Is the Bible Really the Word of God? PDF

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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/380288782 IS THE BIBLE REALLY THE WORD OF GOD? Book · May 2024 CITATION READS 1 680 1 author: Isaac Boaheng Methodist Church Ghana 125 PUBLICATIONS 110 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Isaac Boaheng on 02 May 2024. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE IS THE BIBLE REALLY THE WORD OF GOD? Isaac Boaheng Department of Theology Christian Service University College, Kumasi (Ghana) Research Fellow, Department of Biblical and Religious Studies University of the Free State, South Africa. Foreword by: Rev. Prof. Frederick Mawusi Amevenku  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE IS THE BIBLE REALLY THE WORD OF GOD? ISAAC BOAHENG Copyright © 2024 Noyam ISBN 978-9988-9389-2-5 DOI: 10.38159/npub.eb2024401 Published in Ghana by Noyam All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For further information or permission, contact: Noyam – [email protected] Tel: +23353142920  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE DEDICATION To my mother: Mad. Mary Ampomah To my wife: Mrs. Gloria Boaheng To my five adorable children: Christian, Benedict, Julia, Kalix and Myjiloy. It is my prayer that you grow to become spiritual intellectuals for the Church, the family, the nation and the world at large. Amen!  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The task of publishing this book was accomplished through the efforts of many individuals who need to be appreciated. Though so many people contributed in their special ways towards the completion of this work, I take the sole responsibility for any shortfall(s) found in the book. My highest appreciation goes to the Triune God, in whom I live, move and have my being. I am indebted to many scholars whose works were consulted in preparing the manuscript. I am extremely grateful to Rev. Prof. Frederick Mawusi Amevenku for writing the foreword to this publication after a critical review of the manuscript. I also thank Rev. Dr. Kwaku Boamah for writing an introduction to the entire study. I owe a profound gratitude to my parents, Mr. Noah Nti (posthumously) and Mad. Mary Ampomah, not only for availing themselves to be the channel through which God brought me into this world but also for their care, love and godly upbringing. Many thanks to my wife, Mrs. Gloria Boaheng and our children, Christian Adom-Boaheng, Benedict Adu- Boaheng, Julia Ampomah-Boaheng, Kalix Nti-Boaheng and Myjiloy Twenewaa-Boaheng for their sacrifice, encouragement and prayers. May God richly bless my siblings, Mr. Yaw Boahen, Mr. Kofi Boachie, Mr. Samuel Boahen, Mr. Hayford ii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Ampaabeng Kyeremeh, Mr. Collins Frimpong, and Mr. Solomon Amoh for their encouragement, support and love. The leaderships of The Most Reverends Dr. Robert K. Aboagye-Mensah, Prof. Emmanuel K. Asante, (both Past Presiding Bishops, Methodist Church Ghana [MCG]), Titus Awotwe Pratt (the Immediate Past Presiding Bishop, MCG), and Dr. Paul K. Boafo (current Presiding Bishop, MCG) have contributed to my Christian, ministerial, intellectual and leadership development in various ways. I salute you all. I am also grateful to the Rt. Rev. Daniel K. Tannor (immediate past Bishop of Sunyani Diocese) for his fatherly role and encouragement throughout my ministry. I also thank the Very Rev. Prof. John D. K. Ekem for his encouragement and support towards my ministerial and academic endeavours. I am also grateful to reverends Alex Gyabaa (General Overseer of Agape Evangelical Church, Ghana), Daniel Asomah Gyabaa, Jonathan Amankwaa Oppong, Isaac Nyanful, Samuel Asare-Antwarko, Benjamin Arthur, Ebenezer Asibu Dadzie Jnr., Isaac Oduro-Boateng, Christian Meteku, Emmanuel Misiame, as well as Mr. Charles Adu Ofori, Mad. Mary Twenewaa, Mr. Isaac Adu-Ofori, Mr. George Adu Prempeh, Mr. Seth Adu-Ofori, Mr. Samuel Adu Gyamfi, Mr. Andrew Oppong-Mensah and Mr. Jonas Kwaku Yeboah, Mr. Christian Yeboah, Miss Yaa Serwaa, Mr. Effah Korsah, Mad. iii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Afia Aframa, Bro. Emmanuel Abeka, Bro. Isaac Justice Osei (minister-in-training), Ev. Frank Gyabaah, Ev. Felix Omari Ampadu, Mr. Asiedu Anthony and family (Berekum) for supporting my life and ministry in diverse ways. The staff of St. Paul’s University Library are appreciated for allowing me to conduct part of the research that yielded this publication in their well-resourced library. Finally, I appreciate the efforts of the staff of Noyam Publishers for the good work done. Soli Deo Gloria! — To God alone be the glory! iv  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION......................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................v FOREWORD.......................................................................... ix PREFACE............................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.............................................. xiv PONDER THESE WORDS...................................................xv INTRODUCTION................................................................ xvi CHAPTER ONE.......................................................................1 INTRODUCING CHRISTIAN APOLOGETICS....................1 Defining Christian Apologetics............................................1 Biblical foundations of Christian Apologetics.....................2 Functions of Christian Apologetics......................................5 Christian Apologetics and Evangelism................................7 CHAPTER TWO....................................................................15 WHAT IS THE BIBLE?........................................................15 The Bible as Divine Revelation..........................................15 The Dual Nature of the Bible.............................................16 The Inspiration of the Bible................................................19 The Inerrancy of the Bible..................................................24 The Four Attributes of the Bible........................................31 What makes the Bible a unique book?...............................36 Conclusion..........................................................................41 v  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE CHAPTER THREE................................................................42 DOES THE BIBLE CONTAIN THE RIGHT BOOKS?.......42 What is the Biblical Canon?..............................................42 Canonization of the Old Testament....................................44 Official recognition of the canon at Jumnia.......................49 How were the books of the Old Testament selected?.........50 Canonization of the New Testament..................................52 How were the books of the New Testament selected?.......59 What about the so-called Old Testament missing books?..60 What about the so-called New Testament missing books? 65 Conclusion..........................................................................67 CHAPTER FOUR..................................................................69 IS THE OLD TESTAMENT HISTORICALLY ACCURATE?................................................................................................69 Accuracy in Manuscript Transmission...............................69 Copyist errors.....................................................................73 The Testimony of Abundant Hebrew Manuscripts............77 The Testimony of Ancient Versions...................................79 The Testimony of Archeology............................................82 Conclusion..........................................................................87 CHAPTER FIVE....................................................................89 IS THE NEW TESTAMENT HISTORICALLY ACCURATE?.........................................................................89 The Testimony of Abundant Greek Manuscripts...............89 The Testimony of the Church Fathers................................95 vi  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE The Testimony of Archeology............................................96 Conclusion........................................................................102 CHAPTER SIX....................................................................104 WHAT ABOUT “APPARENT CONTRADICTIONS” IN THE BIBLE?........................................................................104 Cases from the Old Testament.........................................104 Are there two contradictory creation accounts?...........104 Where did Cain get his wife?.......................................105 How could God condemn human sacrifice and yet command it?.................................................................107 Was God known by His name Yahweh before Moses’ time?.............................................................................109 How could God harden Pharaoh’s heart and yet hold Pharaoh responsible?....................................................111 How could God “give” Saul’s wives to David without endorsing polygamy?....................................................113 Cases from the New Testament........................................115 Why are the Gospel accounts sometimes different?.....115 Why was Jesus not called Immanuel?..........................116 Was Jesus interred for three days?...............................118 What inscription was written on Jesus’ cross?.............120 Was Jesus crucified in the third hour or the sixth hour?......................................................................................121 How many angels were at Jesus’ tomb?.......................124 How could Jesus be God and yet be tempted when the Bible says God cannot be tempted?..............................125 Did Judas hang himself or did he fall headlong?.........126 vii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Is justification by faith or works (Paul vs. James)?......128 Before concluding that there are errors in the Bible …....129 Conclusion........................................................................131 CHAPTER SEVEN..............................................................132 ARE MODERN TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE TRUSTWORTHY?..............................................................132 What is Bible Translation?...............................................132 Philosophies of Bible Translation....................................133 Why are there so many versions of the Bible?.................135 Are Revised Editions of the Bible watering down God’s word?................................................................................137 Are there Bible verses missing in our modern Bibles?....141 For what reasons are these verses “missing”?..............143 What do the “missing” verses really say?........................145 Are these verses really missing?.......................................147 Conclusion........................................................................148 CONCLUDING ISSUES.....................................................149 Is the “Ancient Book” still relevant today?......................149 So, is the Bible really the word of God?..........................151 How are we to interpret the Bible?...................................152 What next?........................................................................155 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................157 SUBJECT INDEX................................................................164 ABOUT AUTHOR...............................................................168 viii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE FOREWORD In the