Planet Earth: Its Characteristics that Support Life PDF

notes ni gia Planet Earth: Oxygen Its Characteristics that Argon Support Life Carbon dioxide Neon & other...

notes ni gia Planet Earth: Oxygen Its Characteristics that Argon Support Life Carbon dioxide Neon & other trace elements GLIESE 667C - This exoplanet, which lies just 22 NATURALLY OCCURRING GREENHOUSE light-years from Earth, is at least 4.5 times as GASES THAT HELP KEEP EARTH'S massive as Earth (NASA's Jet Propulsion TEMPERATURE WITHIN A HABITABLE Laboratory). Gliese 667Cc completes one orbit RANGE around its host star in a mere 28 days. Water vapor Carbon dioxide KEPLER 22B - is located 620 light years away in Methane the constellation of Cygnus. It has an orbital Nitrous oxide period of 290 days. It has an estimated mass of Ozone 36 Earth masses and a radius of 2.38 Earth radii, making it a "super- Earth“. FACTORS THAT MAKE EARTH HABITABLE Temperature - This will influence how PROXIMA CENTAURI B - is located just four quickly atoms and molecules move. Most light-years away from Earth, making it Earth's living things are limited to a temperature closest known exoplanet. range of minus 15 ̊C to 115 ̊C. Water - This matter dissolves and Orbiting the star TRAPPIST-1 are the most Earth- transports materials in and out of the cell. sized planets ever discovered in the habitable Only Earth has the right chemical zone of a single star. This planetary system is materials like liquid water that could made up of seven worlds. support life. Atmospheric Condition - It shields the The possibility of life on MARS is a subject of surface from harmful radiation through the interest in astrobiology due to the planet's ozone layer and Earth has the right size to proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no hold a sufficient- sized atmosphere. proof of past or present life has been found on Earth’s atmosphere is about 100 miles Mars. Evidences claimed that the surface thick. environment of Mars may have been habitable for Energy - Living things use light or microorganisms. chemical energy to run essential life processes. With the availability of SEVERABLE EVIDENCES THAT SUGGEST sufficient energy, organisms can perform MARS CAN POTENTIALLY HARBOUR LIFE different metabolic reactions through the Presence of liquid water cells. Organic molecules Nutrients - These are materials that build Methane gas and maintain an organism’s body. The Permafrost inner planets including Earth and moons Similarities to Earth have the same general chemical components which makes nutrients easily SIMILARITIES OF VENUS, EARTH, MARS available in the environment. They are all terrestrial planets Right Distance from the Sun - Earth is in They all have an atmosphere the Goldilocks Zone. A region with just the They all have geological features right temperature to sustain life – not too They all rotate and revolve cold, not too hot. They almost all have the same size Strong Magnetic Field - It shields us from the electromagnetic radiation coming from ABUNDANT GASSES IN EARTH'S the Sun. The magnetic field deflects the ATMOSPHERE radiation that may destroy the ozone layer. Nitrogen notes ni gia Plate Tectonics - Earth's active tectonic ✓ The lithosphere interacts with the hydrosphere plates recycle carbon and other elements, through the water cycle, where water is which helps maintain a stable climate and transported through the lithosphere in various sustains life. forms such as runoff, groundwater, and precipitation. Earth Subsystems HYDROSPHERE Definition and Characteristics ✓ The hydrosphere is the Earth's water Earth is a dynamic body with many separate, but system, which includes all bodies of water, such highly interacting parts or spheres. Earth is a as oceans, rivers, lakes, and groundwater. system composed of subsystems. ✓ The hydrosphere makes up about 71% of the Earth's surface and is essential for life on Earth. ATMOSPHERE Interaction with Other Subsystems Definition and Characteristics ✓ The hydrosphere interacts with the ✓ The atmosphere is a layer of gasses that atmosphere through the water cycle. surround the Earth. ✓ The hydrosphere also interacts with the ✓ The atmosphere consists of nitrogen, oxygen, lithosphere through erosion, as water and ice and other gasses, as well as water vapor, dust, wear away at the surface and transport sediment. and other particles. ✓ The atmosphere protects the Earth from the sun's harmful rays, controls the temperature, and BIOSPHERE provides the air we breathe. Definition and Characteristics Interaction with the Other Subsystems ✓The biosphere is the part of the Earth where ✓ The atmosphere interacts with the life exists, including all living organisms and their hydrosphere through the water cycle, where interactions with each other and the environment. water evaporates from the surface and enters the ✓The biosphere is diverse and includes a range atmosphere as water vapor, then falls back to the of ecosystems, from rainforests to deserts. surface as precipitation. Interaction with Other Subsystems ✓ The atmosphere also interacts with the ✓The biosphere interacts with the atmosphere biosphere, as plants release oxygen into the through the exchange of gasses, as mentioned atmosphere through photosynthesis and take in above. carbon dioxide. ✓The biosphere interacts with the hydrosphere through the water cycle and the dependence of LITHOSPHERE organisms on water. Definition and Characteristics ✓The biosphere interacts with the lithosphere ✓ The lithosphere is the Earth's solid, through the soil and the formation of landforms. outermost layer, which includes the crust and Rock - Forming Minerals upper mantle. ✓ The lithosphere is composed of rocks, minerals, and other materials and is constantly MINERALS changing due to tectonic activity. Are the building blocks of rocks. Geologists Interaction with the Other Subsystems define minerals as any present inorganic solids ✓ The lithosphere also influences the that possess an orderly crystalline structure and a atmosphere by releasing gases from volcanic well-defined chemical composition. eruptions and other geologic processes that can affect climate and weather patterns. 