Ecology Final PDF

Biogeochemical cycles : - all nutrients flow through from non living to living and back to non licking components of ecosystem in a cyclic pattern - bio living things : georocks and soil, chemical processes -describes the movement of water and other materials through abiotic/biotic environm...

Biogeochemical cycles : - all nutrients flow through from non living to living and back to non licking components of ecosystem in a cyclic pattern - bio living things : georocks and soil, chemical processes -describes the movement of water and other materials through abiotic/biotic environment 2 types of origin of cycle: both involve biological/nonbiological processes driven by flow of energy through ecosystem Tied to the water cycle or wind cycle 1) Gaseous: major reservoir of atmosphere or ocean - GLOBAL NATURE 2) Sedimentary: major reservoirs of soil, rocks, minerals Based on inputs / outputs -input energy to the system —-> internal cycling —> leaving of energy through outputs from atmosphere/ rock/ mineral Via respiration, denitrification, assimilation/excretion Input > output [ sink] Mass Balance : Input < output [source] [input-[output + [sources - [sinks = MASS Internal Cycling: recycling of nutrients within the ecosystem lakes = larger short-term recycling Forests = most nutrients stores as biomass Measured as pools and fluxes - Pool : standing crop of biomass (trees/ below ground biomass) - Flux : how fast material moves in and out ( how fast leaves fall to the ground ) Nitrogen Cycle: abundant supply of N in atmosphere but unusable to organisms - Begins with atmospheric N2 (79%) -triple N2 bond is difficult to break so Nitrogen is limited —> becomes unusable by conversion by the microbes and enters cycle Nitrogen Fixation - Nitrogen needs to be “fixed” to be useable ( pants only use nitrate or ammonia) Abiotic: high energy fixation in atmosphere - lightning and cosmos radiation , 10% of nitrate entering cycle Biotic: N2 is converted to NH3 ammonia by bacteria - enzyme nitrogenase : very anaerobic, Cyanobacteria rhizobium Remineralization/ Ammonificaiton: - organic N is converted into NH4+ Nitrification: -NH4 is oxidized to form NO2 - (nitrate) and NO3- (nitrite) —> plants can use Denitrification: -NO3- is reduced into N2O and N2 returning back into atmosphere Phosphorus cycle: PO4 3- - DNA, phospholipids, bones, teeth, all plants use P, organisms are P limited for growth/ reproduct. NO atmospheric reservoir ( only natural deposited like rock) cycle follows water pathway (land to sea) Uses water, soil, organic tissue to transport organic/ inorganic phosphate Linked to biological activity, weathering of rock/soil, runoff, plant absorption, animal metabolism Primary production across biomes linked to N and P levels Carbon -moves from global scale to organisms and back through a cycle Carbon reservoirs 1) Atmosphere : CO2 supplied by earth’s biological and geological processes (smallest of all reservoirs) - natural respiration of plants/ animals and volcanic eruptions -unnatural burning of fossil fuels that release carbon dioxide as byproduct 2) Terrestrial Biosphere (freshwater, soil, plants, animals) - photosynthesis — biomass plants/ insects - soil —> interacts with atmospheric carbon to form inorganic dissolved carbonates - inorganic dissolved carbonates : remain stores in soil (ex: Soil organic carbon SOC) - atmospheric carbon is able to be stored when too high into the healthy soil ( balances ) SOC: can store up to 800 tons/ ha (foot ball field ) = 3x the size of atmospheric Carbon reservoir Lal 2004 : Carbon sequestration in soil can be able to offset 20% of fossil fuel emission — depending on soil management Ex: decrease tillage(mixing of soil) :less loss of carbon in soil, use cover crops, erosion control, add compost materials - fossil fuels emitted 270 Gtons from 1850-1998 ( soil cannot store these amounts ) 3) Oceans (inorganic, living, non living organisms) - primary source of carbon storage (largest sequester of carbon we have) - plankton, algae function like plants using CO2 for photosynthesis —> Co2 absorbed from atmosphere dissolves in sea water - inorganic biotic reaction -similar to soil it allows a way to balance atmospheric carbon amounts Responsible for absorbing 1/3 of CO2 emitted by fossil fuels Ocean acidification: carbon dioxide mixes with water to make carbonic acid and then release hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion - overtime there is a built up of excess H ion that cannot be overcome -lowers pH of seawater—> ocean organisms have to use metabolic energy to maintain pH - CaCO3 is important for organisms = dissolves under saturated CO3 conditions -bicarbonate takes the CO3 from Calcium and vertebrates in ocean cannot survive Orr et al. 2005 - increasingly acidic ocean pH —> affects pteropods (calcium shell organisms) = les structure in shell and then they cannot survive as well. - they need more energy to create shells and less to foraging —> they don’t grow and die off 4) Geological (fossil fuels of dead animals that are