book, “Is the Bible Really the Word of God?”, Rev. Dr. Isaac Boaheng, a young, upcoming and enterprising theologian gathers valuable data to explain why the Bible must be accepted as the ONLY inspired Word of God. This well-researched and yet accessible book is the author’s contribution to a lofty goal of seeing a vibrant Christian Apologetic Movement in Ghana to defend the Bible against unjustified attacks. One key feature of the book is the author’s attempt to respond to wild allegations against the Bible in an objective and open-minded manner. In doing this, the author is generous enough to even address certain ignorant allegations against some specific versions of the Bible by some Christian leaders who should have known better. The honest inquirer has a lot to reflect upon as offered by this book. I heartily recommend this book to anyone desirous of understanding what it means to say that the Bible is the Word of God. Besides, those who are seeking answers regarding how to explain some of the so-called “apparent contradictions” in the Bible will find the book most helpful. It is noteworthy that the book further attempts to enlist and encourage every believer as an ardent Christian Apologist, defending the faith ix  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE everywhere. Rev. Dr. Boaheng deserves much commendation for his bold effort. Rev. Prof. Frederick Mawusi Amevenku Associate Professor in New Testament Studies Trinity Theological Seminary, Legon, Ghana x  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE PREFACE I have had the dream to publish a book on Apologetics for several years now. However, the immediate impetus for writing this book came from the experience of delivering a paper on the topic “The Bible: Fiction, Fable or Fact?” to the Brong-Ahafo Regional Scripture Union during their maiden “Holiday Bible School” program held in Sunyani, Ghana. As I delivered the paper, I became aware, on the one hand, of the immediate relevance of this material for the reading public, and, on the other hand, the lack of an adequate, recent, easy-to-read study to put in their hands. This book is my modest attempt to present a concise, systematic, logical and practical treatment of key questions related to the authenticity of the Christian Bible. The book is organized into seven main chapters aside from the general introduction and conclusion. After a general introduction to the study, the first chapter highlights key aspects of Christian Apologetics. The second chapter deals with major features of the Bible, including the inspiration, inerrancy, authority, sufficiency, clarity, necessity and uniqueness of Scripture. The third chapter focuses on how the sixty-six (66) books of the Bible were recognized and accepted as Scripture. The study notes that the writing and selection of the books of the Bible was a divine act whereby God led the church to xi  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE recognize His inspired books as Scripture from among so many other writings. In the fourth chapter, the study contends for the reliability of the Old Testament based on the accuracy of Hebrew manuscript transmission, evidence from abundant manuscripts available today as well as witnesses of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ancient versions and Archeology. The authenticity of the New Testament is also substantiated in the fifth chapter based on the testimonies of abundant Greek manuscripts, of the Church Fathers, and Archeological discoveries. The sixth chapter considers cases of alleged errors and contradictions in the Bible. The claim that the Bible has been corrupted through various translations and revisions as well as allegations of missing New Testament verses are considered in chapter seven. The book concludes by looking at the applicability of the “ancient book” to contemporary situations and then draws vital conclusions from the entire study. Putting all the chapters together, the book contends that the Bible is the ONLY authoritative and inspired word of God, and as such, must have the final authority in matters related to faith and practice. In preparing this book, I tried as much as possible to avoid the use of technical terms but where they have been used, explanations have been provided for each of them. The use of xii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE simple, straightforward language makes this study accessible to Christians who want to firm up their faith in God’s word, the Bible. I am very hopeful that a critical engagement with the book will increase one’s confidence in the Bible more than ever before. ISAAC BOAHENG (PhD) 1ST MAY, 2024 SUNYANI, GHANA xiii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Bible Translations and others AD In the year of the Lord BC Before Christ cf confer LXX Septuagint NIV New International Version NLT New Living Translation NRSV New Revised Standard Version Books of the Bible Old Testament books Gen, Exod, Lev, Num, Deut, Josh, Judg, Ruth, 1-2 Sam, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chron, Ezra, Neh, Est, Job, Psa, Prov, Eccles, Song, Isa, Jer, Lam, Ezek, Dan, Hos, Joel, Amos, Obad, Jonah, Mic, Nah, Hab, Zeph, Hag, Zech, Mal New Testament books Matt, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Rom, 1-2 Cor, Gal, Eph, Phil, Col, 1-2 Thess, 1-2 Tim, Titus, Philem, Heb, James, 1-2 Pet, 1- 3 John, Jude, Rev Deuterocanonical books Tob, Sir, 1&2 Macc xiv  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE PONDER THESE WORDS What then, are you God, if not the Lord? For who is Lord but the Lord? Or who is God save our God? Highest and best, powerful, almighty, most merciful and just, deeply hidden and yet omnipresent, beautiful, strong, stable yet incomprehensible, renewing all things while you yourself endure; neither new nor old, but making everything new; bringing the proud to decay without their realizing it; ever active and yet at rest, ever gathering, yet not in want. You uphold, satisfy, protect, create, nourish and bring perfection. You seek what you do not need. You love, but with no passionate feeling; you are jealous, but without anxiety or fear, you repent, but do not grieve; in anger you are calm; you change your actions but not your plans; you take back what you find without having ever lost it; never needy, yet you are content with gain; never greedy, you demand excess profit from your loans. You are overpaid, and yet who has anything not yours already? And what have we actually said, my God, my holy sweetness and life? What can anyone succeed in saying when attempting to talk about you? Yet, woe to those who fail to speak of you altogether. Even the dumb speak of you. (St. Augustine of Hippo, 354-430 AD) xv  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE INTRODUCTION (by Rev. Dr. Kwaku Boamah) Religious pluralism (that is, the existence of diverse religious faiths in a given society) has prompted various religions to intensify efforts geared toward making converts. Consequently, there are so many voices from different religious groups─ Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam, African Traditional Religion and others─ appealing to people day in, and day out. In the process of presenting their message, some religions resort to attacks on others. The Christian faith has suffered such attacks throughout its history, but more so in the 21st century. There are numerous attacks on the Bible. Critics allege that the Bible is full of contradictions, errors and fabricated stories. Consequently, there are many Christians whose confidence in the Bible as the word of God keeps reducing. The need for a study that investigates critics’ claims about the Bible is therefore a key theological concern, especially in Ghana/Africa where literature dealing with alleged contradictions and errors (among others) is lacking. Is the Bible Really the Word of God? presents to us and generations to be born, questions that have plagued many minds in Christianity from its origin to today and will most surely afflict future generations. In this book, one can find a critical treatment of the central issues of Christian development, particularly around the development of scriptures. The text xvi  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE skillfully unravels the many arguments, contests and issues round the Christian Holy Book, the Bible; from its formation to acceptance, giving credence to its contents and intent in the building of Christian theology. The book is an exercise in Christian Apologetics aimed at investigating key questions raised by critics about the Christian view that the Bible as the only inspired and authoritative word of God to humanity. The key question of investigation is: “On what basis should we trust the Bible as the only authoritative and inspired Word of God?” To answer this question fully, the study attempts to answer subsidiary questions like: What is the Bible? How did we get the Bible? Has the Bible been preserved accurately for thousands of years as a unique revelation from God till today? Are there really factual mistakes and contradictions in the Bible? Have the different translations of the Bible not compromised the original message of the Bible? Are there verses missing in our Bibles? Is the Bible vital and relevant today? The author has organized his study into seven chapters as follows: Chapter One, “Introducing Christian Apologetics” deals with introductory issues to the subject of Apologetics in order to prepare the reader for the chapters that follow. In Chapter Two, “What is the Bible”, the author highlights key elements of the Bible, including the inspiration, inerrancy, authority, sufficiency, clarity, necessity and uniqueness of xvii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Scripture. Chapter three answers the question of how the sixty- six (66) books of the Bible were recognized and accepted as Scripture while the fourth and fifth chapters consider the historical trustworthiness of the Old and the New Testaments of the Bible. These chapters establish the accuracy of the Bible based on the accuracy of text transmission, archaeological discoveries, witnesses from abundant manuscript copies and other factors. The sixth chapter then considers so-called “contradictions” in the Bible by examining sample texts from both the Old and the New Testaments. The claim that the Bible has been corrupted through various translations and revisions as well as allegations of missing New Testament verses are considered in chapter seven. Finally, the book concludes by looking at the applicability of the “ancient book” to contemporary situations and then draws vital conclusions from the entire study. Throughout the book, the author contends that the Bible is the ONLY authoritative and inspired word of God, and as such must have the final authority in matters related to faith and practice. The study has the potential of equipping Christians to respond to objections raised against their faith, particularly in relation to the authenticity of the Bible. This text is extremely useful to theologians, Biblicists, Historians and the Religious community in general. Though the subject it deals with is technical, the boo in an enviably unsophisticated manner xviii  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE without losing any essence makes an impacton the life of targeted readers- educated and uneducated, believers and unbelievers all alike. This text is equally useful for the pulpit and the classroom, no one is left out. It must be found on every bookshelfand under the pillows of all mankind irrespective of race, education, spirituality and age. It is a desirable text. The introductory matters examined briefly have set the agenda for the book. In the chapters that follow, the author will be treating various aspects of his main research question. xix  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCING CHRISTIAN APOLOGETICS Defining Christian Apologetics From the Greek noun apologia, the word Apologetics refers to a judicial term implying a reasoned argument, vindication, or defense. It appears eight times in the New Testament in reference to a legal defense given in response to an accusation in the courtroom. Apologetics does not mean apologizing, as if Christians should say sorry for believing in Christ. According to Douglas Groothuis, Christian Apologetics is “the rational defense of the Christian worldview as objectively true, rationally compelling and existentially or subjectively engaging.”1 For William Lane Craig, “Apologetics is that branch of Christian theology which seeks to provide a rational justification for the truth claims of the Christian faith.”2 Based on these definitions, I define Christian Apologetics as the task of developing and sharing arguments for the trustworthiness and rationality of the Christian worldview and against the untrustworthiness and irrationality of alternative worldviews 1 Douglas Groothuis, Christian Apologetics: A Comprehensive Case for Biblical Faith (Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 2011), 24. 