ECT 402 Wireless Communication Notes PDF | KTU

 3/21/2023 ECT 402 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION MODULE 1 Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Com...

 3/21/2023 ECT 402 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION MODULE 1 Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells 1  3/21/2023 Wireless Mobile Communication 1878 1880 1910 1947 1986-96 2001 2002 Characteristics of Wireless Communication Convenience and reduced cost Service can be deployed faster than fixed service No cost of cable plant Service is mobile, deployed almost anywhere Unreliable channel (attenuation, fading, shadowing, interference) Complicated design and management Device limitations (power supply) Limited bandwidth and expensive service 2  3/21/2023 Growth in Wireless Systems Rapid growth in cellular/PCS voice services over the last decade Cell phones everywhere! Wireless data is a fast growing market with lots of exciting action WLAN: widespread implementation 802.11b, 802.11a, Bluetooth PAN: UWB is also growing Mobile internet services Favorable Technology Trends Availabilityof a pervasive data network (Internet) Innovative Internet-based applications and services particularly useful to mobile users personalized information retrieval, access to airline reservations systems, online trading Novel terminal devices compact size, low power, ease of use Emerging wide-area wireless packet data services aggregate data rates of several 100 kbps TCP/IP-friendly link layer protocols 3  3/21/2023 Wireless Vision be ionising 4  3/21/2023 The most valuable segment Not Enough Bandwidth Poor Radio Coverage Frequency 2 GHz VHF 300 MHz UHF 3 GHz SHF 30 GHz EHF Cellular/PCS/3G WLAN Fixed Wireless Satellite Spectrum Allocation and Standards 5  3/21/2023 Licensed and Unlicensed Bands Licensed Unlicensed TACS/NMT/AMPS/TDMA 400 MHz AMPS/CDMA/TDMA 800 MHz GSM/TACS/NMT 850 MHz 900 MHz General Application Subscriber Radio 1.4 GHz GSM/DECT 1.8 GHz AUCTION PCS/PHS/3G 1.9 GHz 2.4 GHz IMS (802.11b/Bluetooth) MMDS 2.5 GHz 5 GHz UNII (802.11a) Point to multi-point 10.5 GHz LMDS 24/26/28/32/40 GHz FCC Mobile Radio Systems  Examples ◦ Cordless phone ◦ Remote controller ◦ Hand-held walkie-talkies ◦ Pagers ◦ Cellular telephone ◦ Wireless LAN  Mobile - any radio terminal that could be moves during operation  Portable - hand-held and used at walking speed  Subscriber - mobile or portable user 6  3/21/2023 Frequency Carriers/Channels – The information from sender to receiver is carried over a well defined frequency band. This is called a channel – Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in kHz) and Capacity (bit-rate) – Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to transmit information in parallel and independently. Example – Assume a spectrum of 90kHz is allocated over a base frequency b for communication between stations A and B – Assume each channel occupies 30kHz. – There are 3 channels – Each channel is simplex (Transmission occurs in one way) – For full duplex communication: » Use two different channels Channel (front and reverse channels) 1 (b - b+30) Station»AUse time division in 2a (b+30 Channel channel - b+60) Station B Channel 3 (b+60 - b+90) 7  3/21/2023 Mode of transmission Simplex Half Duplex Full duplex Classification of mobile radio transmission system – Simplex: communication in only one direction – Half-duplex: same radio channel for both transmission and reception (push-to-talk) – Full-duplex: simultaneous radio transmission and reception (FDD, TDD) Frequency division duplexing uses two radio channel – Forward channel: base station to mobile user – Reverse channel: mobile user to base station Time division duplexing shares a single radio channel in time. Forw ard C hannel R everse C hannel 8  3/21/2023 Evolution of Wireless System Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless telegraph in 1896 Communication by encoding alphanumeric characters in analog signal Sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean First public mobile (car-based) telephone system (MTS) introduced in 1946 Analog frequency modulation High power BS tower to cover 50 miles radius Inefficient (120K spectrum for a voice connection) Improved mobile telephone system (IMTS) developed in 1960 Full duplex services and direct-dialing 23 FM channels with BW reduced to 25-30 KHz 9  3/21/2023 Cellular Network Generations It is useful to think of cellular Network/telephony in terms of generations: – 0G: Briefcase-size mobile radio telephones – 1G: Analog cellular telephony – 2G: Digital cellular telephony – 3G: High-speed digital cellular telephony (including video telephony) – 4G: IP-based “anytime, anywhere” voice, data, and multimedia telephony at faster data rates than 3G (to be deployed in 2012–2015) Evolution of Cellular Networks 1G 2G 2.5G 3G 4G 10  3/21/2023 Cellular Phone