Ecosystem Lesson 1-4 PDF

**LESSON 1: THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES WE FACE** **A WORLD IN CRISIS** - Over three billion years ago, Earth\'s environment was harsh and rawmaterials were abundant. As early life forms evolved, they began toshape the planet's surface, climate, and chemical composition, settingthe...

**LESSON 1: THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES WE FACE** **A WORLD IN CRISIS** - Over three billion years ago, Earth\'s environment was harsh and rawmaterials were abundant. As early life forms evolved, they began toshape the planet's surface, climate, and chemical composition, settingthe stage for the development of diverse species. - Today, humans have become the most significant environmental force, significantly altering the landscape, consuming finite resources, and driving many species to extinction. - By 2009, 5,566 species were endangered. - Human activities impact essential processes like climate and nutrient cycles on a global scale. **HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH** - In 2011 the human population as a whole passed 7 billion individuals. Not only is this number incomprehensibly large, but our population has grown this large in a very brief span of time. In 1960 the human population was only 3 billion. - Black Death refers to a devastating disease, probably bubonic plague, that decimated Europe and Asia in the 14^th^ century. **Poverty** - On a global level, nearly one in four people lives in extreme poverty. - Despite most countries\' involvement with family , population growth rates don\'t change overnight. - Several billion people will be added to the world in the 21st century, so even if we remain concerned about population and even if our solutions are very effective, the coming decades may very well see many problems. **Population resources and the environment** Two key observations about the interplay between population growth, resource use, and environmental degradation are: **Population Growth and Resource Depletion:** - In developing countries, rapid population growth often leads to the overuse and depletion of natural resources such as soil, forests, and water, as the demand for basic necessities overwhelms the available resources. **High Consumption in Developed Nations:** - In contrast, in highly developed nations, the per capita demand for resourcesfar exceeds what is needed for survival. The high consumption of energy,material goods, and agricultural products in these affluent nations results insignificant resource depletion and environmental degradation, affecting the global environment. **Types of resources** **1. Nonrenewable Resources** - These include minerals (e.g., silicon, iron, copper) and fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas). - Nonrenewable resources are not replenished on a human timescale, as they take millions of years to form. - The finite nature of these resources means they will eventually be exhausted, although technological advancements may help find substitutes or develop alternatives. - Efficient extraction and processing can also influence their availability, but slowing population growth and resource consumption can buy time to address these challenges. **2. Renewable Resources** - These resources, such as trees, fish, fertile soil, and fresh water, are replenished by natural processes relatively quickly---over days to decades. - They are crucial for many developing countries, where forests, fisheries, and agricultural land are vital for food production. - Subsistence farmers in these regions rely on these renewable resources to meet their basic needs. **Ecological footprint** - Measures the amount of productive land, fresh water, and ocean needed per person to support their lifestyle, including food, energy, housing, and waste disposal. **Overconsumption** - Leads to immediate environmental issues such as deforestation, degradation ofagricultural land, loss of biodiversity, declining fish stocks, local water shortages,and increased pollution. If these trends continue without significant changes inresource use and consumption, the long-term consequences could be severe and potentially catastrophic. **Sustainability and the Environment** **Sustainability** - The ability to meet humanity's current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Is achieved when the environment can function indefinitely without going into a decline from the stresses that human society imposes on natural systems (such as fertile soil, water, and air) **Key Concepts of Sustainability** - We must think simultaneously about economic, social and environmental well-being. - We must consider the effects of our actions on the health and well being of the natural environment, including all living things. - Earth\'s resources are not present in infinite supply. We must live within limits that let renewable resources such as fresh water regenerate for future needs **LESSON 2: ECOSYSTEM** **Ecosystems** - a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular area. **EARTH\'S MAJOR BIOMES** **Biomes** - A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region with a similar climate, soil, plants, and animals, regardless of where it occurs in the world. - In terrestrial ecology, a biome is considered the next level of ecological organization above community, ecosystem, and landscape **Tundra** - (arctic tundra) occurs in the extreme northern latitudes where the snow melts