2 William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2008), 15. (pdf) 1  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE with the objective of provoking unbelievers to consider Christ and strengthening the faith of believers. Biblical foundations of Christian Apologetics Both the Old and the New Testaments repeatedly emphasize that the defense of faith is an important part of the spiritual life of a Christian. It is for this reason that both Testaments contain several examples of apologetic conversations. The Mt. Carmel Contest between Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18) could be considered a form of apologetic ministry in which Elijah sought to prove the uniqueness and validity of the religious beliefs of Israel as against that of Baal worshippers. In his battle with Goliath, David sought to prove to all the earth “that there is a God in Israel” (1 Sam 17:46). Daniel defended his faith against the pagan religion of Babylon when he was taken into exile. In the New Testament, we find several apologetic encounters and appeals (cf. Luke 1:1-4; John 20:19-29; John 21:24-25). Though not an apologist or a philosophy (in the strict sense), Jesus defended the truthfulness of the word of God. His apologetic and philosophic abilities made him respond accurately to the intellectual challenges he faced during his ministry. For example, the Sadducees attempted to trap Jesus by questioning him about the afterlife. They did not believe in life after death as the Pharisees did. Belief in angels and spirits 2  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE or any other books than the Pentateuch was also not entertained by the Sadducees. Therefore, they asked Jesus, “Moses told us that if a man dies without having children, his brother must marry the widow and have children for him” (Matt 22:24). They moved on to find out about what would happen after the resurrection for a woman who is married to and then widowed by seven brothers, none of whom she had any child for (verse 28). The Sadducees had a very brilliant argument. In response, Jesus told them there would be no marriages after the resurrection because people would be like angels (verses 30- 32). Jesus’ response not only challenged the Sadducees' disbelief in the resurrection, but it also affirmed the existence of angels. This is a complete apologetic response. Paul also demonstrates the use of Apologetics in evangelism when he met the Athenians (Acts 17). Athens in the days of Paul had many intellectuals and philosophers. Paul was distressed because the city was full of idols (verse 16). Paul adopts a strategy of not condemning them but to reason with them (in the Synagogue). He encountered “a group of Epicurean and Stoic philosophers” (verse 18). Paul begins his defense by noting that they were “very religious,” given their many “objects of worship” (verses 22-23). He uses the ideal of the many gods they serve to introduce to them the Almighty God, who created the entire universe and sustains it (verses 24- 25; cf. Heb 1:3). In so doing, Paul sets up a sharp antithesis 3  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE between Christianity and the philosophical thoughts of the two groups he encountered. The Stoics believed in an impersonal “world soul” while the Epicureans believed in many gods who had no interest in human affairs. Paul makes a case for the Creator who is personal, transcendent, immanent and relational. He continues to make contact with their worldview by citing Greek poets, “‘For in him we live and move and have our being.’ As some of your own poets have said, ‘We are his offspring’” (verse 28). Paul acknowledges that though the Greeks had a wrong view of God, they had some sense of human dependence on the divine. He uses this as a common ground to make his point and to appeal to them. In making his case, Paul points out that in the past God overlooked human ignorance about Himself, but now “He has set a day when He will judge the world with justice by the man He has appointed.” God has proven this by raising Christ from the dead (verses 30- 31). In all Paul’s defense of the Christian faith makes people thirst more for more of his speech, some even becoming his followers (verses 32-34). The Lord, through the apostle Peter, the first apologist at Pentecost, commands all believers to be ever ready to defend the Christian faith “with gentleness and respect” (1 Pet 3:15- 16). Since the letter of 1 Peter is addressed to the Church, the command to give an apology is not given to a handful of carefully selected specialists but to all believers. Jude also 4  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE encourages his readers to contend for the faith against those who would like to distort the Christian message (see Jude 3). In short, making a defense to those who question the Christian faith is part of our spiritual duty. No Christian can excuse himself/herself. Functions of Christian Apologetics Apologetics has many functions which may be categorized into four.3 The first function is vindication or proof (that is, positive Apologetics) which involves the use of philosophical arguments and evidence from science, archaeology, and history to make a positive case for the Christian faith as a belief system that must be accepted. It provides historical, evidential, and logical arguments in support of the truth of the Christian faith. The second function is defense (negative Apologetics), which involves defending Christianity against the numerous attacks made against it in every generation by critics of different religions or even atheists. It focuses on such areas as claims of contradictions in the Bible, alternative interpretations of historical and scientific evidence and misconceptions about Christian belief. By so doing, defensive Apologetics provides people with reasons not to disbelieve that Christianity is true. 3 What follows has been gleaned from Kenneth D. Boa, “What is Apologetics” in Ted Cabal (ed.), CSB Apologetics Study Bible (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2007), xxv. 5  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Thirdly, Apologetics refutes belief systems that oppose the Christian belief system. In this regard, it shows that non- Christian belief systems are unreasonable or irrational. Here, the focus is not on specific attacks against Christianity but on responding to arguments that non-Christians make in support of their own beliefs. Furthermore, Apologetics has a persuasive role, which includes not merely convincing people about the truth of the Christian faith but also persuading them to apply this truth to their lives. Apologetics therefore has a practical application. All Christians must involve themselves in Apologetics so that they may be well grounded in the faith and help others to overcome doubt. The content of this book is more of the first and second functions of Apologetics than the third and fourth. In addition to these four well-known functions of Apologetics, I add “cultural” Apologetics which focuses on two major intellectual fronts. The first aspect addresses the ideas or ideological influences common to a given culture. These ideas surreptitiously shape the worldview of people in a community in an osmotic fashion. These factors which secretly inform people’s worldview are like the air we breathe; we scarcely give them a thought. The second aspect pertains to social issues and their underlying worldview, mostly expressed in the cultural debates over moral and ethical questions like abortion, surrogacy, and homosexuality, to name but a few. The 6  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE respective positions often represent opposing views of reality and the nature of humankind; yet whichever moral perspective—and its underlying worldview—gains social acceptance, this tends to form the consensus view of reality. Christian Apologetics and Evangelism Besides the general roles of Apologetics outlined above, I want to consider how Apologetics can facilitate evangelism. Groothuis asserts that “The defense of the Christian faith as objectively true, rationally compelling and subjectively engaging … plays a leading role in evangelism.”4 Therefore, ministerial training must aim at producing apologetic evangelists who can evangelize apologetically because apologetic evangelism is very much appropriate in our postmodern world. Apologetics can be very useful before, during and after evangelism. Sharing this view, Frame asserts that Christian Apologetics and evangelism are “perspectively related” ─ that is, “godly reasoning based on Scripture” is perspectively related to “the conversion of sinners.”5 In other words, apologetic persuasions have an evangelistic end. 4 Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 28. 5 Frame as quoted in Max H. Sotak, Apologetic evangelism and personal rectitude: The existential perspective in Francis Schaeffer’s trilogy (Unpublished PhD Thesis: North-West University, 2012), 57. (pdf) 7  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE First of all, Christian Apologetics can be used as a pre- evangelism tool to bridge intellectual barriers─ which include misunderstanding of the concept of God, the Gospel and sin, worldview clashes, not hearing the gospel, misunderstanding of evidence for God, pluralism and relativism (philosophical & religious)─ that “hinder people from embracing Christ as Lord…”6, as Groothuis puts it. Groothuis further notes that in a highly academic setting “where unbelief has become second nature for so many”, philosophical Apologetics is required to prepare grounds “for evangelism to become even a possibility.”7 In this case, Apologetics can be used in a pragmatic way to substantiate the truth of Christianity and to prepare the minds of unbelievers to believe. This may involve arguments from History, Philosophy, Archaeology, Logic, Science, Culture and so on, to remove intellectual stumbling blocks and make a reasonable case to persuade the unbeliever. As Gordon R. Lewis points out, “Apologetic argument may not create belief, but it creates the atmosphere in which belief can come to life.”8 J. Gresham Machen confirmed this point when he wrote: God usually exerts power [for conversion] in connection with certain prior conditions of the human mind, and it 6 Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 28. 7 Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 28. 8 Gordon R. Lewis, Testing Christianity’s Truth Claims (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1990), 23. 