1. NATURALLY OCCURRING - minerals ✓ The lithosphere also supports ecosystems by form through natural processes, including providing habitats for organisms and influencing volcanic eruptions, precipitation of a solid the availability of resources such as water and out of a liquid, and weathering of minerals. pre-existing materials. Synthetic diamonds notes ni gia and rubies, and other substances with a chemical composition and internal specific chemical composition and structure. structure produced by chemists, More than 90 percent of the minerals on engineers, and manufacturers, are NOT the Earth's crust are compounds CONSIDERED true minerals. containing oxygen and silicon, the two 2. SOLID - a true mineral must be solid at most abundant elements. temperatures encountered at the earth’s A few minerals contains single elements surface. Liquids and gases are not and are called native elements, these are considered minerals, they do not have a minerals that exist in their purest forms. characteristic crystal structure. Ice for The precise chemical composition and example ceases to exist as a mineral upon internal atomic structure that defines each melting into liquid water. mineral also directly determines its 3. INORGANIC PROCESSES - any material outward appearance and physical produced through organic activity such as properties. leaves, bones, peat, shell, or soft animal tissue is NOT CONSIDERED a mineral. COMMON ELEMENTS OF EARTH’S CRUST Most fossils, although they were once Element Symbol % by Mass living, have generally had their living tissues completely replaced by inorganic Oxygen O 46.6 processes after burial; thus they are not composed of minerals as well. Silicon Si 27.7 4. CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS - most Aluminum Al 8.1 minerals exist as chemical compounds composed of two or more elements. A few Iron Fe 5.0 minerals consist of only one type of atom such as graphite. All minerals are Calcium Ca 3.6 defined by their chemical composition. Sodium Na 2.8 Quartz, for example, has the chemical formula SiO2. The gemstone amethyst is Potassium K 3.6 a form of quartz that is colored pale to Magnesium Mg 2.1 deep purple by the presence of the impurity Iron (Fe). Others 1.5 5. ORDERLY CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE - the chemical composition of a mineral is STRUCTURE OF MINERALS reflected internally in a regular, repeating The following are some of the defining features of arrangement of atoms. The cubic shape of a crystal. salt crystals very clearly reflects the Crystal structure right-angle bonds between the Sodium Regular, geometric, smooth faces (Na) and Chlorine (Cl) atoms in its atomic Orderly arrangements with repeating structure. structures Each mineral always forms the same Through organic and inorganic processes, crystal shape minerals are formed. A few naturally occurring Six basic crystal shapes substances called mineraloids have Crystallographic axes are used to characteristic chemical compositions but are determine structure amorphous (having NO DEFINITE SHAPE). Opal is an example. PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Minerals differ from each other in chemical COMPOSITION OF MINERALS composition and structure, and these factors There are approximately 4000 known produce distinctive physical properties that enable minerals, uniquely defined by their minerals to be identified. notes ni gia 1. CRYSTAL FORM - The external 4 Fluorite expression of a mineral that reflects the orderly internal arrangement of atoms. 3 Calcite When minerals start to form solid structure, microscopic crystals form and 2 Gypsum grow. This results from the cooling of 1 Talc molten material or through precipitation from a solution. Ex. Pyrite and quartz 2. LUSTER - this property describes the 6. CLEAVAGE - A mineral that exhibits appearance of a mineral when light is cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, reflected from its surface. along parallel flat surfaces called a. Metallic cleavage planes. b. Earthy 7. FRACTURE - Minerals that don't exhibit c. Waxy cleavage when broken have exhibits d. Pearly fracture like quartz. Minerals that break 3. COLOR - This is the most obvious feature into smooth curved surfaces like those of a mineral but often an unreliable seen in broken glass have a conchoidal diagnostic property. Many minerals are fracture. Others break into splinters or found in several colors. This may be fibers, like asbestos, but most minerals attributed to the impurities added to the fracture irregularly. Fractures are generally minerals. rough or irregular, instead of flat, and 4. STREAK - This color of the mineral in its thus appear duller than cleavage surfaces powdered form, which may or may not be 8. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - The specific gravity the same color as the outward color of the of a mineral is the weight of that mineral mineral. Streak is useful for identifying divided by the weight of an equal minerals with metallic or earthy luster. volume of water. The specific gravity of Streak is obtained by scratching the water equals 1.0 by definition. The mineral on an unpolished piece of white average specific gravity for minerals is porcelain called a streak plate. around 2.7. 