential background, physical and emotional health status, and personal motivation, as well as numerous environmental factors such as stress, the surrounding conditions, and the available support systems, to affect a person‘s ability and readiness to learn. Musinski (1999) describes three phases of learning: dependence, independence, and interdependence. These passages of learning ability from childhood to adulthood, labeled by Covey (1990) as the ―maturity continuum,‖ are identified as follows:  Dependence is characteristic of the infant and young child, who are totally dependent on others for direction, support, and nurturance from a physical, emotional, and Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 28  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles intellectual standpoint (unfortunately, some adults are considered to be stuck in this stage if they demonstrate manipulative behavior, do not listen, are insecure, or do not accept responsibility for their own actions).  Independence occurs when a child develops the ability to physically, intellectually, and emotionally care for himself or herself and make his or her own choices, including taking responsibility for learning.  Interdependence occurs when an individual has sufficiently advanced in maturity to achieve self-reliance, a sense of self-esteem, and the ability to give and receive, and when that individual demonstrates a level of respect for others. Full physical maturity does not guarantee simultaneous emotional and intellectual maturity. THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF CHILDHOOD Pedagogy is the art and science of helping children to learn (Knowles, 1990; Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). The different stages of childhood are divided according to what developmental theorists and educational psychologists define as speci fic patterns of behavior seen in particular phases of growth and development. One common attribute observed throughout all phases of childhood is that learning is subject centered. This section reviews the developmental characteristics in the four stages of childhood and the teaching strategies to be used in relation to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturational levels indicative of learner readiness (Table 5-1). Infancy (First 12 Months of Life) and Toddlerhood (1-2 Years of Age) The field of growth and development is highly complex, and at no other time is physical, cognitive, and psychosocial maturation so changeable as during the very early years of childhood. Because of the dependency of members of this age group, the main focus of instruction for health maintenance of children is geared toward the parents, who are considered to be the primary learners rather than the very young child (Crandell et al., 2012; Palfrey et al., 2005; Santrock, 2011). However, the older toddler should not be excluded from healthcare teaching and can participate to some extent in the education process. TABLE 5-1 Stage-Appropriate Teaching Strategies Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 29  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Learner General Teaching Nursing Interventions Characteristics Strategies INFANCY-TODDLERHOOD Approximate Birth-2 years Dependent on Orient teaching to Welcome active involvement age: Sensorimotor environment caregiver Forge alliances Cognitive Trust vs. Needs security Use repetition and Encourage physical closeness stage: mistrust (Birth- Explores self and imitation of Provide detailed information Psychosocial 12 mo) environment information Answer questions and concerns stage: Autonomy vs. Natural curiosity Stimulate all senses Ask for information on child‘s shame and Provide physical strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes doubt (1-2 yr) safety and emotional security Allow play and manipulation of objects EARLY CHILDHOOD Approximate 3-5 years Egocentric Use warm, calm Welcome active involvement age: Preoperational Thinking precausal, approach Forge alliances Cognitive Initiative vs. concrete, literal Build trust Encourage physical closeness stage: guilt Believes illness self- Use repetition of Provide detailed information Psychosocial caused and punitive information Answer questions and concerns stage: Limited sense of time Allow manipulation Ask for information on child‘s Fears bodily injury of objects and strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes Cannot generalize equipment Animistic thinking Give care with (objects possess life explanation or human Reassure not to characteristics) blame self Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 30  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Centration (focus is on Explain procedures one characteristic of simply and briefly an object) Provide safe, secure Separation anxiety environment Motivated by curiosity Use positive Active imagination, reinforcement prone to fears Encourage Play is his/her work questions to reveal perceptions/feelings Use simple drawings and stories Use play therapy, with dolls and puppets Stimulate senses: visual, auditory, tactile, motor MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD Approximate 6-11 years More realistic and Encourage Welcome active involvement age: Concrete objective independence and Forge alliances Cognitive operations Understands cause active participation Encourage physical closeness stage: Industry vs. and effect Be honest, allay Provide detailed information Psychosocial inferiority Deductive/inductive fears Answer questions and concerns stage: reasoning Use logical Ask for information on child‘s Wants concrete explanation strengths/limitations and likes/dislikes information Allow time to ask Able to compare questions objects and events Use analogies to Variable rates of make invisible physical growth processes real Reasons syllogistically Establish role Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 31  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Understands models seriousness and Relate care to other consequences of children‘s actions experiences; Subject-centered compare procedures focus Use subject- Immediate orientation centered focus Use play therapy Provide group activities Use drawings, models, dolls, painting, audio- and videotapes ADOLESCENCE Approximate 12-19 years