8  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE should be ours to create, so far as we can, with the help of God, those favorable conditions for the reception of the gospel. False ideas are the greatest obstacles to the reception of the gospel. We may preach with all the fervour of a reformer and yet succeed only in winning a straggler here and there, if we permit the whole collective thought of the nation or of the world to be controlled by ideas which, by the resistless force of logic, permit Christianity from being regarded as anything more than a harmless delusion.9 To this end, Apologetics provides the best answer to the question, “Why should I believe that Christianity is true?” And in so doing, Apologetics convinces and persuades “the questioner of the truthfulness of Christianity. Apologetics provides reasons to believe, both in defending the Gospel and in proclaiming it.”10 That is bridge-building. That Christian Apologetics is used today in building bridges or points of contact is carefully expounded by McGrath who contends that “The chief goal of Christian Apologetics is to create an intellectual and imaginative climate conducive to the birth and nurture of faith.”11 William Lane Craig argues further, saying, 9 Machen as cited in Groothuis, Christian Apologetics, 28. 10 Brian Auten, A case for Apologetics accessed at www.apologetics315.com on June 21, 2015, 9. 11 Alister McGrath, Bridge Building (Leicester: IVP, 1994), 9. 9  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE “[…] Apologetics specifically serves to show to unbelievers the truth of the Christian faith, to confirm that faith to believers, and to reveal and explore the connections between Christian doctrine and other truths.12 When factors that hinder the acceptance of the Christian message are removed, it helps sincere inquirers to take a leap of faith and accept the Lord Jesus Christ as their personal Savior. The point so far is that Apologetics, as Wilkinson notes, bridges the gap “between contemporary culture and the Christian faith.”13 Secondly, Apologetics is used during evangelism or even after evangelism to defend the gospel message against criticism or attacks. The evangelist must discern the state of the questioner and provide an answer to questions raised. It takes an apologetic evangelist to do evangelism this way. Hence the use of Apologetics─ what Paul calls “the defense and confirmation of the Gospel” ─ may be valuable. The apologetic evangelist does well to defend the faith by providing a rational and reasonable basis for belief, contending for the truth, and supporting it with every bit of evidence at hand to verify the Scriptures. Questions of the “supernatural”, the evidence of archaeology to verify much of what is written in Scripture, and the innate nature of the gospel which fits the functional needs 12 William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2008), 15. 13 David Wilkinson, “The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century” ANVIL Vol. 19 No 1 2002, 5-17 at 9. 10  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE of man, may all be used as ammunition in pressing the claims of the gospel. Biblical Apologetics serves to show that the evangelist is interested in the state of mind of the questioner. On this point, Alister McGrath opines that: Apologetically the question that arises in the postmodern context is …: How can Christianity’s claims to truth be taken seriously when there are so many rival alternatives and when “truth” itself has become a devalued notion? No one can lay claim to possession of the truth. It is all a question of perspective. All claims to truth are equally valid. There is no universal or privileged vantage point that allows anyone to decide what is right and what is wrong.14 Obviously, attacks on and criticisms of rival alternatives must be dealt with through apologetic conversation in order for evangelism to be successful. Presenting the gospel to the lost involves answering the questions and objections of the unbeliever. The core message proclaimed by the early church included at least seven components, namely, the sinfulness of humanity and the need for repentance, prophecies about the coming Messiah, the miracles and teaching of Jesus, the Christ, 14 McGrath, as cited in Gary Jennings, Overcoming Christian Pluralism Book 1 Breaking the Deception of Religious (Np: Lulu.com, nd), 35. 11  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE the atoning sacrifice of Jesus on the cross of Calvary, Jesus’ physical resurrection, the sending of the Holy Spirit, and the promise of the Parousia. In presenting these propositions, the evangelist is sometimes confronted with difficult questions during evangelism. Imagine that an unbeliever, while being evangelized contends, “For me, belief in a creator God solves nothing, since one is still left with the question, “Who created God?’’ One may ask: “What is the proof that God really exists?” Another person may criticize the historicity of the Gospels and hence the credibility of Jesus’ life, ministry, death and resurrection. Because of the religiously pluralistic culture of our societies, such attacks or criticisms are common. Once such attacks are launched, evangelism becomes ineffective because the credibility of its core message is in dispute. No matter how difficult or irrelevant these questions may seem, it may be useful to accept them so that the questioner may feel accepted. Questions that come in the form of accusations must also be dealt with. However, I must hasten to concede that “detailed Apologetics is not always necessary in evangelism – some come to faith with little persuasion, and others will believe the moment the Christian reveals the good news.”15 In addition to demonstrating or proving the truth of the Christian faith, Christian Apologetics exposes the 15 Vincent Cheung, Apologetics in Conversation (Boston: Reformation Ministries International, 2002), 35. (pdf) 12  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE untruthfulness and untenableness, “yes, the folly of unbelief, of objections and opposition to scriptural truth. Reu speaks of this as allocution, which he defines as “the formulation and refutation of objections,” a device by which “the actual or possible objections and the divergent viewpoint of the hearer are fairly met and overcome.”16 Even though the refutation of unsound viewpoints does not establish the truth of one’s own, it is vital to remove all false hopes which often keep non- Christians from even considering the case for Christianity. Apologetics can be used to establish the uniqueness of the Bible (1 Peter 3:15). The point is that merely preaching the good news or announcing hope is never enough. Every believer must always give a reason for the Christian hope (or faith). According to Wilkinson, “Apologetics is important not just in evangelism but also in the nurture of Christians.”17 Nurturing involves strengthening the faith of believers. Therefore, Wilkinson’s point is that for those who are already saved, Apologetics helps them to develop a deeper commitment to Christ. For a believer to be able to love God with all his strength, mind and heart, he/she must not doubt the faith. More so, for a believer to be able to be an effective witness, he/she must not doubt his/her faith. Unfortunately, we live in an era 16 Gerald Hoenecke, “The Role of Apologetics and Polemics in the Pulpit” report to The Metro-North Pastoral Conference, Wisconsin, March 20, 1978. (pdf) 17 Wilkinson, The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century, 9. 13  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE where many believers are not sure of their faith. Just as there are attacks upon the gospel itself, there are times when the faith of individual believers is tested and tried. This may come from voices of doubt, worldly influences, or personal crises. Apologetics can play a leading role in anchoring the faith of Christians who find themselves in such challenging moments. This anchoring leads the Christian to be a bolder witness to the world and to answer common objections from unbelievers. Conclusion Having provided a concise overview of Christian Apologetics in this chapter, it becomes evident that this discipline serves as a cornerstone in defending and explaining the faith. As we transition to the next chapter, our focus shifts towards delving into the fundamental aspects of the Christian Bible. Understanding the nature of the Bible is paramount, as it forms the basis of Christian belief and practice. In the forthcoming chapter, I will explore key questions surrounding the Bible, including its authority, inspiration, and interpretation. 14  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE CHAPTER TWO WHAT IS THE BIBLE? The word “Bible” refers to the canonical collections of sacred writings of Judaism and Christianity. The Christian Bible is divided into two. The first part is the Old Testament (which corresponds to the Hebrew Bible, referred to as the Tanak). The Hebrew Bible consists of twenty-four books composed between 1400 and 400 BC and put into three major categories, namely, the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im) and the Writings or Hagiogragpha (Kethubhim). The second major division of the Bible is the New Testament which is made up of twenty-seven (27) books written in the first century AD. My focus in this chapter includes the inspiration, inerrancy, authority, necessity, clarity, sufficiency and uniqueness of the Bible. The Bible as Divine Revelation Without God revealing Himself to humanity, no one can know Him. There are two ways by which God has revealed Himself to humankind. These are through general revelation and special revelation. General revelation refers to the general truths that can be known about God through nature. In other words, general revelation is the revelation of God to all people, at all times, and in all places through nature, history, and the constitution of the human person. The Bible refers to this kind 15  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE of revelation when it says, “The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of His hands. Day after day they pour forth speech; night after night they display knowledge” (Psa 19:1-2). God’s existence and power can be clearly seen by observing the universe (see also Rom 1:20). The major limitation of this kind of revelation is that it is not sufficient to save humankind. Also, this kind of revelation has been blurred by the Fall of humanity and so it may lead people to worship creatures rather than the Creator (Rom 1:21-23, 25). Special revelation, on the other hand, refers to the manifestation of God to a particular people at particular times and places as a means of bringing salvation to them. Special revelation includes physical appearances of God (Gen 15:17; 16:7-13; 18:1; 32:24-30; Judg 2:1-4), the manifestation of God in dreams (Gen 28:12; 37:5) and visions (Gen 15:1; Ezk 8:3-4), the manifestation of God through miracles (Exod 4:2-9), through prophets (Deut 18:15-22), through angels (Dan 9:20- 21; Luke 2:10-11), through the written Word of God (the Bible), and most importantly and perfectly through Jesus Christ, the Son of God (Jn. 1:1, 14). The Dual Nature of the Bible Just as Jesus Christ has both the human and the divine natures, and yet, he is without, so the Bible also has a dual nature, that is, divine nature and human nature, and yet without error. 