5. HARDNESS - This refers to a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. Geologists use a standard hardness scale, called the Mohs scale. It consists of 10 minerals arranged in order from 10 (hardest) to 1 (softest). MOHS SCALE OF MINERAL HARDNESS Relative Scale Mineral Classification of Rocks 10 Diamond 9 Corundum 8 Topaz 7 Quartz 6 Potassium Feldspar 5 Apatite notes ni gia PETROLOGY rocks end up buried deep underground, Petrology is the scientific study of rocks. Rocks usually because of the movement of plate are a combined aggregation of minerals. tectonics. While underground, these rocks Petrologists classified rocks based on how they are exposed to high heat and pressure, were formed. In general, rocks are classified as which changes them into metamorphic igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock. rock. 6. Rock Melting - Metamorphic rocks The ROCK CYCLE is the entire process of underground melt to become magma. forming rocks, and like a circle, it has no When a volcano erupts, magma flows out beginning or end. of it. As the lava cools it hardens and becomes igneous rock. As soon as the new igneous rock is formed, the processes of weathering and erosion begin. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS Igneous Rocks - formed from hardening and crystallization of magma or molten material that originates deep within the earth. Types of Igneous Rock 1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks or Plutonic - are formed when magma solidifies inside under the surface of the earth. e.g. Granite 2. Extrusive Igneous Rocks or Volcanic - are formed when magma solidifies and gets in THE 6 ROCK CYCLE STEPS touch with air. e.g. Basalt 1. Weathering & Erosion - Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks on Igneous rocks can be categorized based on their the surface of the earth are constantly texture and mineral composition: being broken down by wind and water. Wind carrying sand wears particles off the Felsic rocks are usually made up of the rock like sandpaper. Rushing river water, light-colored silicate minerals like Potassium crashing surf, and precipitation all rub off feldspar and quartz. More examples of this are the rough edges of rocks, leaving smooth granite and rhyolite. rocks or pebbles behind. Water seeps into the cracks in mountain rocks, then Intermediate rocks contain plagioclase feldspar freezes, causing the rocks to break open. and amphibole, such as andesite. Mafic rocks 2. Transportation - Eroded rock particles (e.g., basalt) contain abundant olivine, pyroxene, are carried away by wind or by rain, and calcium feldspar." streams, rivers, and oceans. 3. Deposition - As rivers get deeper or flow into the ocean, their current slows down, and the rock particles (mixed with soil) sink and become a layer of sediment. 4. Compaction & Cementation - As the layers of sediment stack up (above water or below), the weight and pressure compacts the bottom layers. 5. Metamorphism. Over very long periods of geologic time, sedimentary or igneous notes ni gia Sedimentary rocks - provide information about Change is driven by the rise in temperature within surface conditions that existed in the Earth’s past. the host rock surrounding a molten Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other igneous body. fragments of materials called sediments, 2. Regional metamorphism occurs when a large accumulate in layers and over a long period of area is affected due to large-scale heat and time harden into rocks. pressure such as mountain building. When this Compaction - due to increase of pressure of happens, metamorphism produces a great layered sediments it binds together to form the volume of metamorphic rocks. sedimentary rocks. Two Metamorphic Textures Types of Sedimentary Rocks 1. Foliated texture results in the mineral 1. Clastic Sedimentary rock - formed from alignment perpendicular to the compressional accumulation of clasts: little pieces of broken force and usually gives the rock a layered or rocks and shells. Examples: conglomerate, banded appearance. breccia, sandstone, shale 2. Chemical rocks - formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from a solution. Example: Halite: formed when a body of seawater becomes closed off and evaporates. 2. Non-foliated texture contains 3. Organic rocks - formed from the accumulation equidimensional crystals and resembles a of animal debris Example: Coal: composed of coarse-grained igneous rock. organic matter in the form of plant fragments. Metamorphic - are formed from igneous rocks, Importance of Minerals to Society sedimentary rocks or even from other metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism - is the change in the mineral’s ORE MINERALS composition and texture of the rock when ore minerals, industrial minerals, and gems are subjected to high temperature and pressure the classifications of minerals that have been within the earth. giving people in the community an unending list of benefits. Two Metamorphic Settings are minerals that have a high concentration of a 1. Contact or thermal metamorphism takes certain element, typically a metal, that can be place when the rock is intruded by magma. mined, treated, and sold at a profit. notes ni gia INDUSTRIAL MINERALS Mineral Resources are defined as rocks or resources from the how it is found, mined, and processed Earth that are utilized because of their physical and chemical characteristics and not because of ORES are natural rocks or sediments that hold their metal content and which are not energy one or more valuable minerals, mostly metals, sources. that can be mined, processed, and sold at a great Clays, gypsum, potash, mica, phosphates, price. They are contained inside the Earth in a calcium carbonate, talc, and zeolite are a few limited quantity because their creation and well-known industrial minerals that offer a wide deposition would take millions of years array of domestic and industrial applications. ORE GENESIS is the process by which a deposit GEMSTONES, on the other