seasonally **Boreal Forest** - Just south of the tundra is the boreal forest, or northern coniferous forest (also called taiga) Temperate Rain Forest - A coniferous temperate rain forest occurs on the northwest coast of North America. Similar vegetation exists in southeastern Australia and in southern South America **Temperate Deciduous Forest** - occurs in temperate areas where precipitation ranges from about 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 in) annually. **Temperate Grassland** - grassland with hot summers, cold winters, and less rainfall than is found in the temperate deciduous forest biome. **Chaparral** - A biome with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers; vegetation is typically small-leaved evergreen shrubs and small trees. **Desert** - A biome in which the lack of precipitation limits plant growth; deserts are found in both temperate and tropical regions. **Savanna** - a tropical grassland, is found in areas of low rainfall or intense seasonalrainfall with prolonged dry periods. **Tropical Rain Forest** - occurs where temperatures are warm throughout the year and precipitation occurs almost daily. **AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM** Aquatic ecosystems consist of three main ecological categories of organisms: *plankton, nekton, and benthos.* **1. Plankton**: These are usually small or microscopic organisms that drift or swim weakly, mostly at the mercy of currents and waves. **Plankton** are divided into: - **Phytoplankton**: Photosynthetic organisms like algae and cyanobacteria that form the base of most aquatic food webs. - **Zooplankton**: Animal-like organisms that feed on phytoplankton and are consumed by small aquatic animals such as newly hatched fish. **2. Nekton**: These are larger, more strongly swimming organisms capable of moving independently of water currents. Examples include fish, turtles, and whales. **3. Benthos:** These are bottom-dwelling organisms that either attach themselves to surfaces (like sponges and oysters), burrow into the sand (such as worms and clams), or move along the bottom (like crawfish and aquatic insect larvae). **FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM** - **lakes and ponds** (standing-water), - **rivers and streams** (flowing-water), and - **marshes and swamps** (freshwater wetlands) Each type is characterized by specific abiotic conditions and unique organisms. Large bodies of fresh water help moderate daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations on nearby land regions, and freshwater habitats provide homes for many species. **BRACKISH ECOSYSTEMS:** **Estuary** - A coastal body of water, partly surrounded by land, with access to the open ocean and a large supply of fresh water from a river. - Where the ocean meets the land, there may be one of several kinds of ecosystems: a rocky shore, a sandy beach, an intertidal mud flat, or a tidal estuary. **Types of Estuarine Habitats** **1. Salt Marshes:** -Found in temperate estuaries, these shallow wetlands are characterized by salt-tolerant grasses. -They provide numerous ecosystem services, including: - Serving as biological habitats. - Trapping sediment and pollution. - Supplying groundwater. - Buffering storm impacts by absorbing energy, thus preventing flood damage. **2. Mangrove Forests:** -The tropical equivalent of salt marshes, covering approximately 70% of tropical coastlines. -Mangroves offer valuable ecosystem services such as: - Serving as breeding grounds and nurseries for commercially important fish and shellfish (e.g.,mullet, spotted sea trout, crabs, and shrimp). - Providing nesting sites for various bird species, including pelicans, herons, egrets, and roseate spoonbills. - Stabilizing submerged soil, which helps prevent coastal erosion and provides protection against ocean storms. **LESSON 3: HOW ECOSYSTEMS WORK** **Ecology** - Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants and animals and the world around them. **Biotic Factors** - Biotic components are living factors of an ecosystem. Examples are bacteria, animals, birds, fungi, plants, etc **Abiotic Factors** - Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors of an ecosystem. These components could be acquired from the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Examples are sunlight, soil, moisture minerals and more. **The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems** Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way stream, from primary producers to various consumers. A food chain is a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten. **This energy flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:** - **First law of thermodynamics** states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change from one form to another - **Second law of thermodynamics** states that as energy is transferred more and more of it is wasted. **ENERGY SOURCE AND TROPHIC LEVELS** **Primary Source:** Sunlight **Trophic Levels:** 1st: **Producers** (plants, grass, trees, algaes, seaweed) 2nd: **Primary consumers** (herbivores: rabbit, grasshopper, zooplankton, deer) 3rd: **Secondary consumers** (carnivores: frog, spider, herring fish) 4th: **Tertiary consumers** (top predators: snake, large fish, eagle) **SIGNIFICANCE OF ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM** 1. It is vital for all living things in the ecosystem to survive and function properly. 2. It helps us to understand who eats whom in nature. 