16  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Human nature includes the fact that the Bible was composed by human beings to be understood by human beings. God did not write the Bible and drop it to the earth for human use; rather, He used human beings for its composition. Except for small sections (such as the Ten Commandments which were “inscribed by the finger of God” [Exod 31:18]), the Bible was not verbally dictated by God. Each biblical text was written to specific hearers or readers in a specific historical-geographical situation for a specific purpose. Every biblical text was couched in the cultural setting of the times in which it was written. The biblical authors used everyday language and followed normal grammatical meanings, including figurative language. This explains why the Bible contains every literary genre that was present in ancient Israel and the Greco-Roman world (including similes, metaphors, poetry, proverbs, narratives, laws, prophecy, wisdom literature, epistles, and others). For this reason, each biblical text must be understood according to the basic principles of logic and human communication. The second aspect of the nature of the Bible is its divine nature. As a divine book, the Bible contains mystery. Certain aspects of the Bible are plain, others are just mysteries (Deut 29:29). Since the Bible comes from one source (that is, from God), it contains unity and cannot contradict itself. Each part is expected to complement the other. Unfortunately, people 17  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE sometimes conclude that the Bible contradicts itself based on their wrong interpretation of biblical text(s). One has to re- examine his/her interpretative framework whenever biblical texts seem contradictory. Finally, the Bible is a progression, meaning, it was progressively revealed by God. Consequently, certain commands of God may change as later revelations are given. That is why it is important to consider the entire teaching of the Bible on a particular issue before concluding. Critics sometimes forget the progressive nature of the Bible and then accuse God of contradicting Himself. They also confuse a change of revelation with an error. A change in revelation is part of the human experience. For instance, parents may allow their child to eat with the fingers then tell him/her later (after the child is grown) that he/she needs to eat with a spoon, not the hand. The change in instruction should not be considered a contradiction because the two different instructions were given at different times under different circumstances. In the same way, when God’s command that the blood of animals should be used to cleanse human sin changed after the perfect sacrifice of Christ (Heb 10:11–14), He is not contradicting Himself. Rather, a new and better revelation is given through the person and ministry of Jesus Christ. Similarly, God did not contradict Himself when He commanded that humans should eat only fruit and vegetables (Gen 1:29) but later allowed humankind to eat meat 18  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE (Gen 9:3) because the change from herbivorous to omnivorous status was given to different people at different times. In God’s progressive revelation, later revelations usually supersede earlier ones. I must be quick to add that God cannot change commands that have to do with His unchangeable nature (cf. Mal 3:6; Heb 6:18). For example, God’s essential nature of holiness, love, all-knowing, all-present and others cannot change. A complete discussion of the divine nature cannot be done without referring to the doctrine of inspiration in the Bible. The next chapter will examine this aspect of the Bible. The Inspiration of the Bible The doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture refers to the fact that the books of the Bible were written under the influence of the Holy Spirit (see Job 32:8 and 2 Tim 3:16). The sense in which the Bible is inspired must be differentiated from the sense in which people are inspired in performing everyday life activities. For example, what we mean by “the artist is inspired” is quite different from what we mean when we say, “the Bible is inspired.” The Greek word theopneustos translated as “inspired” actually means “God-breathed”. Therefore, the doctrine of inspiration means the Bible is the breath of God; it has come from the mouth of God; it has God’s fingerprint. Inspiration differs from revelation in that revelation deals with 19  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE how God is disclosed while inspiration has to do with how the content of God’s revelation was recorded. Josh McDowell (paraphrasing Geisler) defines inspiration as “the mysterious process by which God worked through human writers, employing their individual personalities and styles to produce divinely authoritative and inerrant writings.”18 This means that God allowed the biblical authors to use their literary styles and peculiarities. The authors were influenced by their backgrounds and specific human interests. For example, David, a former shepherd, perceived God as a Shepherd (Psa 23:1); Hosea (based on his rural background) had a rural interest; Luke (a medical officer) recorded more healing stories than any other Gospel writer and Paul (a lawyer) employed legal terms such as condemnation, justification and others in his writings. Some authors used other sources for their material (Josh 10:13; Luke 1:1-4; Titus 1:12).19 Scripture also shows human thought patterns such as memory lapses (1 Cor 1:14–16) and human emotions (Gal 4:14).20 The process of inspiration was not a mechanical one whereby God treated the biblical authors as dictating machines or tape recorders. Thus, the biblical texts were not dictated by 18 Josh McDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1999), 334. 19 Isaac Boaheng, An African Background to the Old Testament (Accra: Noyam Publishers, 2021), 9. 20 Boaheng, An African Background to the Old Testament, 10. 20  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE the Holy Spirit for his “secretaries” (the biblical authors) to write. God used the human authors as living and responsible beings. Some of them received their message in dreams, others in visions, sometimes through audible voices, other times through angels. In the case of Luke, it was through careful research into the Jesus story (Luke 1:1-4). As mentioned earlier, God made full use of the personality, temperament, experience and background of the authors to give humanity a suitable and distinctive message. Therefore, inspiration means the act of God whereby He revealed His truth to be recorded by humans, preserving the human agents from error without violating their personality. Furthermore, inspiration can only be predicated on the original autographs (in Hebrew, Greek and Aramaic), not on every copy or translation (whether ancient or modern).21 Inspiration does not guarantee that every copy or every translation of the original is without error. Except by miracle, there was no way people could copy a whole book (be it secular or sacred) without making mistakes. There may be minor errors in manuscript22 copies or translations. The original manuscripts were however without any scribal errors. God inspired the authors of Scripture and safeguarded their words from error. He 21 Boaheng, An African Background to the Old Testament, 10. 22 A manuscript is any surviving hand-written copy of an ancient document that predates the invention of the printing press in 1455. 21  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE did not, however, prevent the thousands of copyists across the ages from making mistakes as they copied the manuscripts! Consequently, there are some variant readings of some texts. Textual variants are the different readings of the same text that have resulted from differences between the wording of two or more manuscripts due to (but not limited to) “changes in a letter, a word, a phrase or even additions and omissions of whole sentences or paragraphs.”23 If only one manuscript of the Old and New Testaments had survived, there would have been zero variants, yet, this single manuscript would probably have become some sort of “idol”. This might be the reason why God did not preserve just a single manuscript. In spite of the existence of variants, we can be very sure that we have God’s original word with us today which can be obtained from the numerous manuscripts available to us. I once had the privilege of viewing a five-hundred-year- old manuscript of the book of Genesis, an experience that underscored the reverence and meticulous care with which ancient texts are regarded.24 Upon entering the library where the manuscript was housed, visitors were required to surrender their phones and were strictly forbidden from touching the delicate 23 Craig L. Bloomberg and Jennifer Foutz Markley, A Handbook of New Testament Exegesis (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2010), 5 24 I had this experience during my training as a Bible Translator. I have shared this experience also in Boaheng, An African Background to the Old Testament, 11. 22  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE artifact. The stringent security measures in place served as a stark reminder of the potential for idolization that would accompany the existence of a singular, error-free manuscript. Further still, it is crucial to recognize that the divine inspiration of the Bible does not imply that every statement within its pages is a direct command from God or prescriptive in nature. Rather, the Bible contains a diverse array of genres and literary styles, including historical narratives, poetry, parables, and letters. While some passages offer explicit moral teachings or commands, others serve primarily as descriptions of historical events, cultural practices, or individual experiences. These descriptive passages provide valuable insight into the context and worldview of the biblical authors and their audiences but may not necessarily serve as direct instructions for contemporary believers. Therefore, discerning the intent and significance of each passage requires careful interpretation and consideration of its genre, historical context, and theological themes. While all Scripture is considered inspired by God and profitable for teaching, rebuking, correcting, and training in righteousness (2 Tim. 3:16), not every word or narrative serves as a direct mandate for action or belief. For example, the fact that the Bible records polygamy (Gen 4:23; 1 Kings 11:3), lies (Satan’s [Gen 3:4; cf. John 8:44], Abraham’s (Gen 20:2), and Rahab’s (Josh 2:4), atheism (Psa 14:1) and other sins do not 23  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE mean we should emulate them.25 Ignorance of this fact may lead people to claim that the Bible teaches immorality, lies, atheism, and others. The point is that while the whole Bible is true (John 17:17), this truth is “found in what the Bible reveals, not in everything it records.”26 All that is contained in the Bible constitutes what it records. The lessons we derive from the Bible constitute what it reveals. Finally, the inspiration of the Bible is not only related to issues it explicitly teaches; it also relates to those it simply touches (be it History, Science, Psychology, or Mathematics, whether a major issue or a minor one).27 From the doctrine of Inspiration comes the idea of biblical inerrancy, an issue I consider in the next section. The Inerrancy of the Bible Paul Feinberg defines inerrancy as the belief that “when all the facts are known, the Scriptures in their original autographs, properly interpreted, will be shown to be wholly true in everything they affirm, whether this has to do with doctrine or morality or with the social, physical or life sciences.”28 That is, 25 Boaheng, An African Background to the Old Testament, 11. 26 Norman Geisler and Thomas Howe, When Critics Ask: A Popular Handbook on Bible Difficulties (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1992), np. Emphasis original. 