Abstract, hypothetical Establish trust, Explore emotional and financial support age: Formal thinking authenticity Determine goals and expectations Cognitive operations Can build on past Know their agenda Assess stress levels stage: Identity vs. learning Address Respect values and norms Psychosocial role confusion Reasons by logic and fears/concerns Determine role responsibilities and stage: understands scientific about outcomes of relationships principles illness Engage in 1:1 teaching without parents Future orientation Identify control focus present, but with adolescent‘s Motivated by desire for Include in plan of permission inform family of content social acceptance care covered Peer group important Use peers for Intense personal support and preoccupation, influence appearance extremely Negotiate changes important (imaginary Focus on details audience) Make information Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 32  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Feels invulnerable, meaningful to life invincible/immune to Ensure natural laws (personal confidentiality and fable) privacy Arrange group sessions Use audiovisuals, role play, contracts, reading materials Provide for experimentation and flexibility YOUNG ADULTHOOD Approximate 20-40 years Autonomous Use problem- Explore emotional, financial, and age: Formal Self-directed centered focus physical support system Cognitive operations Uses personal Draw on meaningful Assess motivational level for stage: Intimacy vs. experiences to experiences involvement Psychosocial isolation enhance or interfere Focus on immediacy Identify potential obstacles and stage: with learning of application stressors Intrinsic motivation Encourage active Able to analyze participation critically Allow to set own Makes decisions pace, be self- about personal, directed occupational, and Organize material social roles Recognize social Competency-based role learner Apply new knowledge through role playing and hands-on practice Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 33  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles MIDDLE-AGED ADULTHOOD Approximate 41-64 years Sense of self well- Focus on Explore emotional, financial, and age: Formal developed maintaining physical support system Cognitive operations Concerned with independence and Assess motivational level for stage: Generativity physical changes reestablishing involvement Psychosocial vs. self- At peak in career normal life patterns Identify potential obstacles and stage: absorption Explores alternative Assess positive and stressors and lifestyles negative past stagnation Reflects on experiences with contributions to family learning and society Assess potential Reexamines goals sources of stress and values caused by midlife Questions crisis issues achievements and Provide information successes to coincide with life Has confidence in concerns and abilities problems Desires to modify unsatisfactory aspects of life OLDER ADULTHOOD Approximate 65 years and Cognitive changes Use concrete Involve principal caregivers age: over Decreased ability to examples Encourage participation Cognitive Formal think abstractly, Build on past life Provide resources for support (respite stage: operations process information experiences care) Psychosocial Ego integrity Decreased short-term Make information Assess coping mechanisms stage: vs. despair memory relevant and Provide written instructions for Increased reaction meaningful reinforcement time Present one concept Provide anticipatory problem solving Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 34  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Increased test anxiety at a time (what happens if …) Stimulus persistence Allow time for (afterimage) processing/response Focuses on past life (slow pace) experiences Use repetition and reinforcement of information Avoid written exams Use verbal exchange and coaching Establish retrieval plan (use one or several clues) Encourage active involvement Keep explanations brief Use analogies to illustrate abstract information Sensory/motor Speak slowly, deficits distinctly Auditory changes Use low-pitched Hearing loss, tones especially high-pitched Avoid shouting tones, consonants (S, Use visual aids to Z, T, F, and G), and supplement verbal rapid speech instruction Visual changes Farsighted (needs glasses to read) Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 35  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Lenses become opaque (glare problem) Smaller pupil size Avoid glares, use (decreased visual soft white light adaptation to Provide suffcient darkness) light Decreased peripheral Use white perception backgrounds and Yellowing of lenses black print (distorts low-tone Use large letters and colors: blue, green, well-spaced print violet) Avoid color coding Distorted depth with pastel blues, perception greens, purples, and Fatigue/decreased yellows energy levels Increase safety Pathophysiology precautions/provide (chronic illness) safe environment Ensure accessibility and fit of prostheses (i.e., glasses, hearing aid) Keep sessions short Provide for frequent rest periods Allow for extra time to perform Establish realistic short-term goals Psychosocial Give time to Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 36  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles changes reminisce Decreased risk taking Identify and present Selective learning pertinent material Intimidated by formal Use informal learning teaching sessions Demonstrate relevance of information to daily life Assess resources Make learning positive Identify past positive experiences Integrate new behaviors with formerly established ones Ages and Stages of Development Choosing quality care that is in a healthy and safe environment should be your number one priority. Look for child care that stimulates and encourages your child‘s physical, intellectual, and social growth. Keep your child‘s age and personality in mind when looking for the program that best meets his needs. Understanding what makes your child feel secure and knowing the activities he enjoys and will learn from will make a difference in your final child care decision. Personality Each child has his own personality and responds to caregivers or experiences differently. Just like adults, children may have outgoing, shy, or even-tempered natures. Your caregiver should be in tune with your child‘s special personality and treat your child in a positive and caring manner that agrees with his special personality. This is crucial to nurturing his healthy emotional growth. By understanding your child‘s Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 37  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles personality, you and your caregiver can help him succeed by offering care, activities, and discipline that best fit his needs. Developmental stages As your child grows, you may find yourself searching for clues to her behavior. As a parent, you may hear the words ―developmental stages.