3. More the diversity of organisms, the more stable the ecosystem is. 4. It shows how all creatures in an ecosystem depend on each other and how changes can affect each other. 5. It helps us to see how human actions are affecting the ecosystem. 6. Understanding the flow of energy in an ecosystem helps us to devise proper conservation techniques to save the ecosystem. **THE CYCLING OF MATTER IN ECOSYSTEM** - In an ecosystem, the movement and transformation of nutrients and other materials necessary for life is referred to as the **\" cycling of matter. \"** This process is essential to the continuation of life and guarantees that all organisms have access to resources. **WATER CYCLE** - Water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, involves a series of stages that show the continuous movement and interchange of water between its three phases -- solid, liquid, and gas, in the earth's atmosphere. The sun acts as the primary source of energy that powers the water cycle on earth. **OXYGEN CYCLE** - It is the process of biogeochemical changes in oxygen atoms as they transition through various forms in nature, cycling between the three main reservoirs of the ecosystem. **BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE** - The term "biogeochemical" comes from \"bio \" (biosphere), \" geo \" (geological components), and \" chemical\" (element cycling). Energy flows through ecosystems as sunlight or inorganic molecules and exits as heat. The movement of elements and compounds between living and nonliving forms across Earth\' s locations is known as biogeochemical cycles. **CARBON CYCLE** - The carbon cycle on Earth involves the conversion of atmospheric carbon dioxide into organic nutrients via photosynthesis, and its return to an inorganic state through respiration, decomposition, or combustion. Major carbon reservoirs include the atmosphere, oceans, vegetation, rocks, and soil. **NITROGEN CYCLE** - The nitrogen cycle refers to the processes through which nitrogen and its various forms are circulated and transformed in nature with the help of living organisms. It traces nitrogen's journey through the biogeochemical cycle, moving between reservoirs like the atmosphere, living organisms, and soil **SULFUR CYCLE** - The sulfur cycle involves the movement of sulfur through the Earth\' s atmosphere, land, water, and living systems. It is present in rocks, soil, and water, and plays a crucial role in many biological and chemical processes **PHOSPHORUS CYCLE** - The phosphorus cycle is the process by which phosphorus moves through the Earth\' s land, water, and living systems, with minimal involvement of the atmosphere since it rarely forms a gas. **ECOLOGICAL NICHES** - An organism \' s ecological niche consists of its interactions with its community and the environmental conditions needed for it to stay alive IN **1917, Joseph Grinnell**, an American ecologist, was the first person to develop the idea of an ecological niche. He emphasized that environmental factors determined where a species could survive rather than interactions between species. IN **1927, Charles Elton**, an English ecologist, developed his own definition. He regarded niche to be equivalent to the position of a species in a trophic web---a species \' niche was determined by its interactions with other species (predation or competition) **GEORGE EVELYN HUTCHINSON'S DEFINITION In 1958**, he contended that an organism's ecological niche is a summation of its role in a natural environment: how it survives, finds food and shelter, and interacts with other organisms (biotic and abiotic factors). - No two species can have the exact same niche, otherwise they would be in direct competition for resources with one another. - When niches are left uninhabited due to a species ' extinction or migration, another will take its place. - Some organisms can create unique niches to ensure that their species do not get replaced, and to reduce competition for resources and survival. - Organisms must withstand the limiting factors within their ecosystem to survive and maintain their niches **ECOLOGICAL NICHE EXAMPLES** **SPATIAL NICHE** - refers to the physical area within the habitat that the species lives in **TROPHIC NICHE** - refer to the trophic level that the species occupies in the food chain **MULTIDIMENSIONAL NICHE** - consist of the concept of a fundamental niche and the limiting factors that exist **IMPORTANCE OF ECOLOGY** 1\. Understanding Ecosystem Interactions 2.Impact of Human Activities 3.Sustainability 4\. Personal and Global Responsibility **Lesson 4: Human Population Change the Environment** **Population** - Refers to the total number of individuals or organisms of a particular species living within a specific geographic area at a given time**.