27 Geisler and Howe, When Critics Ask, np. 28 Paul Feinberg, Inerrancy, edited by Norman Geisler (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1981), 294. 24  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE to talk meaningfully about the inerrancy of a biblical text, all facts about the issue contained in the text have to be known and the text has to be interpreted properly. Biblical inerrancy therefore means the Bible (in its original autographs) is without any error in all that it teaches provided the text is interpreted correctly and all facts about the issue the text talks about are correctly known or the Bible, in the original manuscripts, affirms nothing contrary to fact. Truth (in this context) refers to any statement that corresponds to reality. What does not correspond to reality is an error, a mistake. Norman Geisler and Thomas Howe assert that “Truth is telling it like it is. Error is not telling it like it is.”29 They further argue that “nothing mistaken can be true, even if the author intended his mistake to be true. An error is a mistake, not simply something misleading. Otherwise, every sincere utterance ever made is true, even those that were grossly mistaken.”30 Therefore, unintentional mistakes are also errors (cf. Lev 4:2). The inerrancy of Scripture does not contradict the human factors that contributed to the writing of Scriptures. As stated earlier, the divine influence did not remove the human nature of the authors; rather it complemented the human nature and made sure the message received from God was accurately transcribed.31 Therefore, 29 Geisler and Howe, When Critics Ask, np. 30 Geisler and Howe, When Critics Ask, np. 31 As cited in Roy B. Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation (Colorado Springs, CO: Victor, 1991), 33. 25  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE people freely used their background and experience in the way they wrote. Three important principles may establish the inerrancy of Scripture. First and foremost, God cannot err. The Author of the Bible is a perfect God and what He reveals is without error. The Bible clearly teaches that “it is impossible for God to lie” (Heb 6:18), He “cannot lie” (Titus 1:2), He is truth (John 14:6) and so is His Word (Psa 119:160; John 17:17). He used human beings to document exactly what He wanted to be documented for all human generations.32 The second fact is that the Bible is the word of God (see my earlier discussion on this). Paul’s statement that “All Scripture is God-breathed” (2 Tim 3:16), his reference to the Scripture as “the Word of God” (Rom 9:6), Peter’s assertion that “prophecy never had its origin in the human will, but prophets, though human, spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet 1:21), Jesus’ assertion that “until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished” ( Matt 5:18), as well as his charge against the religious leaders of his day that they nullify the word of God by their tradition (Mark 7:13) are all meant to teach us that Scripture is the word of God. 32 McDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, 338. 26  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE From the above two facts comes the inevitable conclusion that the Bible is the unerring word of God. The Bible contains no mistakes; if it does, then it is not the word of God because God cannot make mistakes. Indeed, God’s perfection and absolute truthfulness (Titus 1:2; Heb 6:18) make it impossible to conceive of the Bible as divinely inspired and at the same time untruthful. Deceit and ignorance are the sources of error. God does not lie, neither is He ignorant. The perfect truthfulness of Scripture extends not only to matters of doctrine but also to matters of historical reliability. Anything less would call into question the very character of God. Biblical inerrancy does not mean that there cannot be divergent accounts of the same event. The fact that multiple accounts of the same incidence differ does not mean that these accounts are mutually exclusive. One day, I was at a restaurant with a friend when a woman entered. My friend remarked that the woman likes long earrings. His reason was that the woman wears long earrings wherever she goes, even to the restaurant just as she was wearing that day. I looked at the woman and she was not wearing an earring, so I told my friend that the woman was not wearing any earring. This generated an argument between us. The lady had entered another room within the restaurant. The argument became very heated as to whether she was wearing earrings or not. Later, when she came, we both realized that she was wearing one earring. I saw the ear that was 27  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE without a ring while my friend saw the other one with a long earring. Both of us were right based on the perspective from which we saw the woman. We gave partial reports but we were not wrong in doing so. We needed each other’s view/report to have a full view/report about the woman (in terms of whether she was wearingearringsor not). Reports of this nature abound in the Bible, especially in the Gospels. They are not contradictory but rather complementary. In addition, biblical inerrancy does not require the use of scholarly, technical, or scientific language. The reason is that the Bible was written to be understood by the common people of biblical times and by extension, to be understood by the common people of all times and all places. It was written in the pre-scientific era, so we should not expect it to have a scientific tone. I even believe that if it were written today, it would not have had so much scientific tone because it is intended to be a book of faith rather than a scientific textbook. Therefore, when the Bible uses observational and non-scientific language, it is not being unscientific; rather, it is being pre-scientific.33 Critics are therefore not right to describe the Bible as scientifically incorrect. The language the Bible uses was the standard language of the time it was written. It is therefore unfair to superimpose modern scientific standards upon the biblical text. 33 McDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, 341. 28  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE It is no more unscientific to speak of the Sun as standing (Josh 10:12) than it is to describe it as rising (Josh 1:6). The people of biblical times had no scientific knowledge to know that the Sun is stationary and that it neither rises nor sets. God allowed the writers to use the knowledge they had acquired from observing nature to write His word because it was by using such common language that people could easily understand God’s word. Today, scientific knowledge abounds and yet, meteorologists still speak of “sunrise” and “sunset.” In this respect, 21st-century meteorologists are still using observational language in their description of the Sun as rising and setting rather than scientific language. Yet, no one tells them they are wrong. In the same way, the use of observational knowledge by the biblical writers does not make the Bible wrong. According to McDowell, Arabian tradition in biblical times held that “the ends of the earth was only several miles away.”34 This belief, which seems to have come merely from observation of nature, informed the assertion that the Queen of Sheba “came from the ends of the earth” (Matt 12:42). Similarly when the Bible says that on the Day of Pentecost, the whole world was represented in Jerusalem (Acts 2:5) and yet in the list 34 This belief exists in our days too. By observing the sky, one is tempted to believe that the earth ends some few miles away from the point of observation. 29  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE of nations we do not see all nations in the world today (Acts 2:9-11), it simply means the writer used a universal language (the whole world) to mean “the then-known world.”35 The fact is that each nation of the then-known world was present in Jerusalem. In discussing biblical inerrancy, the issue of context is very important. One can prove anything from the Bible if contextual issues are ignored. A popular saying is that “A text out of context is a pretext.” For example, one may prove that the Bible says “there is no God” (Psa 14:1) simply by ignoring the immediately preceding context, “The fool has said in his heart.” The full statement is, “The fool has said in his heart, ‘There is no God’” (Psa 14:1). Similarly, one may teach that Christians must give a gun to a small child who asks for it, or nuclear weapons to a member of Boko Haram just because he/she asks for it because Jesus has commanded us to “Give to the one who asks you” (Matt 5:42a). Such a meaning is however not warranted by the context of the text. Another example can be taken from the Book of Job. The first 37 chapters record Job’s suffering and his dialogue with his three friends. God only reveals Himself to Job in chapters 38 to 42. In the course of conversing with God, Job admits that he had uttered what he did not understand and that 35 McDowell, The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, 341. 30  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE God is right (Job 42:3, 7). Obviously, some of the assertions Job and his friends make about suffering in the first 37 chapters are mistaken. For this reason, it is not every word in these chapters (1-37) that one can take and say “This is what God says”, because it may not. Not every word in these chapters may be God’s word in the sense that it may be one of those mistaken notions by Job and his friends. In other words, not every word in the first 37 chapters may be literally true because it may be one of the mistaken assertions made by Job and his friends. The point therefore is that while the whole book of Job is God’s word, the first 37 chapters should be read only in the light of chapters 38—42. Reading the first 37 chapters of Job isolated from its context may lead to wrong conclusions. The foregoing discussions underline the fact that a biblical text (or every word of God) is literally true only when it is placed in its right context. Therefore, a biblical word may be quite untrue when read in isolation from its context. One major mistake that critics of the Bible usually make is that they read texts out of their context and make conclusions from such readings. That is certainly unfair. Isn’t it? The Four Attributes of the Bible The Bible reveals four main attributes about itself though it does not give a systematic treatment of these attributes. They include the authority, clarity, necessity and sufficiency of 31  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Scripture. To say that the Bible has authority means that whatever the Bible contains is God’s word such that disbelieving or disobeying any command of the Bible amounts to disbelieving or disobeying God, the author of Scripture. One must, however, read each text in its context before knowing exactly what God is saying. The authority of the Bible is guaranteed by its inspiration. The Bible itself claims authority in many places. The introductory formula “Thus says the LORD” (see for example Isa 44:2, 6; Jer 9:7, 15, 17) or any other similar formula and instances where God is said to have spoken to prophets (1 Kings 14:18; 16:12, 34; 2 Kings 9:36; 14:25; Jer 37:2; Zech. 7:7, 12) attest to the authority of the Bible. By saying that the Lord spoke to them or that the word of the Lord came to them, the ancient prophets were making the point that what they said was exactly what God asked them to say. This is what we should expect because ancient Israelite prophets were people who spoke on behalf of God. The New Testament writers attest to the authority of the Old Testament. To this end, they used formulas such as “God says”, “the Holy Spirit says” and “Scripture says” when referring to Old Testament texts (cf. Acts 3:24, 25; 2 Cor 6:16; Acts 1:16). What “the Scripture says” and what “God says” are alternative expressions referring to the same thing - God’s word. There are even instances where the Scripture is personified as if it were God Himself (see Gal 3:8; Rom 9:17). 