hand, like diamond, of ore is created and has three major types: corundum varieties (ruby and sapphire), beryl varieties (emerald, aquamarine, and kunzite), and 1. Internal processes many other semi-precious gems are unearthed 2. Hydrothermal processes, and and valued for their sparkle, beauty, and their 3. Surficial processes contribution to jewelry, cosmetics, and medicine. Ore minerals can be found in the Earth's surface or to its crust and at the ocean floor. Silicate rocks (quartz, mica, and olivine), Igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, and basalt), Sedimentary rocks (sandstone, shale, and limestone), and Metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist, and amphibolite) The presence of various ore minerals can also be found in the ocean floor as it is made up of crystallized matter from silicate magma known as mafic rocks. Moreover, numerous Volcanic Massive Sulfide (VMS) deposits can be observed in the ocean floor which are rich in ore that can be mined for its resources, including gabbro, basalt, serpentine, peridotite, olivine, and ore minerals from Volcanic Massive Sulfide deposits. MINERAL OCCURRENCE - Concentration of a mineral that is of scientific or technical assistance MINERAL DEPOSIT - Mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade or concentration to enable extraction under the most favorable conditions ORE DEPOSIT - Mineral deposit that has been tested and known to be economically profitable to mine Mineral Occurrence → Mineral Deposit, Ore Deposit → Mining notes ni gia MINING Process of extracting mineral resources - Preserving water quality from the surface of the Earth. - Stabilizing land to protect against erosion - Establishing new landforms and vegetation STAGES OF MINING PROCESS 1. EXPLORATION - The process of searching TWO TYPES OF MINING areas that contain mineral resources viable for 1. Surface Mining - Open Pit Mining, Strip mining. Mining, Mountaintop Removal, Placer - It involves prospecting, drilling, and modelling Mining of ore deposits. 2. Underground Mining - Drift Mining, Shaft PROSPECTING Mining, Slope Mining - Evaluation of land’s geology - Analyzing chemical properties of soil and water - Commission airborne and ground physical surveys DRILLING - Involves the use of diamond drill to collect ore samples from the area to examine the type and grade of minerals MODELLING - Geologic modelling of the ore deposit from geologic survey, and physical and chemical testing SURFACE MINING 2. MINE-SITE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN Mining operations that delve into rock to extract Determines whether the site can be operated in deposits of mineral resources that are close to the an environmentally safe, economically sound, and surface. socially responsible manner. OPEN PIT MINING - It involves scoping, feasibility studies, It involves digging of large open holes in procurement of necessary facilities and the ground. equipment. 3. CONSTRUCTION It involves building roads, processing facilities, environmental management systems, employee housing, and other facilities. 4. PRODUCTION The stage where actual mining and processing of minerals happen. STRIP MINING A practice of mining an ore by first removing all of the soil and rock that lies on top. 5. CLOSURE AND RECLAMATION The process of closing the mine and returning the MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL land in its original state A practice of removing the top of the - Ensuring public health and safety mountain to remove deposits not - Minimizing environmental effects accessible by other techniques. - Removing wastes and hazardous materials notes ni gia SHAFT MINING The process where miners dig straight down or almost straight drown until they reach their desired depth. PLACER MINING The process of extracting minerals from placer (deposit of minerals in the bed of river or lake). UNDERGROUND MINING Mining operations that extracts valuable minerals or other geological materials buried deep in Earth’s crust. Mining (Mineral) → Ore Processing (Melting it to DRIFT MINING become iron ingot) A method of accessing valuable geological material by cutting into the side ORE PROCESSING of the earth, rather than tunneling straight Process of separating the grains of ore minerals downwards from the unwanted materials. 1. COMMINUTION The process of reducing the ore’s size turning it to particles and fragments. It involves the process of crushing and grinding. SLOPE MINING Sizing may happen after crushing. A method accessing valuable geological 2. SEPARATION material, a sloping access shaft travels It involves the act of creating concentrates of downwards towards the material. minerals as it is separated from gangue. Methods used should be based in the properties of the minerals SEPARATION METHODS HEAVY MEDIA SEPARATION It involves the separation of products with different densities. notes ni gia COAL - A combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock - It normally occurs in rock strata as layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams COAL FORMATION MAGNETIC SEPARATION - The process of coal formation is called It utilizes the force exerted by a magnetic field coalification. upon magnetic materials to counteract partially or The most favorable conditions for the coal wholly the effect of gravity. formation occurred 360 million to 290 million years ago (carboniferous period) - The temperature and the location where coalification happens affect the rate of it and the quality of coal - It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a sedimentary basin such as a lagoon or a lake. - Tectonic activity or other natural phenomenon FLOATATION raises the level of water, covering, and killing the It involves the separation of hydrophobic vegetation materials from hydrophilic