** **SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT** - Economic growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their need **[Three Pillars of Sustainable Development]** **Environmental Sustainability** - Involves protecting and conserving natural ecosystems, reducing pollution, and managing resources responsibly to maintain biodiversity and the health of the planet for future generations. **Social Sustainability** - Focuses on ensuring social equity, justice, and inclusion. This pillar promotes human rights, education, healthcare, and community development to improve quality of life and reduce inequalities across society. **Economic Sustainability** - Ensures that economic activities are conducted in a way that supports long-term growth without depleting natural resources. **HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT NEGATIVELY AFFECT THE EARTH** - **Deforestation:** Reduces biodiversity, disrupts ecosystems, and contributes to climate change. - **Urbanization:** Habitat destruction and increased resource demand. - **Overfishing:** Disrupts marine ecosystems and depletes fish populations. - **Waste:** Improper disposal of plastic, e-waste, and non-biodegradable materials harms ecosystems. - **Mining:** Causes habitat destruction, erosion, and water contamination. - **Overconsumption:** Excessive use of resources puts strain on ecosystems **HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT POSITIVELY AFFECT THE EARTH** - **Afforestation:** Planting trees restores forests and absorbs CO2. - **Renewable Energy:** Solar, geothermal, wind, and hydro reduce carbon emissions - **Sustainable Agriculture:** Organic farming preserves soil and biodiversity. - **Recycling:** Reduces landfill use and conserves natural resources. - **Conservation:** Protects endangered species and ecosystems. - **Green Urban Planning:** Promotes sustainable infrastructure and green spaces - **Water Conservation:** Efficient water use preserves freshwater resources. - **Pollution Reduction:** Efforts to reduce emissions and plastic waste improve ecosystems - **Environmental education** raises awareness about sustainability and conservation, encouraging people to adopt eco-friendly practices. **ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS** - A field of applied ethics that considers the moral basis of environmental responsibility. - It examines how humans should relate to the natural environment, including other species and future generations. **IMPORTANCE:** - Addresses the impacts of today \' s activities on the environment. - Helps us make informed decisions about resource use and sustainability - **WORLDVIEW-** a personal perspective based on a collection of our basic values that help us make sense of the world. - **ENVIRONMENTAL WORLDVIEW-** based on how the environment works, our place in the environment, and right and wrong environmental behaviors. - **Western Worldview** - **Deep Ecology Worldview** - **WESTERN WORLDVIEW** - **Expansionist worldview** 19th century frontier attitude 1. Human-centered perspective 2. Emphasis on individual rights and progress 3. Domination of nature for human benefit **WESTERN VALUES** - **Individualism:** Focus on individual rights and needs, leading to a disregard for collective environmental responsibility. - **Consumerism:** Emphasis on material possessions and economic growth, driving overconsumption and resource depletion. - **Progress:** Belief in constant improvement and technological advancement, often at the expense of the environment. - **Domination of nature:** Viewing nature as a resource to be exploited rather than respected. **ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS** - **Resource Depletion:** Overconsumption of natural resources due to industrialization and consumerism. Depletion of fossil fuels, minerals, and forests. - **Pollution:** Industrial activities, transportation, and waste disposal contribute to air, water, and land pollution. Negative impacts on ecosystems and human health. - **Climate Change:** Greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels and deforestation. Rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events. **WESTERN WORLDVIEW** - Logging opperations in 1884. This huge logjam occured on the St. Croix River near Taylors Falls, Minnesota. - The western worldview in operations today. These logs were cut from plantations of non-native eucalyptus trees, which have replaced 30 million hectares (75 million acres) of tropical rain forest in Brazil\' s Atlantic forest. **DEEP ECOLOGY WORLDVIEW** - Nature-centered perspective - Emphasis on the intrinsic value of all living things - Interconnectedness of all beings **The principles of deep ecology, as expressed by Naess in Ecology, Community and Lifestyle (1889), include:** 1. Both human and nonhuman life have intrinsic value. The value of nonhuman life forms is independent of the usefulness they may have for narrow human purposes. 2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs. 4. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening. 5. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease in the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease. 6. Improving human well-being requires economic, technological, and ideological changes. 7. The ideological change is mainly that high quality of life need not be synonymous with high levels of consumption. 