Standards First Generation Analog Systems (1G) Analogue transmission technology Focus on voice Data services almost non-existent Incompatible standards – Different frequencies and signaling – International roaming impossible Inefficient use of the radio spectrum 1G — Separate Frequencies FDMA — Frequency Division Multiple Access 30 KHz 30 KHz 30 KHz Frequency 30 KHz 30 KHz 30 KHz 30 KHz 30 KHz 11  3/21/2023 1G Widely deployed in the 1980s, and are still in use in spite of being replaced by digital cellular systems. The best known standard is the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS). A narrowband version, narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS), with voice channels that are one third the bandwidth of regular AMPS. NTT (MCS-L1): Japan deployed the first commercial cellular phone system in 1979, Based on AMPS, but at a higher frequency and with voice channels of slightly lower bandwidth. Total Access Communication System (TACS): Developed in Europe, operates at a higher frequency and with lower bandwidth channels than AMPS. 1G ETACS: The frequency range for TACS was extended in the U.K. to obtain more channels. JTACS: Deployed in metropolitan areas of Japan in 1989 to provide higher capacity than the NTT system. Operates at a slightly higher frequency than TACS and ETACS. Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) standard in Scandanavia Radiocom 2000 (RC2000) standard in France. C-450 standard in Germany and Portugal Incompatible standards at different frequencies for analog cellular systems The incompatibilities made it impossible to roam between European countries with a single analog phone 12  3/21/2023 The 1G Contd… A series of incompatible networks Limited capacity for expansion Limited support for roaming Susceptible to interference Poor security No support for wireless data No third party applications Second Generation Digital Systems (2G) Digital cellular telephony deployed in 1990’s Modest data support along with voice Cheaper faster smaller power efficient components Quality of voice improved due to error coding Higher capacity, spectrally efficient modulation schemes Advanced compression and encryption techniques Equalizer to compensate for frequency-selective fading 13  3/21/2023 2G GSM: a common TDMA (with slow frequency hopping) technology for Europe; claim about 3/4 of subscribers worldwide. IS-54 and IS-136: TDMA technology in US; compatible with AMPS; IS-95: CDMA based; standardized in 1993; South Korea and Hong Kong deployed it in 1995; US in 1996; Personal Digital Cellular(PDC) system in Japan in 1994 2G 14  3/21/2023 2G — TDMA Time Division Multiple Access One timeslot = 0.577 ms One TDMA frame = 8 timeslots 200 KHz Frequency 200 KHz 200 KHz 200 KHz Time 2G— CDMA Code Division Multiple Access  Spread spectrum modulation ◦ Originally developed for the military ◦ Resists jamming and many kinds of interference ◦ Coded modulation hidden from those w/o the code  All users share same (large) block of spectrum ◦ no need for frequency planning ◦ Soft handoffs possible ◦ no hard limit on the number of users that can be accommodated in the system 15  3/21/2023 2G: Technology Summary  TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access ◦ Provides 3-6 times capacity increase over AMPS (1G) ◦ Introduced authentication and encryption for security  GSM: Global System of Mobile communications ◦ Improved battery life over TDMA  CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access ◦ Example: GSM Services ◦ Provides 1.5-2 times capacity increase over TDMA Teleservices Speech 2G - Services Short Message Service (SMS)  Improved standard telephony (speech) Bearer Services Telefax  Basic wireless data Basic data (9.6kb/s)  Additional services Supplementary Services Call forwarding ◦ Call barring Call barring 2G : Circuit switched technology Data rate is too slow for rapid email and internet browsing applications Evolution of 2G (2.5G) Use existing 2G equipment, Base station add ons + subscriber unit software upgrades Higher data rate transmission and supports the web browsing format language : Wireless Application Protocols 16  3/21/2023 2.5G Modified to support data services in addition to Ported to higher frequencies as more cellular voice. bandwidth became available High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD), simplest and allows up to 4 consecutive timeslots FCC auctioned spectrum in the Personal to be assigned to a single user. Communication Systems (PCS) band at 1.9 GHz for cellular systems General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), a more GSM (PCS 1900), IS-136, and IS-95 were complex enhancement of packet-switched data all deployed at 1900 MHz in layered on top of the circuit-switched voice. different parts of the country, making nationwide roaming with a single