materials. - Plant debris accumulates and is buried under layers of mud and sand in a process known as sedimentation. - Sedimentation will happen over a long period of time which will cover the plant debris and slow down the decomposition. - Pressure due to continuous sedimentation and heat under the Earth gradually cooks plant debris CYANIDE HEAP LEACHING to coal. Method of extraction in which a solvent is passed through a mixture to remove some desired substance from it. CRUDE OIL - It is also known as Petroleum and is another type of fossil fuel that is nonrenewable. - Petroleum comes from ancient marine organisms like marine plants, algae and bacteria. Fossil Fuels - Once extracted, this oil will be transported to refineries to transform oil into usable fuels like FOSSIL FUELS propane, kerosene, gasoline and other fuel - Energy sources that originated from biological products. materials - Composed of hydrocarbons NATURAL GAS - May be in form of coal, oil, or natural gas - A type of fossil fuel that is odorless, colorless hydrocarbon gas. - It is made up of hydrocarbons that are mostly methane (CH4 ). notes ni gia - If a natural gas is found in porous and permeable rock beds or mixed into oil reservoirs which can be extracted through drilling, this is called conventional natural gas. - Those that are too difficult or expensive to extract and require a special stimulation technique like fracking, are called unconventional natural gas. OIL & NATURAL GAS - Oil is liquid fossil fuels while natural gas is gaseous. They are made up of hydrocarbons. Energy Sources - The formation of oil and natural gas have a Geothermal and Hydroelectric Energy great similarity. - When a living organism dies, it is generally RENEWABLE ENERGY recycled in one of the two ways: - Forms of energy that can be replenished 1. It is eaten by predators, scavengers, or naturally in a relatively short period of time. They bacteria are derived from sunlight, wind, water, and 2. It oxidizes geothermal heat. It is sustainable because it does not emit pollutants or greenhouse gases that OIL & NATURAL GAS FORMATION contribute to climate change. - Transported by water, this tiny proportion sinks to the bottom of oceans or lakes. NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY - Forms of energy that cannot be replaced in a short amount of time or are finite and will eventually run out. They are often derived from fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, that were formed over millions of years and cannot be replenished in our lifetime. ENERGY SOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES Republic Act 9513 Renewable Energy Act of 2008 - Over time, this mixture accumulates and Renewable Energy Sources hardens. - Energy resources that do not have an upper - The weight of accumulating sediment very limit on the total quantity to be used. Such slowly pushes the source rock under the Earth’s resources are renewable on a regular basis and crust. the renewable rate is rapid enough to consider availability over an indefinite time. Solar Wind Hydroelectric Biomass Geothermal Non-Renewable Energy Sources - At a desired depth and temperature, kerogen - Energy resources that do not renew itself at a starts to release oil. sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction - A hydrocarbon deposit can only form in in meaningful human timeframes. Such resources reservoir rock. Hydrocarbon molecules may that will run out or will not be replenished in accumulate in large quantities in this porous, our lifetimes. permeable rock. Coal Oil notes ni gia Natural Gas Nuclear GEOTHERMAL ENERGY - This comes from the Greek word “geo” means earth and “therme” means heat. - Energy that is derived from the heat of the Earth's crust. It is a clean and sustainable source of energy that can be used for heating, cooling, and generating electricity. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT Heat Energy → Kinetic Energy → Mechanical Energy → Electricity - Can be harnessed by tapping into this heat through wells or underground reservoirs, where hot water or steam is produced and then used to power turbines to generate electricity. - This heat comes from the decay of radioactive elements and the residual heat produced when the planet formed. 1. Wells are drilled for about 1 to 2 miles deep - It covers all techniques used to recover the heat beneath the Earth’s surface to pump steam or in the Earth's subsurface, particularly in aquifers. hot water to the surface. 2. As the hot water rises towards the surface, the pressure drops causing the hot water to turn into steam. 3. The kinetic energy of the steam powers the turbine to spin. This converts kinetic energy (steam) to mechanical energy (turbine). 4. The turbine is connected to a generator that converts mechanical energy to electricity. 5. The electricity that is produced in the generator will flow to step up transformers - This heat tends to increase as you go deeper to raising the voltage so it can travel and will then the ground. Average value of gradient is 3°C per flow to pole transformers to power lines. 100m. 6. The steam that is used to spin the turbine will - Can be harnessed by tapping into this heat undergo cooling in the cooling tower to through wells or underground reservoirs, where condense the steam back to water. The water will hot water or steam is produced and then used to be injected back to the Earth’s surface in an power turbines to generate electricity. injection well. The process continues to sustain - Almost 45% is generated by geothermal energy the supply of electricity. in the Philippines. notes ni gia 1. A dam raises the level of a source of water to create a drop of water. It also controls the storing of water in a reservoir. 