Earth Science Notes - Midterm 1 - PDF

EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE expanding, its appearance remains the same over time. BIG BANG THEORY WEEK 1: ORIGIN...

EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE expanding, its appearance remains the same over time. BIG BANG THEORY WEEK 1: ORIGIN & STRUCTURE OF THE Born of the observation that other UNIVERSE galaxies are moving away from our own at a great speed in all directions They had all been propelled by an COSMIC INFLATION THEORY ancient explosive force ACCRETION THEORY The universe began with a singular The solar system is formed by a explosion followed by a burst of nebula. Nebula is a giant cloud of gas inflationary expansion. and dust that keeps rotating. The universe cooled, passing through Their rotation causes collision. Some a series of phase transitions and of the dust will stick to other bits of dust allowing the formation of stars, and form larger chunks of matter galaxies and life on earth. This sticking together is the beginning The early universe was a rapidly of accretion. Accretion is the gradual expanding bubble of pure vacuum increase in the size of an object by the energy (no matter/radiation). build up of the matter due to gravity. The potential energy converted into The objects will get big enough to kinetic energy of matter and become planets and stars. radiation. PROTOPLANET THEORY Big bang occurred because of This assumes that initially there is a extremely hot, dense condition of dense interstellar cloud which will matter. eventually produce a cluster of stars. This theory proposed Alan Guth. Dense regions in the cloud form and coalesce; as the small blobs have random spins the resulting stars will have a low rotation. The planets are smaller blobs captured by the star. The small blobs would have higher rotation than is seen in the planets but theory accounts for this by having the STEADY STATE THEORY planetary blobs’ split to give a planet Fred Hoyle proposed that although the and satellites. universe is expanding, it does not CAPTURE THEORY change its look over time. For this This theory is a version of Jeans’s work, new matter must be formed to theory keep the density equal over time. The sun interacts with a nearby The universe has no beginning or protostar dragging a filament of end in time, and even though it is material from the protostar. The low rotation speed of the sun is explained as being due to its formation before the planets. Formation of terrestrial planets through collision between the protoplanets close to the sun. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE The giant planets and their satellites MERCURY are explained as The Shrinking Planet condensation in the drawn out filament. The closest planet to the Sun and has the shortest period of revolution COLLISION OF THEIA & EARTH (88 days). Can only be seen from Earth just after sunset or just before sunrise. The surface is cratered and crisscrossed by faults that formed as the planet originally cooled and contracted. TEMPERATURE: 800 ℉ (427 ℃) to a MODERN NEBULAR THEORY freezing -300 degrees below zero. The planets originated in a dense disk REVOLUTION: 88 days which formed from materials in the gas ROTATION: A single day is equivalent and dust cloud which collapsed to give to about 59 Earth days. the sun. COMPOSITION: The density of the disk has to be Metallic substances/Silicon or rocks. sufficient to allow the formation of the VENUS planets and yet thin enough for the residual matter to be blown away by The hottest planet the sun as its energy output increased. It is the third-brightest object in the sky, exceeded only by the Sun and our SOLAR SYSTEM Moon. 4.6 billion y/o The twin planet of Earth (similar average density, mass, size, and A complex system of moving masses surface gravity) held together by gravitational forces. The high temperature is due mainly to The center of this system is a star the large amount of carbon dioxide in called the Sun, which is the dominant the atmosphere, which produces a mass. "greenhouse effect". Revolving around the Sun are 8 major TEMPERATURE: 873 ℉ (467 ℃), hot planets with more than 170 satellites (moons), and currently 5 dwarf enough to melt the surface of the planets Earth. REVOLUTION: 225 days TERRESTRIAL PLANETS ROTATION: 243 days to make a Smaller size and mass, higher density complete turn. made mostly on rocky materials and COMPOSITION: Thick atmosphere of metals. Solid surface, few moons sulfuric acid and carbon dioxide. (ifany) and no rings, closer to the sun EARTH and close together with warmer The unique planet surfaces. It is the only planet with large amounts of surface water, an atmosphere that contains