‖ This is just another way of saying your child is moving through a certain time period in the growing-up process. At times, she may be fascinated with her hands, her feet, and her mouth. As she grows, she may get into everything. Lock your doors and cabinets, and take a deep breath during those exploration years! Then there will be an age when independence is all she wants. At every stage, what she needs is your love, understanding, and time. Parent Tip Recent brain research indicates that birth to age three are the most important years in a child‘s development. Here are some tips to consider during your child‘s early years:  Be warm, loving, and responsive.  Talk, read, and sing to your child.  Establish routines and rituals.  Encourage safe explorations and play.  Make TV watching selective.  Use discipline as an opportunity to teach.  Recognize that each child is unique.  Choose quality child care and stay involved.  Take care of yourself. Learning styles Children learn in many different ways. Each child has his own way of learning—some learn visually, others through touch, taste, and sound. Watch a group of children and you‘ll understand at once what this means. One child will sit and listen patiently, another cannot wait to move and count beads. Another wants you to show her the answer over and over. Children also learn in different ways depending on their developmental stage. One thing we know is all children love to learn new things by exploring and discovering. Children love to solve problems during play and in daily activities. Look for a child care provider who understands children‘s learning styles and includes reading, learning numbers, art activities, rhyming, and problem solving in your child‘s daily activities. Also, find out how your provider encourages your child to understand and benefit from daily activities and experiences. Tips for looking for a child care provider during the first eighteen months of life Look for a provider who:  Is warm and friendly.  Interacts with your infant and has eye contact. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 38  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles  Talks to your infant while diapering.  Includes your infant in activities, but keeps her safe from older children.  Avoids the use of walkers.  Has feeding and sleeping practices similar to yours.  Allows the infant to eat and sleep whenever she wishes rather than follow a schedule. Ages and stages Depending upon the age of your child, his learning style and personality, your child will have different needs. The first five years are especially crucial for physical, intellectual, and social-emotional development. Keep your child’s personality and age in mind when looking for child care experiences and activities. The following pages provide insight into a child’s developmental stages from birth through fourteen years. Birth to eighteen months: an overview In the first eighteen months after birth, an infant makes miraculous progress. In this relatively short time span, an infant sees her world through her senses. Babies gather information through touch, taste, smell, sight, and sound. To help infants mature and learn, the caregiver should stimulate but not overwhelm them. The overall goal is not to “teach” your baby but to interact and explore her world with her. Older infants are on the move. They take great pleasure in discovering what they can do with their voice, hands, feet, and toes. Soon they practice rolling skills, crawling, walking, and other great physical adventures. Through “the eyes of a child,” here is what you might expect during the first eighteen months. One month What I’m Like: I can‘t support my own head and I‘m awake about one hour in every ten (though it may seem more). What I Need: I need milk, a smoke-free environment, a warm place to sleep, hugs and kisses, and to hear your loving voice. It‘s not too early to sing or read to me. The more you talk and introduce different things to me, the more I learn. Three months What I’m Like: My hands and feet fascinate me. I‘ll laugh and coo at them and you. I‘m alert for 15 minutes, maybe longer, at a time. I love to listen to you talk and read to me. What I Need: Talk to me, feed me, and sing to me. My favorite songs are lullabies. Cuddle me. I need fresh air, a ride in a stroller. Give me things to pull and teethe on. Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 39  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Five months What I’m Like: I may be able to roll over and sit with support. I can hold my own toys. I babble and am alert for two hours at a time. I can eat most baby food. Put toys just out of my reach and I will try to reach them. I like to see what I look like and what I am doing. What I Need: Make sure I‘m safe as I‘m learning to crawl. I need happy sounds, and I like to be near you. Dance with me, tickle me, and tell me about the world you see. Nine months What I’m Like: I‘m busy! I like to explore everything! I crawl, sit, pull on furniture, grasp objects, and understand simple commands. I like to be with other babies and I react to their happiness and sadness. What I Need: I need locks on cabinets with medicines, household cleaners, or other dangerous things. Put away small sharp objects. I need touches, nutritious food, and educational toys to keep me busy. Twelve months What I’m Like: I may be able to pull myself up and sidestep around furniture. I may begin walking. I make lots of sounds and say ―Mama‖ and ―Dada.