phone Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) difficult. further enhanced through variable-rate modulation and coding Europe allocated additional cellular spectrum in the 1.8 GHz band. The IS-95 standard was modified to provide data GSM 1800 or DCS 1800 (for services by assigning multiple orthogonal Walsh Digital Cellular System), uses functions to GSM as the core standard a single user 2.5G  Standard services that can use packet switching: ◦ WWW browsing ◦ email ◦ file downloading e.g. mp3 ◦ Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) 17  3/21/2023 3G Communication System ITU (International Telecommunications Union) proposed A global frequency band in 2000 MHz range Single wireless communications standard for all countries in the world IMT- 2000. 3G - The IMT2000 Initiative – Conceived in 1986 – Sought to define a single world-wide standard for accessing the global telecommunications infrastructure from both terrestrial and satellite mobile systems – Provides unparalleled service--Voice over IP – Problem: backward compatibility 3G - Principal Requirements Support for voice quality comparable with fixed line networks; Support for both circuit-switched and packet-switched data services; Support for roaming between different IMT-2000 operators; Support for greater capacity and improved spectrum efficiency; – A data rate of 144 kb/s for users moving quickly e.g. moving vehicles; – A data rate of 384 kb/s for pedestrians; – A data rate of 2 Mb/s in a low mobility or office environment. Support for demanding applications 18  3/21/2023 3G - Principal Requirements Support for demanding applications – Voice and Data Transmission Simultanous voice and data access – Multi-megabit Internet access Interactive web sessions – Voice-activated calls – Multimedia Content Live music Agreement on a single standard did not materialize, with most countries supporting one of two competing standards: CDMA2000: evolved from CdmaOne supported by the Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) cdma2000 1XRTT: core of the cdma2000 Standard to provide high data rates (HDR) above 1 Mbps Cdma2000 1XEV-DO (Data Only), Cdma2000 1XEV-DV (Data and Voice) Cdma2000 3X More seamless , less expensive upgrade path since Cdma 2000 allows the same spectrum, bandwidth, RF equipment and air interface framework to be used at each base station and 3G upgrades can be introduced over time 19  3/21/2023 Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA): evolved from GSM and IS-136 supported by the Third Generation Partnership Project 1 (3GPP1). 3G successor to GSM , referred to as the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) used in the Japanese FOMA and J-Phone 3G systems Wider air interface bandwidth (minimum spectrum allocation of 5MHz) Requires an expensive new base station equipment Installation will be slow and gradual in the world A third 3G standard, TD-SCDMA, was there in China Uses TDD instead of FDD for uplink/downlink signaling Relies on the existing core GSM infrastructure Can be easily and inexpensively added to existing GSM systems One of the newest 3G technologies to implemented is High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High- Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity 20  3/21/2023 Upgrade Paths for 2G Technologies 21  3/21/2023 4G The transmission and receiving capabilities of 4G are powered by MIMO & (OFDM) technologies 4G is also an all-IP (internet protocol)-based standard for both voice and data First defined by the ITU in 2008 Applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television. LTE and LTE advanced wireless technology used 4G Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps Enhanced security and mobility Reduced latency for mission critical applications High definition video streaming and gaming Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice) But Expensive hardware and infrastructure Costly spectrum (most countries, frequency bands are too expensive) Wide deployment and upgrade is time consuming 22  3/21/2023 5G Ultra fast internet and multimedia experience Use millimeter waves and unlicensed spectrum for data transmission Cloud based network architecture Connect not only humans but also machines and sensors 5G Ultra fast mobile internet up to 10Gbps Low latency in milliseconds (significant for mission critical applications) Total cost deduction for data Higher security and reliable network Uses technologies like small cells, beam forming to improve efficiency Forward compatibility network offers further enhancements in future Cloud based infrastructure offers power efficiency, easy maintenance and upgrade of hardware 23 3/21/2023 24  3/21/2023 Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells WLAN Wireless connectivity within an area of building/office/campus Low cost, ease of installation, less maintenance Use license free 