2. The higher the level of the water, the greater the potential energy. As the water flows or drops down, the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. 3. This kinetic energy in water powers the blade of the turbine to spin, converting kinetic energy to mechanical energy. 4. The turbine is connected to a generator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. The electricity generated in the generator is in AC (Alternating Current). 6. Transformer will then take the AC and increase its voltage (step-up) to ensure that the electricity can flow to longer distances to your homes. 7. High voltage electricity transmitted by the transformer will step down in power lines sufficient enough to supply the needed voltage in a community. IMPOUNDMENT FACILITY It uses a dam to store water and it releases water to generate electricity. HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY - From the Greek word “hydro” meaning water. Hydroelectric Energy is an energy due to the flow of water. DIVERSION/RUN-OF-RIVER FACILITY - Form of renewable energy that is generated by It works by redirecting river water through a little harnessing the power of flowing water. dam into pipes towards a penstock and feeding it - This is typically done by building a dam or downhill to the power station. reservoir on a river, creating a large body of water that can be used to turn turbines and generate PUMPED STORAGE POWERPLANT electricity It combines a small storage reservoir with a system for cycling water back into the reservoir HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT Kinetic Energy → Mechanical Energy → Electricity after it has been released through the turbine. notes ni gia animal consumption, agriculture, and various Earth’s Water Resources industrial uses. Saltwater - This is water that contains a high WATER CYCLE concentration of dissolved salts, such as sodium and chloride, and is typically found in oceans, seas, and saltwater lakes. Saltwater covers approximately 97% of the Earth’s water resources and is an important ecosystem for marine life. Transpiration occurs when plants take up liquid water from the soil and release water vapor into the air from their leaves. (Google) EVAPORATION: This is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation occurs when the sun heats up the surface of bodies of water, such as oceans, lakes, and rivers. Water can also evaporate from plants through a process called transpiration. CONDENSATION: This is the process by which SURFACE WATER water vapor in the air cools and changes back - This is water that is found in lakes, rivers, into a liquid. Condensation forms clouds in the streams, and other bodies of water on the atmosphere, which are made up of tiny water Earth's surface. Surface water is often used for droplets. drinking water, irrigation, and recreation. PRECIPITATION: This is when water falls from GROUNDWATER the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth in the - This is water that is found underground in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail. This occurs spaces between soil particles and rocks. when the clouds become too heavy with water Groundwater is accessed through wells or springs droplets and gravity pulls them down to the and is often used for drinking water, irrigation, and ground. industrial purposes. RUNOFF: This is the movement of water across ATMOSPHERIC WATER the land surface, either as sheet flow, channels or - This is water that is found in the atmosphere underground streams. The runoff either seeps in the form of water vapor. Atmospheric water is into the ground, eventually returning to the ocean important for the water cycle because it or flows into rivers and streams, eventually contributes to the formation of clouds and returning to the ocean. precipitation. TYPES OF WATER RESOURCES WATER SCARCITY Fresh Water - This is water that contains a low It is a pressing global issue that occurs when the concentration of dissolved salts and is typically demand for water exceeds the available found in lakes, rivers, groundwater, and ice caps. supply. This can be caused by a variety of Freshwater is a vital resource for human and factors, including population growth, climate notes ni gia change, overuse of water resources, and leaves, and react with algae, bacteria, and other pollution. microscopic organisms - Water may also carry plant debris and sand, silt, SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT and clay to rivers and streams making the water It is the practice of managing water resources appear “muddy” or turbid. in a way that meets the needs of current and - When water evaporates from lakes and streams, future generations while ensuring the long-term dissolved minerals are more concentrated in the health of the ecosystem. It involves balancing water that remains. Each of these natural competing demands for water, such as processes changes the water quality and agriculture, industry, and human consumption. potentially the water use. Water Quality & Availability WHAT IS NATURALLY IN THE WATER? Effects of Human Activities - The most common dissolved substances in water are minerals or salts that, as a group, are WATER QUALITY referred to as dissolved solids. - A measure of the suitability of water for a - Dissolved solids include common constituents particular use based on selected physical, such as calcium, sodium, bicarbonate, and chemical, and biological characteristics. chloride - To determine water quality, scientists first - Plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus measure and analyze characteristics of the water and trace elements such as selenium, chromium, such as temperature, dissolved mineral content, and arsenic. and number of bacteria. - Selected characteristics are then compared to HOW DO HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECT WATER numeric standards and