compressed, coal, methane) ` -storing of Co2 underground in rock formations -able to retain large amounts of CO2 over long time periods - held in small pore spaces ( holding oil and natural gasses for years the excess carbon that is being released needs to be controlled - need to be stopped or storing it underground (putting it back where it came from) Biogeochemical cycle: - interchange, movement of carbon between reservoirs is dependent on: -chemical / physical / biological / geological processes Carbon Movement Seasonal changes - tightly linked to energy flow and can vary - Co2 high in winter and decline with onset of photosynthesis -High Co2 concentration on the forest floor is caused by microbial respiration -extreme weather events that are linked to the increase of carbon emissions alters the normal climate - carbon traps the heat of the sunlight and increased the energy stored Decomposition ( dead animals - carcasses) -Process: breakdown chemical bonds forms during the construction of plant/animal tissue 1) Leaching and fragmentation 2) Resulting in changes of physical/ chemical structure 3) ingestion/ excretion of waste - enters decomposition cycle to return nutrients - Respiration of dead organic matter = litter and soil organism matter - feces and other excretion. — dung beetle - dead plant material — leaf litter Decomposers: that ingest and excrete waste products to recycle dead matter (wet/ warm favored) Bacteria Fungi Detritivores: organisms that consume dead things (worms, millipedes, tadpoles) Rate of Decomposition : how fas will nutrient/ energy be available again calculate rate at which nutrients are made available to primary producers largest bottom up process Staggered release in order to provide nutrients to diverse plants (steadily available) - Mass loss —> release of CO2 (respiration) - microbial loss of carbon to atmosphere - Litter bags: pre/post masses difference can show rate Factors that Influence Decomposition - abiotic factors: moisture, temperature, humidity Photodegredation : sunlight degrade organic molecules - MORE SUN = faster rates Assists in increasing rates of decomposition -biotic factors: chemical composition of leaves, nutrient content of structure of leaves (lignin) Nitrogen levels: higher conc = higher rate of decomposition Leaf structure : higher/ more rigid. = harder to decompose Proteins/ soluable carbon are decomposed fast - Callulose, Hemicellulose, lignin(hardest) decomposed slow Results of Decomposition: Nurtient Turnover Mineralization: transformation of nutrient and other elements from organic matter into inorganic nutrient (mineral form). Organic N —> Ammonia (inorganic NH4+) 1) Leaching - nutrients lose once material is dead 2) Immobilization - microbes uptake and assimilate nutrients (reverse of mineralization/  Rates of Decomposition: minionationminiatevent M · 0 - 10 10 - 8 Net mineralization rate = rate of mineralization - immobilization I available high nutrient available I ! ( time Low nutrient uptake, High nutrient uptake, high lead low leaf litter nutrient High productivity of concentration, low net primary producers, high nutrient primary productivity return to soil low nutrient return to soil Dead Organic matter : energy source of microbial decomposer: - quality of dead OM varies dead leaf nitrogen = 0.5%-1.5% -high N content means more nutrients for decomposers C:N ratio : influenced by nutrients in the environment - Low = high protein - High = low protein, high lignin - Species with higher %N in leaves. = higher %N mineralization Overall: Primary productivity determines rate of nutrient immobilization to form nutrient uptake ( soil/ sediment —> plant/ algae) Decomposition determines the rate of transformation of organic to inorganic by N mineralization (plants/ carcasses —> soils/sediment) If a microbe utilizes leaf litter with high level N what would be the result —> High immobilization and high mineralization Terrestrial: - in 1m^2 of temperate woodland soul = 10 mill nematoads- protozoan, mites, earth worms Aquatic: fresh water e systems detritivores are diverse and separate into feeding guilds - shredders, collector gatherers, grazer scrapers, collector fitnes\ Landscape Ecology study of relationship between spatial patterns and ecological processes over a range of spatial scales - Top = dominated by urbanization - Bottom = dominated by agriculture investigates patterns across large spatial scales. ( individuals, species, community, ecosystems) - focuses on anthropogenic change and its impact Describes landscape through -size of patch, distance between patches, borders of patch, types of habitats present, # of patches Mosaic or matrix: most continuous area across heterogenous landscape - mixture of forests, agriculture, and urbanization but primarily forest= forest matrix Patch (habitat borders): homogeneous area that differs from its surroundings -forests within an agricultural landscape larger patches = support larger population sizes = less density bc larger area - process prone to extinction and can support more species Edges : borders between