8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation to participate in the attempt to implement the necessary changes. **TWO KINDS OF VALUE** - According to the deep ecology worldview (right side of triangle), organisms have intrinsic value---that is, they are valued for their own sake, not for the goods and services they provide. - A tree trunk has grown around the head of Buddha at Wat Mahathat in Thailand, symbolizing the oneness of Buddha with nature. Buddhists practice the stilling of human desires, the reduction of consumption, and the contemplation of nature. Like Buddhism, many of the world' s other religions espouse the intrinsic value of living things. **ROBERT CAHN** - The main ingredients of an environmental ethic are caring about the planet and all of its inhabitants, allowing unselfishness to control the immediate self-interest that harms others, and living each day so as to leave the lightest possible footprints on the planet. **RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VALUES AND PROBLEMS** - Our values influence our attitudes and behaviors towards the environment. - Western values, such as individualism and consumerism, can contribute to environmental problems. **KEY TAKEAWAYS** - Environmental worldview has played a significant role in shaping our relationship with the environment. - Addressing environmental problems requires a shift in values and policies. - Sustainable development is essential for a harmonious coexistence with nature. **POPULATION** - A population includes all the organisms that belong to the same species that are living within a designated area and can interact, breed and have offspring. **POPULATION ECOLOGY** - Is a study of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how there populations interact with the enviroment such as birth, death rates and by immigration and emigration **[CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATION]** **POPULATION SIZE** - In population genetics and population ecology, population size is the number of individual organisms in a population - Populations of organisms, whether sunflowers, eagles, or humans, change over time. On a global scale, this change is due to two factors: the rate at which individual organisms produce offspring (the birth rate) and the rate at which individual organisms die (the death rate) - Also known as the birth, which is the ratio of the total live to the total population in a particular area - The death rate, also known as the ratio of the total number of deaths to the total population **POPULATION DENSITY** - Is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number - it is usually shown as the number of people per square kilometer. Density = Population / Area **GROWTH RATE** IS ALSO REFERRED TO AS NATURAL INCREASE IN HUMAN POPULATIONS.IF MORE INDIVIDUALS IN A POPULATION ARE BORN THAN DIE, THE GROWTH RATE IS MORE THAN ZERO, AND POPULATION SIZE INCREASES. THE GROWTH RATE (R) OF A LOCAL POPULATION MUST TAKE INTO ACCOUNT BIRTH RATE (B), DEATH RATE (D ), IMMIGRATION (I ), AND EMIGRATION (E). THE GROWTH RATE EQUALS (BIRTH RATE MINUS DEATH RATE) + (IMMIGRATION MINUS EMIGRATION **r=(b-d) + (i-e)** **POPULATION DISPERSION** - It is a pattern of spacing among individuals with i the geographic boundaries 1. Random Distribution 2. Uniform Distribution 3. Clumped Distribution **SURVIVORSHIP CURVES** - Showing the number of proportion of individuals surviving at each age for given species or group **History of Human Population Growth** - Human population growth has evolved over thousands of years. - Early growth was slow due to high mortality rates and limited resources. - The Agricultural Revolution (around 10,000 BC) led to increased food production and a rise in population. History of Human Population Growth - The Industrial Revolution (18th-19th century) accelerated population growth with advances in medicine, sanitation, and technology. - The 20th century saw rapid growth, reaching over 7 billion by the 21st century. **Thomas Malthus & His Theory** - Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was an English economist and demographer. - In his 1798 work \'An Essay on the Principle of Population, \' he predicted that population growth would outpace food supply, leading to widespread famine. - Malthus argued that population growth tends to follow a geometric pattern, while food production grows arithmetically. - His predictions were not entirely accurate due to technological advancements in agriculture and resource management. **Was Malthus Wrong?** - Malthus was partially wrong: food production has increased significantly due to technology, preventing mass famines. - However, his concerns about resource limitations remain relevant in discussions about overpopulation and sustainability. - Critics argue that human innovation, such as green technology and resource management, can address these issues. - Others believe that Malthus \' predictions may still hold true in regions where resources are scarce **Earth\'s Carrying Capacity for Humans** - Earth\' s carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size that the planet can sustain. - It is difficult to determine precisely due to factors like resource distribution, consumption patterns, and technological advancements. - Carrying capacity depends on variables such as agricultural productivity, energy consumption, and environmental conservation. - Human innovation may increase Earth\' s carrying capacity, but it is limited by finite resources like water, land, and energy. **LESSON 4.5: DEMOGRAPHICS OF COUNTRIES** **DEMOGRAPHICS** - Demographics provides information on the population of various countries. **HIGHLY DEVELOPED COUNTRIES** - Lowest birth rate. - Have longer life expectancies. - low infant mortality rates **MODERATE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES** - birth rates and infants mortality are higher than those of highly develop countries. - and most American nations. **LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES** - have a shortest life expectancies. - highest infant mortality in the world. - highest birth rate **INFANT MORTALITY** - The number of deaths of infants under age 1 per 1000 live births. **REPLACEMENT