‖ I‘m curious about flowers, ants, grass, stones, bugs, and dirt. I like to get messy, ‘cause that‘s how I learn. My fingers want to touch everything. I like to play near others close to my age but not always with them. If I‘m walking, please walk at my pace. What I Need: I need lots of cuddling and encouragement. I need a safe place to move around as I will be getting into anything I can get my hands on. Read to me again and again. Sing our favorite songs. Give me freedom to do most things—until I need help. So please stay near. Twelve to eighteen months What I’m Like: I like to eat with a spoon, even if I spill. And I will spill, spill, spill. I will explore everything high and low, so please keep me safe. I may have temper tantrums because I have no other way of expressing my feelings or frustrations. Sometimes I‘m fearful and cling to you. I like to have evening routines: music, story, and bath time. I like balls, blocks, pull toys, push toys, take apart toys, put together toys, and cuddles. Sometimes I say ―No‖ and mean it. By eighteen months I can walk well by myself, although I fall a lot. I may jump. I say lots of words, especially the word ―mine‖— because everything is mine! I like it when we play outside or go to a park. I Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 40  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles like being with other children. I try to take off my shoes and socks. I like to build with blocks. What I Need: Let me touch things. Let me try new things with your help, if I need it. I need firm limits and consistency. Please give me praise. The more you talk with me, the earlier I will tell you how I feel and what I need. I need you to observe me and to understand why I‘m upset or mad. I need your understanding and patience. I want a routine. I need you to not mind the mess I sometimes make. I need you to say I‘m sorry if you made a mistake. And please read to me over and over again! The Toddler's Creed If I want it, it‘s mine. If I give it to you and change my mind later, it‘s mine. If I take it away from you, it‘s mine. If it‘s mine it will never belong to anybody else, no matter what. If we are building something together, all the pieces are mine. If it looks just like mine, it‘s mine. Eighteen months through two years: an overview During the next stage of life, your child is beginning to define himself. Look for child care activities that spur his imagination and vocabulary. During the toddler years, children get into everything, so do your best to keep your child safe from a potential accident. Yet, realize accidents do happen even to the most careful parents and children. When looking for quality care for your toddler, consider:  Is the child care setting safe and does it provide small group sizes and adult-to- child ratios?  Are there enough toys and activities so sharing isn‘t a problem?  Are there a lot of toys for building which can be put together?  Is there a dress-up area?  Do art activities allow the children the freedom to make their own art or do all crafts look the same?  And last, what are the toilet training and discipline practices of the provider? Two years What I’m Like: I am loving, affectionate, and responsive to others. I feel sorry or sad when others my age are upset. I may even like to please you. I don‘t need you so close for protection, but please don‘t go too far away. I may do the exact opposite of what you want. I may be rigid, not willing to wait or give in. I may even be bossy. ―Me‖ is one of my favorite words. I may have fears, especially of sounds, separation, moving household objects, or that big dog. What I Need: I need to continue exploring the world, down the block, the parks, library, and stores, etc. I like my routines. If you have to change them, Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 41  PROFED03: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles do so slowly. I need you to notice what I do well and PRAISE me. Give me two OK choices to distract me when I begin to say ―No.‖ I need you to be in control and make decisions when I‘m unable to do so. I do better when you plan ahead. Be FIRM with me about the rules, but CALM when I forget or disagree. And please be patient because I am doing my best to please you, even though I may not act that way. Three through five years: an overview During the preschool years, your child will be incredibly busy. Cutting, pasting, painting, and singing are all daily activities. When your child starts kindergarten around age five, make sure home and child care activities include learning numbers, letters, and simple directions. Most public school kindergarten programs are usually only a few hours a day. You may need care before and after school. It is never too early to begin your search. When looking for quality care for your preschooler, consider:  Are there other children the same age or close in age to your child?  Is there space for climbing, running, and jumping?  Are there books and learning activities to prepare your child for school?  Is television and movie watching selective?  Are learning materials and teaching styles age-appropriate and respectful of children‘s cultural and ethnic heritage?  Are caregivers experienced and trained in early childhood development?  Are children given choices to do and learn things for themselves?  Are children rushed to complete activities or tasks?  Or are they given enough time to work at their own pace? Three years What I’m Like: Watch out! I am charged with physical energy. I do things on my own terms. My mind is a sponge. Reading and socializing are essential in getting me ready for school. I like to pretend a lot and enjoy scribbling on everything. I am full of questions, many of which are ―Why?‖ I become fairly reliable about using the potty. I may stay dry at night and may not. Playing and trying new things out are how I learn. Sometimes I like to share. I begin to listen more and begin to understand how to solve problems for myself. What I Need: I want to know about everything and understand words, and when encouraged, I will use words instead of grabbing, crying, or pushing. Play with me, sing to me, and let‘s pretend! Four years What I’m Like: I‘m in an active stage, running, hopping, jumping, and climbing. I love to question ―Why?‖ and ―How?‖ I‘m interested in numbers Prepared by: Ms. Oharrah Mae Ledesma OIC- College of Teacher Education Page 42