habitats - formed through natural feature (soil types, water salinity, land to water) -formed by habitat disturbance ( fires, urbanization, agriculture development) 1) shape of patches influences amount of edge -(Long narrow patch = more edge , less interior) -(wide long patch = less edge, more interior) 2)Edge effect : edges can shape species diversity -interior species = specialized habitat, adverse to disturbance ( ex orchids ) -edge species = generalist, can do well with disturbance (ex deer) Ecotone : transition area between the two patches -sharp and narrow. (River to land ) or wide area -associated with sharp vegetation differences, change in species within community Corridors : area of habitat connecting two patches facilitate movement, gene flow, mitigates loss of core habitat(interior) - Ex. Green Belt (Barrington Area Wildlife Corridor) Jaguars Rabinowitz and Zeller 2010: - developed maps of prime jaguar habitat, identifies 182 ideal corridors to connect habitats Connectivity: Metapopulations Metapopulations = a set of discrete sub populations connected by occasional movement of indiv between - independence of sub population depends on the amount of dispersal among them Migration Influence 1) low rate : small populations are vulnerable to extinction, need to recolonize empty patches 2)intermediate rate : unoccupied patches recolonized following local extinction, population persists 3)high rate : subpopulations act as a single large population, less likely to suffer extinction Source- Sink Dynamic: Source: High quality, population increase Sink : lower quality, population decrease Ecosystem/ Global Ecology Ecosystem ecology: study of interaction among organisms and their physical environment as integrated system - all organisms of area and the biotic/ abiotic environment, pool and fluxes - examines whole system processes autotrophs convert solar energy —> chemical energy drives metabolism of consumers > recycle Ecosystem Hierarchy: arrangement of organisms into a graded series of compartments - globe > biome> landscape > canopy > plant > leaf Ecosystem Resistance ability of an ecosystem to absorb stress/ disturbance ( population remain unchanged ) Maintaining essential characteristics/ processes Stability: measure of degree to which ecosystem changes ( less change = more stability ) - little deviation form its average state despite shifting conditions Ex. measure degree a forest changes after forest fire Resilience: ability of ecosystem ot return to original state following disturbance Ex. If a same plant species functioning in environment return following a fire after a few years Measures degree of toleration to change Resilience and Stability are measure with ecological services: - environment supplies resources and processes that benefit organisms - pollination, climate regulation, water filtration, soil erosion prevention, air filtration, insect control Threshold: level of disturbance an ecosystem can withstand before it does not function anymore - maintains photosynthesis, nutrient cycling - point at which ecosystem changes from stable —> unstable Ecosystem Function : interaction of structural components within and across ecosystems - metrics = fluxes of energy and matter across trophies even, primary production levels complementary niches : adding species would increase functions linearly Overlapping niches : continues and saturates increase functions —> more similar function *function increased as more organisms are behaving the same of there are more of same organisms Consequence of Biodiversity: - traits may mediate energy and material flow - traits may alter abiotic conditions. ( limit resource, disturbance, microclimate changes) —> Ex: beavers creating disturbances Nitrogen fibers affecting resource availability Photosynthesis more plant species = different rates of photosynthesis ==> constant photosynthesizing Nitrogen Fixation more species fixing = greater amount of N fixing Global Ecology : ecological processes that occur/ effect global scales ex: El Niño SOuthern Oscillation - warm current from West coast Peru = surface temps rise —> leads to storms over the Pacific Ocean La Niña : lowers surface temps and raises barometric pressure = droughts Human addition to N cycle - N is fixed to an extent => fossil fuels and fertilizers - increasing N Levels in ecosystem ( trees lose Carbon storage and instead soil gains Carbon Aquatic ecosystems => eutrophication with increased N level - leaches fertilizer in drinking water - synthetic fertilizer : N2 H2 (Hager Bosch process. = 80% of N in human tissue Habitat Fragmentation: creates habitat patches, decreasing core habitats —> decline of species, biodiversity, function Disjunction of habitat and loss of organisms -> leads to global decline in ecosystem services Ex: abundance/ diversity is related to % of natural habitat - (pollinators) —> 30% or more surrounding natural habitat in 1 km = more pollen distribution more pollinators = more visits per flower. = more stuff to eat Disease Ecology = understanding relationship of pathogen, hosts, and