2.4GHz ISM band IEEE 802.11 standard-specifications for physical and MAC sub layer IEEE 802.11 covers the physical and data link layers Management of connection, link reliability, power and link security etc Advantages Drawbacks – Easy deployment Limited Bandwidth – LAN extension Incompatibility – Easy access & smart working Interference – Mobility and high productivity Less security – Cost effective Need backbone network 25  3/21/2023 WLAN-Architecture A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network ; a BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network 3 Station Types: - No-transition station * Optional central base station is called access point - BSS transition station - ESS transition station WLAN-MAC Sub layers Distributed co-ordination functions Point co-ordination functions 26  3/21/2023 WLAN-MAC Sub layers DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method The point coordination function (PCF) is an optional access method Implemented on top of the DCF and is used mostly for time-sensitive transmission PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMA/CD – Wireless channels cannot send data and receive collision signals simultaneously – Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem – Signal fading could prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision at the other end as they are far apart WLAN-MAC Frame format FC- Frame control-type of frame D-duration of transmission used to set the value of NAV Addresses-Address fields SC-Sequence control-sequence number in flow control Frame body-information FCS- Frame correction-CRC 32 error detection sequence 27  3/21/2023 Bluetooth Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology To connect devices of different functions Bluetooth was originally started as a project by the Ericsson Company Protocol defined by the IEEE 802.15 standard Standard defines a wireless personal-area network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall Bluetooth device has a built-in short-range radio transmitter current data rate is 1 Mbps operating at 2.4-GHz bandwidth A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet. Bluetooth-Architecture Bluetooth defines two types of networks: piconet and scatternet In a piconet upto 8 stations: one is primary, the rests are secondaries Secondaries are synchronized with primary Piconets combined to form scatternet 28  3/21/2023 Bluetooth- Layers Bluetooth uses several layers that do not exactly match those of the Internet model Radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer- o low-power and have a range of 10 m ouses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each oUses FHSS to avoid interferences oUses GFSK for modulation Baseband layer is roughly equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs Access method is TDMA Two types of links can be created between a primary and a secondary: SCQ links and ACL links Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP Bluetooth- Layers The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means LL), is roughly equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs It is used for data exchange on an ACL link; SCQ channels do not use L2CAP The L2CAP has specific duties: multiplexing, segmentation and reassembly, quality of service (QoS), and group management 29  3/21/2023 Bluetooth-Frame Format Access code-72-bit field for synchronization bits and the identifier of the primary to distinguish the frame of one piconet from another Address- Secondary address Header-54-bit field is a repeated I8-bit pattern Type- Type of data F-Flow control Payload-0 to 2740 bits long-contains data or control information A- Acknowledgment S- Sequence number Personal Area Network(PAN) Connects electronic devices within a user's immediate area size of a PAN ranges from a few centimeters to a few meters Eg: connection between a Bluetooth earpiece and a Smartphone can either be wired or wireless can exchange data with each othe typically do not include a router and thus do not connect to the Internet directly Examples of PAN: – Body Area Network – Offline Network – Home Office 30  3/21/2023 Personal Area Network(PAN) + - Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells 31  3/21/2023 Pre--Cellular Wireless Pre One highly-elevated, high-powered antenna in a large service area Small number of channels (few users) Analog transmission, inefficient use of spectrum (no frequency reuse) Very low capacity, power-inefficient Cellular concept Low power transmitter system Increase network capacity Frequency reuse Build robust scalable system Architecture to deal with different user densities at different places 32  3/21/2023 Cellular concept A major breakthrough in solving the problem of spectral congestion and user capacity Many low power transmitters (small cells) Each cell covers only a small portion of the service area. Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels Nearby base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference between base stations is minimized Cellular concept Partition the region into smaller regions called cells. Each cell gets at least one base station or tower Users within a cell talks to the tower Typical Cell sizes – some cites few hundred meters – country side few tens of kilometers Advantages of cell structures: – more capacity due to frequency reusage – less transmission power needed – more robust, tolerate failures – deals interference, transmission area locally Problems: – fixed network needed for the base stations – handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary – interference with other cells 33  3/21/2023 Frequency Reuse Frequency Reuse 34  3/21/2023 Design of cluster size Problem 35  3/21/2023 Problem Channel Assignment Strategies 36  3/21/2023 Channel Assignment Strategies Hand off What happens when a user is mobile? - Especially when crossing a cell boundary while continuing the call. Handoff strategy is invoked. – Find a new base station – Process handoff – higher priority over new call invocation Who initiates handoff – Network directed ( tower determines ) – Terminal assisted ( user helps the tower) – Terminal directed ( user determines ) When to initiate handoff – When the mean signal (over some predetermined time) is below some threshold 37  3/21/2023 Hand off Hand off 38  3/21/2023 Hand off Who initiates hand off 39  3/21/2023 Prioritising Hand off Types of Hand-off “Break before make” 40  3/21/2023 Types of Hand-off “Make before break” Hand-off Other problems with handoff – High speed vehicles can cross many “small” cells in a short time. – Making too many hand offs – Overburden for MSC – Umbrella cell concept. – Large cell with a powerful tower to handle high speed vehicles – Small cells for low speed Another problem is called cell dragging. – Happens when the user moves slowly away from the cell and the tower didn’t recognize it due to strong average signal. – To solve this, hand off thresholds and radio coverage should be adjusted carefully 41  3/21/2023 Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells Interference and System Capacity 42  3/21/2023 Interference and System Capacity Interference and System Capacity 43  3/21/2023 Interference and System Capacity Interference and System Capacity 44  3/21/2023 Interference and System Capacity Interference and System Capacity Adjacent channel Interference 45  3/21/2023 Interference and System Capacity Trunking and Grade of Service 46  3/21/2023 Trunking – Common Terms Trunking Theory 47  3/21/2023 Types of Trunking Systems Blocked Calls Cleared- Erlang B 48  3/21/2023 Blocked Calls Cleared- Erlang B Blocked calls delayed-Erlang C 49  3/21/2023 Blocked calls delayed-Erlang C Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells 50  3/21/2023 Approaches for improving coverage and increasing capacity Approaches- Cell Splitting 51  3/21/2023 Approaches- Cell Splitting Approaches- Cell Sectoring 52  3/21/2023 Approaches- Cell Sectoring Approaches- Cell Sectoring Disadvantages 53  3/21/2023 Cell splitting vs Cell Sectoring Cell Splitting Cell Sectoring Divides a congested cell into smaller cells with its own base Uses directional antennas and desired antenna placements stations Increases the number of base stations Increases SIR Decreases R keeping Q=D/R constant Decreases Q=D/R keeping R constant Increases capacity since frequency reuse increases Improves by increasing SIR and decreases cluster size Approaches- Microcell Zone Concept 54  3/21/2023 Approaches- Microcell Zone Concept Approaches- Repeaters for Range Extension 55  3/21/2023 Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells Wireless Spectrum Allocation 56  3/21/2023 WiMax Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) Family of wireless broadband communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of standards, which provide physical layer (PHY) and media access control (MAC) options provide at-home or mobile Internet access across whole cities or countries. WiMax  Wireless MANs (WiMAX-802.16) – Similar to cellular networks – traditional base station infrastructure systems 57  3/21/2023 WiMax Syllabus Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems(8) 1.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems (4): Generations: 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G. Wireless LAN, Bluetooth and Personal Area networks, Broadband Wireless Access -WiMAX Technology. Wireless Spectrum allocation, Standards. 1.2 Cellular System Design Fundamentals (4): Frequency Reuse, channel assignment strategies, Handoff strategies, Interference and system capacity, trunking and grade off service, improving coverage and capacity – cell splitting, sectoring, microcells 58