oxygen, a temperature climate, and living organisms (as far as we know). The only astronomical object known to harbor life. TEMPERATURE: 20 ⁰C MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE REVOLUTION: 365 days and an outer layer of molecular ROTATION: 24 hours hydrogen. COMPOSITION: Made up of iron core TEMPERATURE: -234 ℉ (-148 ℃) and rocky crust. REVOLUTION: 11.86 years SATELLITE: 1 satellite/moon (named ROTATION: 9.8 hours “Luna”). COMPOSITION: 90% hydrogen and MARS 10% helium. The Red Planet SATELLITE: 53 named and 26 Has a reddish color so the Romans awaiting official names (Galilean named it after their bloody god of war. satellites: Ganymede, Io, Europa and This color is believed to be due to fine- Callisto) grain iron oxide minerals. SATURN Mars has clouds and wind just like Second largest planet Earth. Sometimes the wind blows the Famous for its stunning array of red dust into a dust storm. rings. The rings are made up mostly TEMPERATURE: 70 ℉ to -195 ℉ (21 of highly reflective water ice particles ℃ to -126 ℃) and of rocks ranging in size from dust REVOLUTION: 687 days grains to huge boulders. ROTATION: 24.6 hours These rocks are believed to be pieces COMPOSITION: Iron-rich volcanic of shattered moons, asteroids, or rocks surface (iron oxide). comets that broke up before reaching SATELLITE: 2 satellites/moons the planet. (named “Phobos and Deimos”) TEMPERATURE: -288 ℉ to -188 ℉ (- 178 ℃ to -122 ℃) JOVIAN PLANETS REVOLUTION: 29.46 years Larger in size and mass, lower ROTATION: 10.2 hours density, made mostly of H, He, and COMPOSITION: Solid dense core of Hydrogen compounds, no solid ice and rock and a surface of He and surface. Rings and many moons, H. further from the sun and further apart SATELLITE: 53 named and 29 with cool temperature. awaiting official names (Titan – the largest satellite) URANUS The “sideways” planet and coldest planet The planet’s spin axis is roughly perpendicular to its orbital plane. Uranus’s rotation axis lies almost JUPITER within the plane, tilted 98 degrees from The largest planet the perpendicular. Jupiter's diameter is 11 times as large The planet essentially revolves around as the Earth's, and it has 318 times as the Sun on its side known as the much mass; its density, however, is retrograde rotation. much less. TEMPERATURE: -353 ℉ to -371 ℉ (- Jupiter consists of a rocky core, a layer 214 ℃ to -224 ℃) of ice, a REVOLUTION: 84 years layer of hydrogen in liquid metallic ROTATION: 17 hours form (because it is at high pressure), MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE COMPOSITION: Solid core and icy The last criterion disqualifies Pluto mantle, surface of methane ice from the planet club. The phrase crystals and ammonia. “have cleared the neighborhood SATELLITE: 27 named satellites around its orbit” means that during formation, the planet became gravitationally dominant, clearing out NEPTUNE any debris around its orbit other than Sometimes regarded as a twin to its own satellites. Uranus (similar in size and the CERES composition of their atmospheres, and Largest object in the asteroid belt their internal compositions) Lies in the asteroid belt between Mars Neptune is massive enough to and Jupiter. Although Ceres was gravitationally affect its surrounding initially classified as a planet and then space, especially the small objects for a long time as an asteroid, it is now farther out from the sun. designated a dwarf planet. Its orbit is TEMPERATURE: -392 ℉ (-236 ℃) not clear of other objects (the asteroid REVOLUTION: 164.79 years belt), so it does not have planet status. ROTATION: 16.6 hours ERIS COMPOSITION: Silicate core and Furthest dwarf planet watery mantle, surface of methane This dwarf planet is about three times and ammonia. further away from the Sun than Pluto. SATELLITE: 14 named satellites Its period of solar revolution is about 560 Earth years. Eris' orbit takes it DWARF PLANETS through a belt of comets and its orbit is not cleared, so it is a dwarf planet. Eris' The International Astronomical orbit is highly elliptical. Union (IAU) is the internationally HAUMEA recognized authority for assigning Fastest rotating dwarf planet designations to celestial bodies and to Located in the Kuiper Belt beyond any surface features of them. In 2006, Neptune’s orbit, it is an oval-shaped the IAU adopted the following criteria object with a radius of about 385 miles for solar system body of a planet: (10 times smaller than Earth), and two 1. It must be orbit around the sun moons, Namaka and Hi’iaka. A day 2. It must have sufficient mass on Haumea lasts only four earth hours, for self-gravity to form a nearly making it one of the fastest rotating round shape. large objects in our solar system. 