LEVEL FERTILITY** - The number of children a couple must produce to "replace" themselve. **TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (TFR)** - The average number of children to each women. **DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION** - The process whereby a country moves from relatively high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates a. Infant mortality Rates in highly developed countrie. Nurses care for newborn infants in israel, a highly developed country with an infant mortality rate of 3.6. b. infant mortality rates in developing countries. This premature Afghan baby was born in refugee camp. The infant mortality rate in Afghanistan, a less developed country, is 131 c. The demographic transition. Demographers have identified four stage through which a population progresses as its society becomes industrialize. **[Four Demographic stages based on their observation of Europe]** **Stage 1 Preindustrial** - Women have many children, but infant mortality rate is high, so population grows very slowly. **Stage 2 Transitional** - Lowered death rate from improved health care and more reliable food and water supplies. Birth rate is still high, and population grows rapidly. **Stage 3 Industrial** - Decline in birth rate slows population growth despite relatively low death rate. **Stage 4 Postindustrial** - People are better educated and more affluent. They tend to take steps to limit family size. Population grows very slowly or not at all. **AGE STRUCTURE OF COUNTRIES** - The number and proportion of people at each age in a population. **[STABILIZING WORLD POPULATION]** **FACTORS THAT AFFECT FERTILITY** 1. Income and Economy 2. Education 3. Healthcare Access 4. Culture and Religion 5. Government Policies 6. Urban vs. Rural Living 7. Marriage and Age 8. Gender Equality **CULTURE AND FERTILITY** - A society\'s culture includes values, beliefs, language, and spiritual practices. Culture strongly influences people\'s behaviors, including expectations for gender roles and family size. - In some developing countries, children play important economic roles by working in family businesses or farms, which keeps birth rates high. - Cultural factors like religion and gender preference also affect family size. - Religious beliefs can influence how many children families have, with Catholic women often having more children than Protestant, Jewish, or non-religious women. **THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS OF WOMEN** - Gender inequality means women don't have the same rights and opportunities as men in many societies. - Education is important because women who are more educated tend to marry later and have fewer children. - When parents see the benefits of education, they may choose to have fewer children and invest more in their children's future. **FAMILY PLANNING SERVICES** - Many developing countries have successfully lowered birth rates by providing family planning programs. - Family planning services help people control how many children they have by educating them about birth control methods. The goal isn't to force people to have fewer children, but to show them that small families are acceptable. - However, in male-dominated societies, family planning services may not be as effective because men often make decisions about having more children. **GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND FERTILITY** - Governments play an important role in childbearing and raising children. They set laws about marriage age, education requirements, and can influence family size through taxes and budgets. Many governments invest in family planning, health care, education, and old-age security, which can affect how many children families have. **URBANIZATION** - a process whereby people move from rural areas to densely populated cities. - a location with 2,500 or more people qualifies as an urban area. - One important distinction between rural and urban areas isn't how many people live there but how people make a living **RURAL** - occupations that involve harvesting natural resources - people in rural settings have fewer employment opportunities. **URBAN** - jobs that are not connected directly with natural resources. - provided more jobs than rural areas **CITY AS A DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM** - Cities act like ecosystems, and scientists study how human activities impact the urban environment. They focus on how our presence changes the ecology, rather than just how people interact with each other. **ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF URBAN AREAS** - Suburban sprawl - Reuse of brownfields - Loss of green and natural spaces - Pollution - Traffic-congested streets - Solid Waste and Wastewater **SOLUTION TO URBAN GROWTH** - Design of cities in which tall, multiple-unit residential buildings are close to shopping and jobs, and all are connected by public transportation. **URBANIZATION TREND** - Urbanization is a worldwide phenomenon. Currently 51% of the world population lives in urban areas with a population of 2000 or greater. - In 2011, urban inhabitants comprised 75% of the total population of highly developed countries but only 16% of the total population of developing countries. **THE CHALLENGE OF MEETING A FAST-GROWING CITY** - Lack of Access to safe water and basic sanitation services - Substandard housing - Poverty - Unemployment - Urban Violence - Environmental Degradation - Air Pollution