guidelines to decide if the QUALITY? water is suitable for a particular use. Urban and industrial development, farming, mining, combustion of fossil fuels, stream-channel HOW IS WATER QUALITY MEASURED? alteration, animal-feeding operations, and other - Some aspects of water quality can be human activities can change the quality of natural determined right in the stream or at the well. waters. These include temperature, acidity (pH), dissolved oxygen, and electrical conductance - Analyses of individual chemicals generally are done at a laboratory. WHY DO WE HAVE WATER-QUALITY STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES? It is established to protect water for designated uses such as drinking, recreation, agricultural irrigation, or protection and maintenance of aquatic life. HOW DO NATURAL PROCESSES AFFECT WATER QUALITY? - Natural water quality varies from place to place, with the seasons, with climate, and with the types of soils and rocks through which water moves. - When water from rain or snow moves over the land and through the ground, the water may dissolve minerals in rocks and soil, percolate through organic material such as roots and notes ni gia HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING WATER QUALITY AND AVAILABILITY Human Activity Effect to Water Quality Water Availability Agriculture Pesticides, fertilizers, and other Large amounts of water are chemicals used in farming can required for agriculture, which seep into groundwater and can put a strain on water surface water, contaminating it. resources, particularly in arid Overuse of water for irrigation regions. can also deplete water resources. Industrial Activities Many industrial activities produce Industries that use large amounts wastewater that can contain of water, such as manufacturing harmful chemicals and pollutants. and mining, can deplete water resources in the surrounding If this wastewater is not treated area. properly, it can contaminate water sources. Mining Mining can release harmful Mining requires large amounts of chemicals and pollutants into water, which can put a strain on water sources, particularly if local water resources. mining waste is not properly disposed of. Domestic Use Household activities such as Domestic use of water can put a cleaning and flushing toilets can strain on water resources, produce wastewater that needs particularly in areas with high to be treated before it can be population density. safely discharged. Recreation Activities such as boating, Recreation can put a strain on fishing, and swimming can water resources, particularly in introduce pollutants into water areas with high tourism. sources, particularly if people are not careful about disposing of their waste properly. Climate Change Climate change can lead to Climate change can reduce the droughts, which can reduce the availability of water resources, availability of water resources. particularly in areas that are Rising temperatures can also already prone to drought. increase the risk of water pollution. notes ni gia Soil Formation and Layers Composition and Classifications SOIL It is an unconsolidated regolith modified over time by water, air, and organic material. FERTILE SOIL It is a mixture of minerals, air, water, and organic matter in the correct proportions. SOIL CLASSIFICATION The United States Department of Agriculture uses a standard system for classifying soils according Soil formation, also known as PEDOGENESIS, is to the amount of clay, silt, and sand. a complex process that typically takes hundreds to thousands of years. FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL FORMATION Soil Quality and Quantity Effects of Human Activities SOIL QUALITY - The ability of soil to perform various functions necessary for maintaining healthy ecosystems and sustainable agriculture. SOIL LAYERS - Good soil quality is essential for the growth of The soil has multiple layers, each layer with its plants and the provision of ecosystem services own distinct characteristics. such as nutrient eyeling, water filtration, and carbon storage. notes ni gia - Soil quality is determined by various factors, - Soil Sealing including physical, chemical, and biological - Soil Contamination properties of soil - Soil Structure Alteration - The physical properties include soil texture, structure, and porosity, which affect water WASTE DISPOSAL - Poor waste disposal retention, aeration, and root growth. practices such as indiscriminate dumping of solid - Chemical properties such as soil pH, nutrient waste and improper disposal of hazardous waste levels, and organic matter content affect nutrient can lead to soil contamination making the soil availability and the ability of plants to grow. unsuitable for agricultural use. - The biological properties of soil include the Effects to Soil Quality & Quantity presence and activity of microorganisms, which - Soil Erosion play an essential role in nutrient cycling and soil - Soil Compaction health. - Soil Nutrient Depletion - Soil Contamination HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING SOIL QUALITY AND QUANTITY INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES - Industrial activities FARMING- Agricultural practices such as tillage such as mining, oil and gas extraction, and monoculture, excessive use of chemical fertilizers manufacturing can release harmful pollutants into and pesticides, overgrazing, and deforestation the soil, leading to soil contamination and can lead to soil degradation, erosion, and nutrient degradation. depletion. Effects to Soil Quality & Quantity Effects to Soil Quality & Quantity - Soil Erosion - Soil Erosion - Soil Compaction - Soil Compaction - Soil Nutrient Depletion - Soil Nutrient Depletion - Soil Contamination - Soil Contamination - Soil Acidification - Soil Salinization URBANIZATION - The process by which an CONSTRUCTION - Construction activities such increasing proportion of a country's population as excavation, compaction, and grading can becomes concentrated in urban areas and is cause soil compaction, disruption of soil structure, typically driven by the growth of cities and soil erosion, which can decrease soil Effects to Soil Quality & Quantity productivity and water infiltration. - Soil Erosion Effects to Soil Quality & Quantity - Soil Compaction - Soil Erosion - Soil Nutrient Depletion - Soil Compaction - Soil Contamination - Soil Sealing notes ni gia HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING SOIL QUALITY AND QUANTITY Human Activity Description Effect to Soil Quality and Quantity Farming Agricultural practices such as - Soil Erosion tillage monoculture, excessive - Soil Compaction use of chemical fertilizers and - Soil Nutrient Depletion pesticides, overgrazing, and - Soil Contamination deforestation can lead to soil - Soil Salinization degradation, erosion, and nutrient depletion. Construction Construction activities such as - Soil Erosion excavation, compaction, and - Soil Compaction grading can cause soil - Soil Sealing compaction, disruption of soil - Soil Contamination structure, and soil erosion, which - Soil Structure Alteration can decrease soil productivity and water infiltration. Waste Disposal Poor waste disposal practices - Soil Erosion such as indiscriminate dumping - Soil Compaction of solid waste and improper - Soil Nutrient Depletion disposal of hazardous waste can - Soil Contamination lead to soil contamination making the soil unsuitable for agricultural use. Urbanization The process by which an - Soil Erosion increasing proportion of a - Soil Compaction country's population becomes - Soil Nutrient Depletion concentrated in urban areas and - Soil Contamination is typically driven by the growth - Soil Sealing of cities Types of Wastes - It includes materials like food waste, paper, plastics, metals, and other materials. WASTES - In commercial and industrial activities, solid - Waste can be defined as any material that is waste is generated from activities such as no longer useful or required and needs to be manufacturing, packaging, and product disposal. disposed of. LIQUID WASTE SOLID WASTE - Liquid waste is generated from various - Solid waste is generated from various activities such as washing, cleaning, and activities such as household activities, industrial processes. commercial activities, and industrial activities. - In households, liquid waste is generated from - In households, solid waste is generated from activities such as bathing, washing clothes, and daily activities such as cooking, cleaning, and washing dishes. other routine activities. notes ni gia - In commercial and industrial activities, liquid and metals, we can significantly reduce the waste is generated from activities such as amount of waste that ends up in landfills. manufacturing, chemical processing, and waste disposal. - Composting: Composting is the process of breaking down organic waste such as food GASEOUS WASTE scraps, leaves, and yard trimmings into - Gaseous waste is generated from various nutrient-rich soil that can be used for gardening sources such as industrial processes, and landscaping. Composting reduces the transportation, and burning of fuels. amount of organic waste that goes to landfills and - In commercial and industrial activities, gaseous provides a valuable resource for gardening and waste is generated from activities such as landscaping. industrial combustion, transportation, and energy generation. - Waste-to-Energy: Waste to energy technologies convert waste materials into WASTE DISPOSAL MANAGEMENT energy such as electricity, heat, or fuel. This can - The process of managing the collection, help reduce the amount of waste that ends up in transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste landfills and provide a source of renewable materials. energy. - Proper waste disposal management is essential to protect public health and the environment from - Landfills: Landfills are sites where waste the harmful effects of waste. materials are buried in the ground. While landfills are not ideal for waste management, they 1. Collection - The first step in waste can be designed to minimize the impact on the disposal management is the collection of environment and public health. waste materials from homes, businesses, and other sources. This can be done - Hazardous Waste Management: Hazardous through curbside collection, drop-off waste requires special handling and disposal centers, or other means. methods to protect public health and the 2. Transportation - Once waste materials environment. Hazardous waste management have been collected, they need to be includes processes such as incineration, chemical transported to a waste management treatment, and secure landfills. facility. This can involve using trucks, trains, or other vehicles. - Education and Awareness: Education and 3. Treatment - Waste materials may need to awareness campaigns can help individuals and be treated before they can be safely communities understand the importance of proper disposed of. This can involve processes waste management practices and encourage such as composting, recycling, or them to adopt environmentally responsible incineration. behaviors. 4. Disposal - Finally, waste materials need to be disposed of in a safe and environmentally sound manner. This can involve burying waste in landfills, disposing of it in wastewater treatment plants, or other methods. - Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle: The "3 R's" of waste management are reduce, reuse, and recycle. By reducing the amount of waste we generate, reusing materials whenever possible, and recycling materials such as paper, plastics,