32  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE The New Testament writers attached the same authority to themselves as heralds, witnesses, ambassadors of God and Christ (Rom 1:1, 5; 1 Tim 2:7; Gal 1:8, 9; 1 Thess 2:13). They also attached the same authority to their writings and words (1 Cor 15:1ff; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:14). The extent of divine authority in Scripture includes all that is written in the Bible (2 Tim 3:16), the very words (Matt 22:43; 1 Cor 2:13), tenses of verbs (Matt 22:32; Gal 3:16) and even the smallest parts of words (Matt 5:17–18). Biblical authority and the purpose of Scripture are inseparable. That is why Paul says Scripture “was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope” (Rom 15:4). Another attribute of the Bible is clarity (or perspicuity), which means the idea that the message of the Scriptures can be understood by all who desire to understand it. As God’s message for the whole world, the Bible is written in such a way as to make its content clear enough for the comprehension of ordinary people. God’s Word was never intended to be esoteric, dark, enigmatic, obscure, inscrutable, ambiguous, or vague. Nonetheless, time, geographical, language, and cultural gaps make it necessary for contemporary readers to apply certain rules in order to interpret the Bible correctly and apply its message appropriately. The original readers of the Bible did not need these rules because these gaps (which hinder our understanding today) were absent or (even if present) did not 33  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE pose so much difficulty to them because the readers were familiar with the contextual issues of the texts. The clarity of the Bible should serve as a huge motivation for Christians to study and apply the Scriptures to their lives because they can be rest assured that they can understand what God is saying to them. Moses taught the clarity and comprehensibility of Scripture when he told the Israelites that God’s word is not far from them and that they have it and can obey it as well (see Deut 30:11-14). The apostle Paul also taught this fact when he told the Corinthian church that his letters were straight-forward, and there was nothing written between the lines which they could not understand (2 Cor 1:13-14; see also Phil 3:15-16; 2 Tim 3:14-17) and therefore apply to their lives. Though not unclear, the word of God cannot be understood without the illumination of the Holy Spirit. Hermeneutical principles are meant to aid the process of interpretation; they are not a substitute for the role of the Spirit in biblical interpretation. Christians are therefore encouraged to seek the illumination of the Holy Spirit and to study seriously in order to understand the Scriptures properly. Though Scripture is clear, it is however not clear to everybody. One’s level of illumination and ability to apply the rules of interpretation may determine the level of understanding of the Bible. Since God communicated His word to people in a particular context, contemporary readers need to familiarize 34  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE themselves with the original context of the biblical text before they can correctly understand it and apply it to their lives. Concerning interpretation, the difficult parts of the Bible can and should be understood in the light of the clearer parts. The next attribute of the Bible is necessity which means Scripture is necessary for the proper acquisition of a true knowledge of God, His gospel, and His plan of salvation, and that knowledge about these things cannot be obtained through the general revelation of nature and conscience. As moral and social beings, human beings exist to relate to God and live according to His will and purpose. To know God’s will and purpose, one has to search the Scriptures because it is in them that He has specially revealed Himself. Jesus taught the necessity of Scripture when he said, “Man shall not live by bread alone but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God” (Matt 4:4; cf. Deut 8:3). Above all, Scripture is necessary to deal with the major problem of humanity, that is, sin. The sufficiency of Scripture is the fourth attribute of the Bible. By sufficiency of the Bible, we mean what God has revealed in the Bible is enough for a proper understanding of who God is, who we are, how God has acted in the past, and what God expects from us. Simply put, humanity needs no extra-biblical revelation for their salvation; the Bible is enough. Since God has given us sufficient information in the Bible, all we need to do is search the Scriptures for God’s will for us and 35  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE apply what we learn to our lives. God’s revelation ended with Christ who is the final and complete revelation of God. The Holy Spirit is here with us to give insight into what has already been revealed to us. What makes the Bible a unique book? Some people keep the Bible in their library and consider it as one of the “great” books such as Homer’s Odyssey or Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Others make degrading comments about the Bible and consider it as fiction or fable. For such people, though the Bible teaches some moral lessons, it is wrong to consider it as a fact. Contrary to such claims, Christians contend that the Bible is a special book, a true word of God based on facts. Again, Christians contend that the Bible is the greatest book ever written. These contentions raise the question: What really makes the Bible so outstanding among all books of human history? There are numerous ways in which the Bible distinguishes itself from other literature. What I present below are just a few of them. Firstly, the Bible is unique in that unlike other ancient books, it was written over a long period (about 1500 years, from 1400 BC to 100 AD). It therefore covers an exceptionally vast number of generations as compared to other 36  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE ancient books like the Egyptian Book of the Dead36 (3150 BC) or The Epic of Gilgamesh37 (2100 BC). Secondly, the Bible is unique in that, unlike most other literary works, the composition and transmission of the biblical books did not emerge from a homogeneous community located in a single region of the ancient world. Rather, biblical books were written by people in diverse places like Rome (in Europe), Egypt (in Africa), and Mesopotamia (in Asia). The specific places from which the authors wrote the Bible also varied. For example, Moses wrote part of the Bible in the wilderness, Jeremiah, in a dungeon, Paul, inside the prison walls, Luke, while travelling, and John, while in exile on the island of Patmos. In the third place, the Bible is unique in its authorship. The Bible was authored by approximately 40 different people, and edited and preserved by countless scribal schools and communities. It therefore preserves for us the writings of a vast array of different persons from widely divergent social circumstances and backgrounds. Among these authors are Moses (a political leader and judge educated in Egypt), David (a king, poet, warrior, shepherd, and musician), Amos (a 36 The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text generally written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom to around 50 BC. 37 The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia usually regarded as the earliest surviving great work of literature. 37  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE herdsman), Daniel (a prime minister), Nehemiah (a cupbearer to a pagan king), Solomon (a king and philosopher), Joshua (a military general), Luke (a medical doctor and historian), Peter (a fisherman), Matthew (a tax collector), and Paul ( a rabbi, lawyer and philosopher). Fourthly, the Bible is unique in that it includes many distinct literary forms and genres, including history, law, poetry, parables, hymns, biographies, personal correspondence, and even personal memoirs and diaries. It differs from other books which are homogenous in terms of genre. As such, it is important to determine the genre of a particular biblical text before attempting to make meaning out of it because different genres have different rules of interpretation. Again, the Bible is unique in that unlike other books, it was written in three different languages (Aramaic, Greek and Hebrew). Hebrew is the language of the Israelites and was used particularly for documenting the Old Testament. It is referred to as “the language of Judah” (cf. 2 Kings 18:26-28; Neh 13:24) or “the language of Canaan” (Is. 19:18). Aramaic was the common language of the Ancient Near East until the reign of Alexander the Great who through the spread of Hellenism made Greek an international language. Aramaic was the language of post-exilic Israelites. Texts such as Daniel 2 through 7 and most of Ezra 4 through 7 were originally written in Aramaic. Aramaic expressions are also used occasionally in the New 38  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Testament, including, “Eli Eli, lama sabachthani,” which means “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matt 27: 46). Greek, the language of almost all of the New Testament, was the international language at the time of the documentation of the New Testament books, just as the English language is used today internationally. Therefore, even though Jesus spoke Aramaic language, what he said was recorded by the gospel writers in Greek. Further still, the Bible differs from other books with regards to three main teachings: The Trinity, Incarnation and Atonement, and salvation by faith rather than by works (or by human efforts). These teachings found only in the Bible, set Christianity apart from all other religions. The concept of the Trinity, which asserts the existence of one God in three persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—is a central tenet of Christian faith. This complex yet foundational teaching is derived from various passages throughout the Bible, particularly in the New Testament, and forms the basis for understanding the nature of God as both unity and diversity. The doctrine of the Incarnation and Atonement represents the belief that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, took on human flesh (Incarnation) and sacrificed himself to atone for humanity's sins (Atonement). This profound theological concept underscores the unique role of Jesus as both fully divine and fully human, bridging the gap between God and humanity and offering 39  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE redemption and reconciliation through his sacrificial death and resurrection. Also, Christianity emphasizes salvation by faith rather than by works or human efforts alone. This teaching, prominently expounded upon in the New Testament epistles, emphasizes that salvation is a gift of grace received through faith in Jesus Christ, rather than something earned through good deeds or religious observance. This doctrine highlights the transformative power of faith in Christ and underscores the importance of a personal relationship with God as the basis for salvation. Finally, it is important to acknowledge the profound impact and enduring resilience of the Bible, which further underscores its uniqueness. Throughout human history and civilization, the Bible has wielded an extraordinary influence, shaping cultures, societies, and individuals in profound ways. Its status as the word of God imbues it with unparalleled transformative power, capable of touching hearts, changing lives, and inspiring movements of social and spiritual renewal. The enduring relevance and timeless truths contained within its pages continue to resonate across generations, affirming the Bible's status as not just a book, but a living and dynamic force for spiritual enlightenment and societal transformation. 