3. It must be dominant body MAKEMAKE within its orbit; that is, it must Holds and important place in the have cleared the history neighbourhood around its Makemake is located in the Kuiper orbit. Belt, a region outside the orbit of Neptune. Slightly smaller than Pluto, Makemake is the secondbrightest object in the Kuiper Belt as seen from Earth (while Pluto is the brightest). It takes about 305 Earth years for this PLUTO dwarf planet to make one trip around King of the Kuiper Belt the sun. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE 1. it is made up of 78% Nitrogen and 21% WEEK 2: EARTH SCIENCE Oxygen, the rest are Argon, Carbon Earth Science is a collective term that Dioxide, Methane, and trace elements studies all major parts of our planets, of inert gases. namely land, sea, air, the interior 2. Nitrogen and Oxygen, structure of our planet, and the together with Hydrogen, distribution of living organisms. These Carbon, and Phosphorus, parts lead to four major subdivisions of are constituent elements of Earth’s systems: atmosphere, biological molecules: hydrosphere, geosphere, and carbohydrates, protein, biosphere. lipids, and nucleic acid. Earth occupies a circumstellar Earth’s climate and temperature are habitable zone. relatively stable 1. an orbital region that receives 1. has a climate and the right range of radiant temperature which are energy so that water in a remarkably stable when planet stays in liquid form. compared with those of other 2. Astronomers estimate the planets. region of the habitable zone 2. The average temperature of based on its stellar flux. the Earth’s surfaceis20 ˚C. 3. Water in liquid form is 3. The relative stability of Earth’s essential for the functioning of climate and temperature is biological systems (72-75% important for the formation of human body, 70% Earth’s biological molecules. surface. Earth’s climate and temperature are Earth has a magnetic field. relatively stable 1. protects the planet by shielding it against the sun’s 1. Venus’s surface temperature is harmful charged particles approximately 453 ˚C. Any trace called the solar wind. of liquid water on this planet 2. Earth’s molten core is in would have evaporated quickly. constant motion due to 2. Mars’s temperature is a freezing thermal convection produced -55 ˚C. Any aqueous solution by heat. This motion, combined with Earth’s contained in a cell at this rotation, produces a temperature would have frozen, magnetic field. destroying the cell’s membrane, Earth has an atmosphere rich in nitrogen and oxygen. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE and leading to the death of the cell itself. ATMOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE The mixture of gases nitrogen, Contains the ozone layer oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide and Air in this layer has strong steady water vapor that surround the planet. horizontal winds which are The air in the atmosphere is generally advantageous to long-distance flights. composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% TROPOSPHERE oxygen, 0.9% argon and the The densest layer remaining part 0.10% is made up of Where we live different trace gases. Air molecules travel up and down LAYERS OF THE ATHMOSPHERE causing the formation of clouds and eventually rain Weather occurs here Where planets and helicopters fly GEOSPHERE The earth itself; the rocks, minerals, and landforms of the surface and interior. LAYERS OF THE GEOSPHERE LITOSPHERE Includes the crust and the uppermost solid mantle. CRUST Thickness – 7km-10km beneath the EXOSPHERE oceans 25km-70km beneath the The outermost region of a planet continents. atmosphere. Composition – oxygen THERMOSPHERE TWO TYPES OF CRUST The hottest layer 1. Oceanic – younger, thinner The extreme heat causes particles to and denser become electrically charged making 2. Continental – older, thicker, radio waves bounce off less dense Where the Ionosphere and Auroras ASTENOSPHERE – the mechanically are located weak and ductile region of the lower Where satellites orbit earth mantle of earth. Protects us from solar winds or flares MANTLE MESOSPHERE Thickness: about 2900 km The coldest layer Composition: oxygen, silicon, Protects earth from planetary debris aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, Where most of the space rocks are potassium and magnesium. found Temperature: 3000⁰C Where meteors are burned up GUTENBURG DISCONTINUITY – Mesopause – the boundary between transitional boundary between the the mesosphere and termosphere outer core. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE OUTER CORE It covers all ecosystems – from the soil Fluid part of the core to the rainforest, from mangroves to Thickness: about 2900 km coral reefs, and from the plankton – Composition: Iron and Nickel rich ocean surface to the deep sea. Temperature: 4500 to 6000 ⁰C INNER CORE BIOMES Solid part of the core Made of many ecosystems. These are Thickness: 2890 – 5000 km beneath very large ecological areas on the the earth’s surface. earth’s surface, with fauna and flora Composition: Iron and Nickel adapting to their environment. Temperature: 5500 ⁰C WEEK 3: ROCKS AND MINERALS MINERALS Minerals are homogeneous, naturally occuring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure. CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 1. Naturally Occuring – minerals should exist naturally. Steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially, and therefore, not minerals. 2. Inorganic – minerals are limited to substances formed through inorganic processes and exclude materials derived from living organisms that involved organic processes. 3. Solids – all liquids and gases even those are naturally formed such as petroleum are not considered HYDROSPHERE materials. Refers to the total amount of water 4. Defenite Chemical Composition – found om earth. the chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula to the elements and compounds in specific ratios. 5. Ordered Internal Structure – the atoms in minerals are organized in regular, repetitive geometric patterns or crystal structures. Biosphere Set of all life forms on earth MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE MINERAL CRYSTALS CAN FORM IN TWO MAIN WAYS: STREAK The color of a minerals powder “streak test” MINERALS Minerals form from hot magma as it LUSTER cools inside the crust, or as lava cools How the minerals surface reflects light. on the surface. Metallic vs. Non - metallic When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals (minerals). Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze into a solid. HARDNESS The ability of a mineral to resist being scratched “scratch test” If mineral A can scratch mineral B, what does that tell us about the relative hardness of each mineral. EVAPORATION Some minerals form when solutions/mixtures evaporate: FRACTURE / CLEAVAGE When water evaporates, it Mineral breaks The tendency of a leaves behind the stuff that’s unevenly or Mineral to break dissolved in it. irregularly evenly along its PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS weakest plane. COLOR The least useful property in identifying minerals. Why? MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE CRYSTAL FORM Some minerals tend to form crystals that aid in the identification of the mineral. SPECIFIC GRAVITY The ratio of the density of the mineral to OXIDES the density of water (1 g/cm3) Consist of metal cations bonded to “If a mineral has a specific gravity of 5 oxygen anions that means it is 5 times as dense as Common oxide minerals are water.” magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3) OTHERS SULFIDES Acid test – Calcite Consist of metalcation bonded to Magnetic – Magnetite sulfide (S2- ) Taste - Halite They are common ore minerals with oxides Examples are galena (PbS) and pyrite (FeS2) OTHER PROPERTIES OF MINERALS SULFATES Consist of metal cation bonded to the 1. Taste – using of tongue. SO4 2- anionic group. 2. Olfactory sense They usually precipitate out of water 3. Minerals bend and snap back to their near Earth’s surface. original form. 4. Malleability – ability of a mineral to Example: gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) be easily hammered. HALIDES 5. Double Refraction – exhibited by a Composed of a halogen ion such as transparent sheet of calcite placed chlorine or fluorine which forms over printed materials, the letters halite or rock salt (NaCl) and fluorite appear doubled. (CaF2). 6. Chemical reaction to the hydrochloric CARBONATES acid – the way minerals react to HCI, Characterized by the presence of thus altering its chemical properties. carbonic ion (CO3) which bonds COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS elements such as calcium or magnesium. CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS Example: calcite (CaCO3) or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) SILICATES NATIVE METALS Composed primarily of silicon-oxygen Consist of a single metal tetrahedrons (SiO4) Example: copper (Cu), gold (Au) and Silicates are the major rock-forming silver (Ag) minerals and includes olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) and quartz (SiO2) MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE ROCKS TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Combination of minerals in some way. INTRUSIVE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS All rocks are made of minerals. Crystallize below earth’s surface and the slow cooling that occurs the 1. Igneous allows large crystals to form. 2. Sedimentary EXTRUSIVE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS 3. Metamorphic Erupt onto the surface of, where they cool quickly to form small crystals. ROCK CYCLE Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass. This rocks include adesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, and tuff. IGNEOUS ROCKS Formed from the solidification/crystallization of molten rock material. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Since their constituent minerals are Those that are deposited and lithified crystallized from molten material, (compacted and cemented together) igneous rocks are formed at high at the Earth’s surface, with the temperatures. assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living organisms. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE and chemical composition of the rocks. METAMORPHISM Metamorphism is a process by which rocks are changed into other forms by the application of heat, pressure, stress and chemical processes. TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS FOLIATED Foliated metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate have LITHIFICATION a layered or banded appearance that Compaction happens when is produced by exposure to heat and sediments are deeply buried, placing directed pressure. them under pressure. NON-FOLIATED such as hornfels, marble, quartzite, Cementation is where new minerals stick the grains together – just as and novaculite do not have a layered cement. Calcite (CaCO3), Silica (SiO2) or banded appearance. MINERALS and Iron oxides are common Naturally occuring substance, cementing minerals. representable by a chemical formula SEDIMENTARY ROCKS that is usually solid and inorganic and NON-CLASTIC CLASTIC has a crystal structure. Formed from the Formed from the MINERAL RESOURCES accumulation of lithification of rock Refer non non-food, non-fuel organic materials or and mineral organic activity. fragments; resources such as metals and sediments glued industrial minerals. together DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES MINERAL OCCURRENCE The concentration of a mineral that is of scientic or technical interests. MINERAL DEPOSIT A mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions. METAMORPHIC ROCKS ORE DEPOSIT Metamorphic rocks have been A mineral deposit that has been tested modified by heat, pressure, stress and is known to be economically and chemical processes, usually while profitable to mine. buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions has altered the mineralogy, texture, MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE AGGREGATE |WEATHERING A rock mineral material used as filler in cement, asphalt, plaster, etc; generally used to describe non- metallic deposits. ORE A naturally occurring material from which a mineral or minerals of economic value can be extracted. CATEGORIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES It is a deposit on earth’s crust of one or METALLIC MINERAL RESOURCES more valuable minerals. The most Metals are hard and conduct electricity valuable ore deposits contain metals and heat with characteristics of luster crucial to industry and trade, like or shine. copper, gold, and iron. CHARACTERISTIC OF METALLIC TYPES OF ORE DEPOSITS MINERAL RESOURCES Metallic Minerals show a metallic MAGMATIC shine in their appearance. Valuable substances are concentrated The potential source of the metal is within an igneous body through through mining. magmatic processes such as crystal Metallic Minerals contain metal in raw fractionation, partial melting, and form. crystal settling. FERROUS VS. NON-FERROUS HYDROTHERMAL I. Minerals I. Minerals The concetration of valuable contain iron that do not substances by hot aqueous (water II. Chromites, contain iron. rich) fluids flowing through fractures iron ore, and II. Lead, silver, and pore spaces in rocks. manganese. gold and Banded hematite, coated with smoky copper. quartz crystals from Mwyndy Mine. SEDIMENTARY Some valuable substances are connected by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater. PLACER Deposits are formed by the concentration of valuable substances through gravity seperation during sedimentary processes; usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along coastlines. RESIDUAL Results from the accumulation of valuable materials through chemical weathering processes. During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by leaching. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE WEEK 4: ENERGY RESOURCES WIND ENERGY It is an energy that is converted to ENERGY mechanical energy which is then The ability to do work or produced converted to electricity for human use. change. CLASSIFICATIONS OF RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES Resources that can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale. Solar, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal, Biomass. SOLAR ENERGY The energy coming from the sun is HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY converted to electricity for human use. It is a power that is derived from the TWO TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR force or energy of falling water, which is harnessed and converted to PHOTOVOLTAIC OR SOLAR CELL electricity. Direct conversion of light into TWO TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC electricity to atomic level POWER GENERATORS Consist of semiconductor materials made into thin sheets called water. LARGE HYDROELECTRIC DAM Treated to form an electric field Water is artificially stored in a high positive on one side and negative on place, so it can be released and flow the other. to a low place and through a generator. TIDAL POWER SYSTEM The movement of water is also used to power a generator, but the flow of water is caused by the changing tides. Tidal stream power systems take advantage of ocean currents to drive CONCENTRATED SOLAR POWER turbines, particularly in areas around islands or coasts where these currents Involves mirrors, lenses, and tracking are fast. system that focuses light into a receiver and generates heat. They can be installed as tidal fences where turbines are stretched across a The heat is used to generate electricity channel or as tidal turbines, which from conventional steam driven resemble underwater wind turbines. turbines. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY One source of energy in Earth’s system is its internal heat, which is referred to as geothermal energy. The temperature of Earth gets warmer as you go deeper towards the core. The rate of change in temperature with depth is called geothermal gradient. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE BIOMASS WEEK 5: SOIL RESOURCES Are plant materials, or vegetation, either raw or processed wild or PEDOSPHERE cultivated. Bio-fuels are energy Foundation of terrestrial life on this derived from biomass conversion or planet. The term pedosphere is biological carbon fixation. derived from the greek words pedon NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY which means soil and sfaira which RESOURCES means sphere. Are resources that cannot be Living skin of earth which is a result of replenished on a human time scale. dynamic interaction among These can be used faster than they atmosphere, biosphere and can be replaced, so the supply hydrosphere. available to society is limited. FOSSIL FUEL Includes coal, oil or petroleum and gas which are derived from the remains of prehistoric plants and animals that died million years ago were buried to form fossils. 1. Coal – it is a black combustible rock made up of elemental carbom, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur that are formed from the remains of plants that grew in swamps and forests million years ago. Coalification – it is the SOIL FORMATION formation of coal from plant Soil forms when rock weathers. material by the process of Weathering or the breakdown of diagenesis and rocks, may result from a physical or metamorphism. It is also chemical change. Soil formation may known as bituminization or be a slow or a rapid process, carbonification. depending on the factors at play. 2. Petroleum – like coal and FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL natural gas, petroleum was FORMATION formed from the remains ancient marine organisms, PARENT MATERIAL such as plants, algae, and Its chemistry and type will determine bacteria. the soil that will be formed. Soils 3. Natural Gas – it is formed on-site through the weathering hydrocarbon mostly made up of the underlying rock are called of methane (CH4). It is lighter residual soils. than air and is highly CLIMATE flammable. Temperature, rainfall, and moisture NUCLEAR ENERGY affect the pattern and intensity of soil- Comes from splitting atoms in a forming processes such as reactor to heat water into steam, turn weathering, leaching, transportation, a turbine and generate electricity. and distribution. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE TOPOGRAPHY SOIL PROFILE The gradient of slope affects water Soil formation is a gradual process flow and erosion. Soil that forms in that involves the development of a steep slopes tends to be thinner succession of zones or soil horizons. because of the higher rates of erosion. Each horizon has a distinct set of BIOLOGICAL FACTORS physical, chemical, and biological Animal and microorganisms mix the characteristics. The sequence of soil soil through burrowing, while plant horizons is called a soil profile. roots aid in the weathering process as ENTISOLS they grow. Microorganisms also affect These are newly formed soils found in nutrient and chemical exchanges steep rocky lands. between roots and soil. INCEPTISOLS TIME These are slightly developed, young The formation of soil is a long and soils found in steep slopes and continuous process that may take mountain ranges. hundreds to thousands of years GELISOLS depending on the climate and These are frozen soils found in the environment. In moderate climates, it coldest regions on earth. takes 200 to 400 years to develop 1 SPODOSOLS cm of soil. These are frozen soils found in the SOIL TEXTURE coldest regions on earth. These are It is the relative proportion of the sandy and acidic soils found in moist particle sizes in the soil-sand, silt and climates that often support dense clay. forests. 1. Clay - (0.002mm) ALFISOLS 2. Silt – (0.002 – 0.005mm) These are moderately weathered 3. Sand – (0.005 – 2.00) productive soils found in temperate SOIL TEXTURAL TRIANGLE and humid regions. The soil textural triangle determines ULTISOLS the soil type based on particle size. These are very weathered soils. ARIDISOLS These are very dry soils in arid regions. MOLLISOLS These are deep and fertile soils. OXISOLS These are very weathered soils and are common in tropical climates. ANDISOLS These are soils that are composed of volcanic ashes. HISTOSOLS These are soils that have high organic content and are wet. TOPOGRAPHY These are clay-like soils that shrink and swell. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE SOLID WASTE pollutants before mixing into the It is generally made up of objects or atmosphere. particles that accumulate on the site MULCH AND COMPOST where they are produced. One of the simplest methods to TYPES OF SOLID WASTE dispose of wastes at homes. Composting is the method of allowing MUNICIPAL WASTE the natural process of decomposition This includes materials that people in to transform organic materials into a community no longer want because humus-like material called compost. they are broken, spoiled, or no longer SOURCE REDUCTION helpful. This type of waste comes from Refers to the method of designing, households, commercial manufacturing, purchasing, using, and establishments, institutions, and some reusing materials so that the amount industrial sources. of waste or its toxicity is reduced. AGRICULTURAL WASTE SOURCE REDUCTION These are derived from farming and It is the method of collecting poultry. It is organic and is used for throwaway materials and turning them soil-enhancing activities. Other into valuable products. materials are burned as a source of WATER RESOURCES energy. Too much agricultural waste in the form of fertilizers is deposited WATER into bodies of water, which can cause Water is a simple compound made of eutrophication. two atoms of hydrogen and one atom INDUSTRIAL WASTE of oxygen bonded together. It includes various materials such as EARTH’S WATER demolition wastes, scraps from The total amount of water on the manufacturing processes, and ash planet, also known as Earth's water from combustion. If they are classified budget, generally remains constant as hazardous, disposal requires through time. Water moves and special landfills for their isolation and changes in form, but is neither created treatment. nor destroyed. TYPES OF SOLID WASTE Only a very small percentage is added to the hydrologic system by volcanic LANDFILL eruptions and meteors from space. It is the cheapest and the most Most of the water on Earth today has convenient method of waste disposal. been cycling through the hydrologic It is constructed above an system for billions of years. impermeable clay layer that is lined RESIDENCE TIME with an impermeable membrane. This is the average length of time INCINERATION spent by a water molecule in a Involves burning in a controlled reservoir. In a large reservoir, the manner using an incinerator. It is residence time of water is longer. coupled with high-temperature waste treatments are recognized as thermal treatments. During incineration, the waste material being treated is converted into gas, particles, and heat. These gases must be treated again to eradicate MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE STREAM SALTWATER RESERVOIR is a moving body of surface water w An ocean is a vast body of saline that flows downslope toward sea level water. There is only one global or because of gravity. world ocean