environment Pathogen: infectious, disease producing agent ( bacteria, viruses) Etiology: study of the cause of disease Reservoir: Population where a disease is dormant or active, a source of infection Vector: Any organism that carries and transmits to host Non infectious disease: caused by genetic disorders, food, the environment Infectious disease: caused by infection of a host with an organism — a pathogen Zoonotic disease: transmitted between humans and animals. ( >60% infectious agents ) - Bubonic Plague: flea -> rat -> human ( decrease human pop 450 mil to 300 mil ) Epizootic disease: outbreak where large amounts of animals die ( epidemic ) Enzootic disease: low occurrence outbreak ( endemic ) Epizootiology = how and why diseases in wildlife population occur Measure of parasite fitness : Ro Ro>1 = epidemic | Ro endemic Since 1970 >40 new infectious diseases have emerged in humans — rate of deaths are decreasing Emerging Infectious Diseases ( EIDs) pathogens entering human population for first time : HIV -1, SARS — Newly evolved stains of pathogen —> multi drug resistant tuberculosis pathogens present in humans that are increasing : Lyme Disease #385 emerging infectious disease from 1940-2014 ( 72% caused by zoonic wildlife diseases ) Why is it increasing? human population expansion, international trade, factory farming industries Humans more susceptible to antibiotic resistance , breakdown in public health guidelines Economic impact of Disease control - Hog Cholera= 79 mill , -Mad Cow= 4.4 mill cattle slaughtered Biodiversity loss: outbreaks in endangered species and small populations - Zoo captive programs, tropic cascades Infectious Diseases are more prevalent as certain times due to : changes in pathogen or host population Changes in reservoir/vector population Environmental changes Fungus/ infections affected animals causing declines in population temperature plays a role. ( warmer = more probability of infection ) Density/ change in Vector population - If transmission is directly to host — more vectors = more transmission to host Individual Impacts : lower nutritional status Reduce reproductive capacity -> lowering clutch, breed frequency, reduces young survival Increasing mortality - direct or indirectly —> could be used to control population size ( ex. Myxomatosis virus on Australian rabbits ) reduces predation Populations: - Disease and Apparent Competition : one species can outcompete if it transmits a parasite to competitor ( ex, Parapox virus ) Lyme Disease: larva and nymph stage ticks feed on mammals —> Adults feed on humans larval ticks prefer small mammals, lizards and birds because they are easier to infect Short tailed shrews feed the most larvae because they are small Skunks feed the least larvae because they are harder to get to and have defense smaller patch since resisted in less density of nymphs and less infection prevalence Invasive species - species that is somewhere it is not meant to be - non indigenous species -aliens species -non native species -introduced species -exotic species Ex: Asian carp that originated in Asia and were imported into the Great Lakes Illinois Biological invasions : when an introduces species has invaded and it establishes self sustaining population (it is surviving and reproducing) - True invasion if it is established beyond natural range -anthropogenic global change that is caused by humans rates of invaders has increased at fast rate by the result of increased human activity Ex: big ship sucks up water from US —> dumping water at new location (moving organisms too) How it occurs : - foreign produce, exotic animal imports, natural disaster, human travel across borders 1) Regional invasive pool => dispersal 2) colonization of local areas (Asian hornets of Washington Oregon) short window of time increase populations — hard to prevent bc numbers are high 3) proliferation and survival => expand/ increase habitat space/ invasive pool Mechanisms of introduction: deliberate - packing : 1800s jade and other trade item in packs with grass - ornamental plants : the crops/ plants that we grow in yards - agricultural : development of crop growing - biological control: we take another organism to eat out original organism. Accidental - travel, trade, ballast water, parasites - ex: Zebra muscles in Detroit —> filter feeders Barriers to establishment of invasive species Donor region —> geographic barrier —> physiological barrier —>demographic resist—> biotic resist —> recipient region must break through in order to establish population in new region Hawaii: set of islands is hard to invade, miles from the coast line —> invader introduced by humans - before settlement : 1 invader per 30,000 years -after settlement: 1 per 50 years -recent in century : 1 invader every 3 weeks — 20 per year Negatives of this: invaders costs 140 billion dollars for US - messes up crops. ( 25% of agriculture is ruined by agricultural pests ) 1/2 threatened or endangered species are at risk by competition of non native species Competitive Release Hypothesis: - lack of