40  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Conclusion Among other things, this chapter has stated that the Bible is a collection of books that exhibits complete unity. The Bible is God’s word which reveals His action in the world, and His purpose for humanity and other creation. However, contemporary readers may not appreciate the message of the Bible because of the time gap, language gap, geographical gap and other gaps between the biblical world and ours. In our struggles to decipher what message the Bible has for us, we must trust and rely on the power of the Holy Spirit. 41  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE CHAPTER THREE DOES THE BIBLE CONTAIN THE RIGHT BOOKS? God is the author of the Bible and it is He who knows which books belong to the sacred writings. Ancient Israel and the surrounding nations had lots of writings. Some of these writings were very important for gaining knowledge about the ancient world and its culture. Others were for religious purposes and so on. It was out of a lot of writings that God selected what He had commissioned people to write as Scripture. This raises questions like: Why are there only 66 books in the Bible? Are there no other inspired books apart from what we have in our Bibles? In response to these questions, this chapter examines how God led people to collect together His inspired books. The main contention of the chapter is that the perfect God did not mistakenly add any uninspired books or take away any inspired books from the biblical canon. What we have in our Bibles are the only books God inspired His people to write and collect together. What is the Biblical Canon? The English word “canon” derives from the Greek kanon, which also comes from the Hebrew kaneh, meaning “standard,” “rule” or “measuring rod.” When applied to the Bible, the canon is the set or collection of books that are 42  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE considered the inspired Word of God, and hence the final source of authority for determining the beliefs and practices of Christianity. The process by which the church recognized and collected each book of the Bible as divinely inspired or God’s authoritative word is referred to as canonization. The process was not an act of humans but God’s activity executed through His people. No consensus has been reached between Protestants and Catholics or Protestants and Orthodox Christians as to the number of books that make up the Old Testament canon. In addition to thirty-nine (39) books which both Protestants and Catholics agree on as Scripture, Catholics recognize seven other books (Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, the Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus [Wisdom of Jesus ben Sirach], Baruch), as well as extra materials in Esther and Daniel as part of their authoritative books. These additional books are referred to as Apocryphal (hidden) or Deuterocanonical (second-canon) books.38 The Protestant canon contains sixty-six (66) books, the Catholic canon holds seventy-three (73) books, and the Ethiopic Orthodox canon has eighty-three (83) books. The twenty-seven (27) books of the New Testament are, however, agreed upon by all Christians. I now proceed to consider how the Old Testament and New Testament books were canonized. 38 Protestants refer to these books as Apocrypha while Catholics refer to them as Deuterocanonical. 43  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE Canonization of the Old Testament As mentioned earlier, the Hebrew Bible consists of twenty-four (24) books composed between 1400 and 400 BC and put into three major categories, namely, the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im) and the Writings or Hagiogragpha (Kethubhim). The Law or the Pentateuch includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Prophets (Nevi’im) are sub- divided into Former Prophets including Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings and Latter Prophets including Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve (Hosea-Malachi). The Writings are further divided into the Poetical Books such as Job, Psalms, Proverbs, the Five Rolls including Ruth, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Songs of Songs, Lamentations, and The Historical Books including Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah and 1 & 2 Chronicles. The formal canonization of Scripture followed a period during which God's interactions with the Israelites were recorded. Unlike contemporary recording methods, biblical events were not immediately documented as they occurred. Similar to customary practices in many traditional African societies, the ancient Israelites predominantly relied on oral tradition to transmit their history. Typically, when significant events unfolded, they were verbally recounted and passed down through generations before being committed to writing. For instance, the creation narrative circulated orally for a period 44  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE before being committed to writing. Moses' directive to the Israelites to diligently impart the laws and statutes of God to their children and future generations (Deut. 11:19) underscores the significance of oral tradition in ancient Israel. These orally transmitted traditions were eventually transcribed into written form to ensure the accurate preservation of the sacred message. Though oral tradition was key in transmitting information trans-generationally, evidence of the documentation of God’s dealings with the people of Israel at the early stages of the nation’s history is not lacking in the Old Testament. For example, the Hexateuch (that is, the Pentateuch and Joshua, or the first six books of the Bible) provides us with some clear references to an encoded body of law. Some of the earliest compositions include Miriam’s song (Exod 15:1-18) and the Decalogue which was written not later than the 12th to 11th century BC. God Himself wrote His commandments on two tablets of stone (Exod 31:18). Later, Moses’ composition (which was to be placed beside the Ark of the Covenant; see Deut 31:24–26) was added to the earlier writings. Joshua, Moses’ successor, also added to the collection of written words of God (Josh 24:26). In the promised land God raised people who also wrote events that took place. Deborah’s song (Judg 5) was written probably not later than the 12th century BC. People like Samuel, David, Solomon and others also wrote part of Israel’s history. In both exilic and post-exilic periods God 45  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE continued to inspire His people to document His dealings with them. The preparation of the Hebrew canon took place in three stages. The first stage was the collection of the Torah (at least by the 4th century BC).39 The Jews accepted the Decalogue and all the legislative materials as authoritative immediately after they were received through Moses. Thus, the first stage involved the preservation of the Hebrew law codes in the Pentateuch including the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1-17), and the expansion of the Covenant Code (Exod 20:22—23:19), and religious Code (Exod 34:11-26) to include the creation stories, stories of the Patriarchs and early history and origins of people. In 622 BC, Hilkiah the High Priest found a law book (which probably forms the core of Deut 12—26) in the Temple during its renovation (2 Kings 22:8ff). This document was revised and accepted officially as God’s word for the nation which Ezra and his contemporaries read and explained to the post-exilic community in 444 BC (Neh 8:1—10:39). Ezra’s presentation made so much impact that the people wept when they heard him read the Law (Neh 8:9-18). Thus, this document formed the basis for the renewal of the covenant between the post-exilic Jews and Yahweh (2 Kings 22:3—23:3). 39 Werner H. Schmidt, Old Testament Introduction Translated by Matthew J. O’connell (New York: Crossroad, 1984), 6 46  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE The next part of the process was the division of the Torah into five (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy) to form the Pentateuch. Most modern Old Testament scholars agree that the Pentateuch was essentially completed by about 1000 BC but was revised in minor ways until the time of Ezra who fixed the completed Pentateuch as the basis of the life of the nation around 400 BC.40 The second stage of the canonization process was the collection of the writings of the Prophets and the history of the period in which they lived and ministered.41 The Torah served as the nucleus to which separate prophetic books were added. Not all prophets documented events that took place during their time. Among those who documented events were Samuel (who wrote down the rights of the people and duties of the kingship in a book) (1 Sam 10:25), Nathan, and Gad (1 Chron 29:29), Hosea, Isaiah, Amos, and others. The prophetic literature had a very close connection with the Torah and this made them to be held as inspired and authoritative. The books of the latter prophets were written from the late 9th century BC into the 8th century BC and onwards. The prophecies about the fall of Jerusalem and its fulfillment in 586/7 BC vindicated the truth 40 See Raymond F. Collins, “The Canon of the Old Testament” in The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2011), 1037. 41 Robert H. Pfeiffer, Introduction to the Old Testament (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1948), 58. 47  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE of their prophetic utterances. In addition to what the prophets wrote, the records of events in the lives of other leaders were documented and kept in the Temple. The content of the Old Testament canon continued to grow until the latest books such as Daniel and Esther were written.42 The third and final stage of the canonization of the Old Testament was the collection of miscellaneous Writings which include books from Psalm to Chronicles. The Writings were made up of ten literary works which had to achieve independent canonical status through circulation and wide acceptance by the people of God.43 This makes them different from the Law and the Prophets which consisted of final editions of particular literary genres, presumably meant for canonization. The Apocryphal book Ecclesiasticus (the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach), a second-century BC book, gives evidence of three divisions of the Hebrew Scriptures that existed at that time, including, the Law and the Prophets and “the other books of our fathers”, comprising, the “Former prophets” or Deuteronomistic history (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) and the “Latter Prophets” (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve [Minor Prophets]). One may deduce from the above assertion that, at the time of writing the book of Ecclesiasticus, the Hebrew canon was likely to have been closed. Yet, the official 42 Collins, “The Canon of the Old Testament,” 1037. 43 Pfeiffer, Introduction to the Old Testament, 62. 48  THIS COPY IS NOT FOR SALE recognition of the canon would take place later, even after the death of Christ. Official recognition of the canon at Jumnia Scholars used to argue that the Old Testamen