and it covers 71% of STREAM CHANNELS Earth. OCEAN RIVER a very large expanse of sea, in a stream with considerable volume particular each of the main areas into and well-defined channel. which the sea is divided WATERSHED geographically. a land area in which the water flows SURFACE LAYER into a particular stream. The surface layer, which consists of TRIBUTARIES relatively warm, low-density water, a freshwater stream that feeds into a extends from the ocean surface to a larger stream or river. depth of 100m. This layer is only about DIVIDE 2% of the water in the ocean but it is the line that seperates individual the home of most marine plants and drainage basins (watershed) animals. OVERLAND FLOW DEEP ZONE is the process when water moves This is where the temperature is downhill during heavy rain. uniformly low. 80% of the water in the LAKES ocean is in the deep zone. Lakes are large inland bodies of fresh THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION or saline water. Its upper surface is This happens at the deep zone which exposed to the atmosphere and is is driven by density differences essentially flat. controlled by the temperature and PONDS salinity. Driven by density differences, These are small shallow lakes. Ponds which are controlled by temperature are often are fed by underground and salinity. springs. Like lakes, ponds are This circulation is propelled by the bordered by hills or low rises so the sinking of cold, salty, and dense water water is blocked from flowing directly in the Polar Regions, and the rising of downhill. the warm, less salty water of the WETLANDS Tropics. land areas where water covers the FRESHWATER RESERVOIRS surface for significant periods are Most of the fresh water on Earth is referred to as wetlands stored in glaciers situated in TYPES OF WETLANDS inaccessible areas such as the Polar Region and high mountains. MARSH The readily available freshwater a shallow wetland around lakes, sources are the surface water streams, and oceans where grasses reservoir and groundwater reservoir. and reeds are the dominant SURFACE WATER RESERVOIRS vegetation. The readily available freshwater SWAMP sources are the surface water a wetland with lush trees and reservoir and groundwater reservoir. vegetation found in low-lying areas beside slow-moving rivers MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERM NOTES_12-SAINT CHRISTINA OF TYRE ESTUARY AQUIFER a partly enclosed coastal body of An aquifer is a body of saturated rock water where fresh water from the through which water can easily move. stream meets the saltwater from the Aquifers must be both permeable and sea a natural event porous and include such rock types as FLOOD sandstone, conglomerate, fractured wherein an area that is usually dry is limestone, and unconsolidated sand submerge underwater and gravel. TYPES OF FLOODS GROUNDWATER-STREAM RELATIONSHIP FLUVIAL / RIVERLINE FLOODS Some streams lose water downstream Occurs when a stream's discharge is and dry up. greater than the capacity of the Losing/influent stream effluent stream. channel causing the stream to LOSING/INFLUENT STREAM overflow. The water flows underground and FLASHFLOODS contributes to the groundwater. These are characterized by an EFFLUENT STREAM intense, high-velocity torrent of water.water rises from underground and that occurs in an existing river channel adds to the river. with little to no notice. WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT COASTAL FLOODING AND CONSERVATION Occurs when water overwhelms in. low-lying areas along the coasts, DAMS usually due to severe weather Dams are simply hydraulic structures conditions. that act as a barrier between the PLUVIAL / SURFACE WATER FLOOD source and destination of flowing Occurs when heavy rainfall creates a water. flood event independent of an RAINWATER HARVESTING overflowing stream. This is common in People connect PVC pipes to a drain urban areas when drainage systems on their roof and the rainwater is are clogged. collected below in large storage tanks GROUNDWATER BAMBOO DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM Groundwater freshwater is found in People use bamboo pipes for tapping the rock and soil layers beneath the the waters of streams and springs. surface. This is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on Earth Groundwate Porosity is the total amount of empty pore space in the rock. It determines the amount of groundwater an aquifer can hold. Groundwater Permeability is the ability of the rock sediments to allow water to pass through them. In permeable materials, the pore spaces are interconnected throughout the rock, allowing the free flow of groundwater. MARIA ZYRA FAITH CANAY GONZALES