predators, disease, competition —> release them from constraints on population - invasive organisms spread rapidly because they are liberated from coevolved natural enemy ↳ invasive other invasive Factor byease enem Non inv despite enemy e release low level of enemy nich Theories explain why/ how species become invasive : natural enemy escape (predator) —> exotics are released from natural enemies that control pop. Novel weapons —> exotics bring novel ways of biochemical interaction of recipient community \ Evolution of Invasiveness ( EICA): rapid genetic space due to new environment Evolution (vacant) niche : resources that are left available by absentee native Invasion Meltdown: facilitates colonization and success of the success of other exotics Invasive species activity - removal of competition : lower meadow native plants reduce the production of knapweeds —> upper meadow does not work the same - introduction of beetles : decrease the biomass and the number of flowers of knapweed - different treatment of herbicide : 1st treatments are better than repetitive treatment —> potential of increasing richness -ungrazed/ grazed : ungrazed were affected more by herbicide - herbicide treatment : killed both native and exotics while the exotics can grow back faster Best approach : start with the control of beetles to kill knapweed, risky but could work Interactive effects: climate change and invasive species - many species are not physiologically adapted to expand their range - too cold for pythons to move out of Florida —> as climate warms then animals may be introduced into other geographic regions - changes in habitat could facilitate aquatic invasive species Earth’s water - 95% oceans , 5% freshwater ( ground water / glaciers and caps / surface freshwater Surface water = water on the surface of the earth as in oceans, ponds, lakes, streams, wetlands etc what we drink as water Ground water = the water beneath the surface of the ground: mostly surface water seeped into soil underground aquifer, flows in random directions beneath soil Aquifer: larger underground lakes. ( majority of drinking water ) Our water = Lake Michigan (700million gall/day) treated water [ surface water] water pumped from shore intake valve and undergoes filtering until it is distributed to water plants Water footprint: cup of tea = 34 L of water , banana = 159 L , cotton = 2498 L , steak = 15k L one acre of corn : 600k gal of water , 160 lb nitrogen, 40 lb phosphorus ( 3500 cans of baking powder Water Withdrawal: if rate of withdrawal > rate of recharging it can deplete the aquifer and leave dry wells High plains aquifer is almost about to be dry, takes years to fill up Pollution: heavy metals ( arsenic ), pollutants that run off, transpose from atmosphere Neurological effects, nervous system, tissue issues, cardiovascular system, respiratory system Water shortages : precipitation is not equally distributed throughout the world High demand for water bc more humans, low supply due to pollution and waste - average American uses 60 gal of water per day — Europe uses half as much increase amount of impervious surface ( pavement, roofs) Decreased water is diverted to recharging ground water increase demand of water for agricultural use Climate changes -precipitation decreased in areas with low water. ( Mediterranean, Southeast Asia -increased floods Drought: exists when rainfall for a period of 21 days or longer is substantially below average - dry spells and water shortages are linked to climate change Ecological Effects: Anthropogenic litter [ garbage ] = great pacific garbage patch - collected trash in the Pacific Ocean that flows in a whirl \\\\\ —> leads to animal abuse and loss of habitat “gyre” collection of microplastic called nurdle Hollerin et al 2014 quantified garb as in local lentic and local lotic habitat Diverse garbage accumulated in rivers primarily Plastics: byproducts of oil synthesis it was created in mid 1970s - breaks down after time, by getting degraded to smaller pieces Weathering: throwing plastics in water to mechanically, microbial, and photo degrade into the benthic zone where decomposes can process them A Types = - PET = polyethylene teraphthalate - PVC = polyvinyl chloride Micro plastics : anything smaller than 5 mm of plastic - Dec 28 2015 : Obama signed microbead free water act prohibiting it in skin care / body care Pollution Pharmaceuticals - Hormone Disruptors : chemical pollutants that alter the hormonal system of animals that ingest them - low level exposure can disrupt animal reproduction and development (deformities, skew ratios prescription drugs : released through urine of humans and animals that released in to surface w waters is showing to hill / affect aquatic organisms\ more suburbs = more feminine frogs. = more chance they wold survive —> more development = more estrogen. , more septic/ server = more estrogen What can be done ? - Clean water act 1972 — except for traveling water - Water waitlist act - Trump administration rolls back the prohibit output control = treate pollutant tehiere point source Input control = changing to non pollution unpins at the point of source Throughout control = alter te r production of waste by adjustments of substances flowing through a surface To increase water supply control population Water conservation Stop polluting water conserve remaining water Develop more ground water sources Reclamation of sewage water Desalinating seawater Rainmaking Global Climate Change 88,000+ peer reviewed science agrees that it is a human caused issue - 47 years left of oil , 50 years of natural gas , 111 years of coal left remaining combined fossil fuel derived energy will last until around 2080 —> earth will need 2000 years to repair from loss of all fossil fuels - at 2*C change increase of global temps will cause devastating effects 55% is climate skeptic : climate is changing slow therefore due to solar flares and not humans - excuses human cause of global climate change Natural climate change - temp fluctuates naturally as earth orbits the sun ( eccentricity ) rotating closer or farther from sun - earth is closer to sun certain times of the year , eccentricity varies over time -Precession: angle at which earth tilts varies 40,000 year cycle —> leads to ice age or over heating of the earth depending on cycle high degree tilt = stronger seasons More solar radiation hitting earth = higher global temps Milankovitch cycle: outlines the state of precession and eccentricity of the earth to predict temps - 40-50,000 years into ice age / out Current day : we should be entering an ice age since we are tilted away and farther in orbit to the sun - ice cores represent million years of data: used to to analyze atmosphere CO2 -temperature from CO2 data can be concluded. = more Co2 = higher temperature Greenhouse effect : sun hits earth -> some bounces back -> sunlight is trapped by gases blanket - more gasses = more sun trapped —> humans created a thicker blanket of gas by emitting fossil fuels Current CO2 = 422.38 ppm compared to last year at 418 Highest spike recorded in less than 200 years, temperature changes over 30 years Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ; they interpret climate data to assess climate change Posted 6 assessments from March 20 2023 — submitted to educate public and government Consequences loss of sea ice sheets and glaciers, they are not replenishing themselves when the winter is back Staring from 2010 ice would not accumulate and refreeze —> rises in sea level when ice caps melt and swelling of water - coupled with increase temps. = albedo effect - thermal expansion. : warm water expands in 2100 a 2.53 ft sea level rise is predicte and 1.5 C temp rise South Florida, New Orleans, Washington DC underwater 216 feet rise of all glaciers melt, currently temp increase is 1*C since 1880 Consequences : by the end of the century Illinois climate will be like Texas/ Oklahoma Can allure agriculture land and natural ecosystems Climate change effect on agriculture - northern hemisphere would be projected to increase productivity while decrease in western - plant hardiness zones shift towards the north adapting to it (plants adapting to climate) - extreme weather events : increase heat waves, extremely hot seasons than the past - small changes of climate. = higher probability for extreme weather Human health - US Health cost $9,000/person/year -1/3 of US health care costs are results of burning fossil fuels ( 30-40% death by pollution) If fossil fuel companies burn all of their fuel —> 600 ppm CO2, temps will increase 6 degrees Ecological effects - Ocean : absorbs 80% of heat added to earth — heat up the water and does poor in experiments - species respond differently to fluctuation of temperatures. -Phenology. ( when things occur ) and distribution changes in the ocean —> organisms will shift their normal habits seasonally —> species will expand their ranges while other contract their ranges to be confined -Krill: caused decrease in penguin population, loss of sea ice in North Pole decreased arctic cod —>decline of krill in Antarctica leads to loss of billions of dollars Species Distribution Model 1) where do species live ( museum collection ) 2) correlate localities to habitat/ climate variables 3) compute algorithms to determine suitable habitat for toad 4) project distribution need on suitable habitat climate hangs is out friendly to amphibians Phenology: - migrating birds are returning to summer home earlier - bird clutch success related to amount of food - birds migrate by celestial cues and resource availability Pathogens/ parasites/ Diseases general pattern of increase temp = increase disease/ parasite prevalence EX: North American deer dealing with parasite CYBD ( related the most to temp increase) tropic ecosystems show that in climate kills parasite To stabilize: avoid the CO2 levels stabalized at 550 ppm or 2 *C — at 422 ppm at 1*C Stabilize current emission: Globally carbon free by 2050 Implement large mitigation strategies. ( palanting trees ) Carbon sequestering through plants/ soil, Mitigation focuses on limiting greenhouse Support carbon tax, h