Ioan Dragan - Communication - PDF

## IOAN DRAGAN - COMUNICAREA ### 362 In special the process of changing attitudes. The matrix presents five classes of factors from inside the process of communication (independent variables) and six "behavioral steps" (dependent variables). The steps described by McGuire have a specific hierarc...

## IOAN DRAGAN - COMUNICAREA ### 362 In special the process of changing attitudes. The matrix presents five classes of factors from inside the process of communication (independent variables) and six "behavioral steps" (dependent variables). The steps described by McGuire have a specific hierarchy: in the proposed matrix, the steps at the top must be followed before the ones at the bottom are realized. #### **Table 4.** **Matrix of communication factors and behavioral steps** | | Source | Message | Channel | Receiver | Destination | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | Presentation| + | + | + | + | + | | Attention | + | + | + | + | + | | Understanding| + | + | + | + | + | | Yielding | + | + | + | + | + | | Remembering | + | + | + | + | + | | Open Behavior | + | + | + | + | + | (Adapted after W. J. McGuire, "Persuasion, Resistance and Attitude Change", in Handbook of Communication, 1973, p. 223) Another version of the hierarchical effects model is the AIETA model or the model of "awareness of interest, evaluation, process, approval" (Krugman, 1977). This model seems to be based on the research of innovation acceptance undertaken by Everett Rogers and others. These models of effects illustrate the importance of studying commercial and political advertising in order to understand the processes of influence (producing effects of various types and forms) and the mechanisms of persuasion. At present, new theories about advertising manipulation are particularly concerned with "subliminal advertising," which for some authors does not reduce to the term of unconscious influence: "The term" subliminal "designates the use of techniques that consist in a presentation below the threshold of conscious perception (visual, auditory, proprioceptive, etc.) of information which, without the individual being aware of it, can produce an influence at the cognitive and behavioral level (cf. Cheesman and Merikle, 1986, Dixon, 1971, Fowler, Wolford, Slade and Tassinary, 1981). Subliminal perception stricto sensu implies the fact that the individual is not aware under three aspects: not aware of perceiving the stimulus; not aware of how it was treated and not aware that the stimulus has had any influence on his attitudes and behaviors (Bargh, 1992). Although these two types of phenomena are quite close from a theoretical point of view, here we will be talking about subliminal influence (Courbet et al., 2003, in D. Courbet, M.-P. Fourquet, coord., 2003, p. 36). Araszkiewiez (University of Nice) has proven through an experiment that subliminal exposure to a drink increased the consumption of that drink compared to another drink (D. Courbet et al., 2003, in D. Courbet, M.-P. Fourquet, coord., 2003, pp. 39-41). The author's conclusion, following the experiments, is that "subliminal images can produce, under certain laboratory conditions, ### 363 effects not only on judgments, but also on effective behaviors, even if the latter seem more difficult to produce than the former. These effects are produced mainly because the individual is not aware of them, because he attributes them to intrinsic characteristics (tastes, preferences, rational choices, etc.) and because he is influenced to justify them by reorganizing his cognitive universe in a way that presents them to others and especially to himself as being the result of a mature and reflexive choice "(Courbet et al., 2003, in Didier Courbet, Marie-Pierre Fourquet, coord., 2003, p. 41). It is obvious that if the presence of a stimulus (duration of the image and visibility, intensity of the sound of the stimulus) does not reach the threshold of perceptibility, it is impossible for the subject to become aware of perceiving the stimuli; the classical subliminal unit is the 25th frame per second introduced into a spot or report or even in the news, and is therefore running too fast for the eye to be able to transmit it to consciousness; then the image becomes ingrained as residue in the subconscious, which, in turn, is responsible for many of our behavioral reactions (for example: the introduction of Fr. Mitterand's image during the 1988 election campaign in the "generic" of Antenne 2 television news in an imperceptible fraction of a second for the naked eye). ### 6. Advertising as a valuable social and cultural model The underlying purpose of advertisements is to make us think and act in accordance with the advertiser's intention, whether it's noble or ignoble. Its societal consequence, however, is the formation not only of a lifestyle, but also of a cultural-value model. The legendary advertising agent Theodore Mc Manus witnessed what many historians consider to be the beginnings of the "consumer culture" in the 1920s. Advertisements try to associate "the good life" with the purchase of relevant products and services. Therefore, Cristopher Lasch considers as a major effect of advertising the fact that "advertising creates its own product: the consumer, eternally dissatisfied, restless, worried and bored. Advertising does not serve so much to promote products as to promote consumption as a way of life" (C. Lasch, 2000, p. 72). By its nature, advertising attempts to guide consciousness to serve the interests of the companies that advertise themselves. It is not surprising that advertising agents use psychology to defend and promote their profession. Sociologist Michael Schudson observes: “An extraordinary example (of advertising promoting negative values) from last year is the advertising for personal computers, which, not being supported by convincing evidence of the importance of computers in the educational development of children, nevertheless encourages parents to admit that they will compromise their children's future if they do not try to pay a few thousand dollars for a computer. This advertisement, and too many others, take advantage of people's anxiety or their hopes to make money. Whether it works or not, it's indecent." (M. Schudson, 1984, p. 240). Advertising, "the spearhead of development", proclaimed in 1972 a small banner- 3 ## 364 signboard. Advertising, "the spearhead of exploitation", replies by creating a small poster to be displayed. It can be concluded: - Advertising is the spearhead of exploitation. - Advertising does not serve so much to promote products as to promote consumption as a way of life. - Advertising creates its own product: the consumer, eternally dissatisfied, restless, worried and bored. We can recognize the existence of these contradictory feelings towards advertising in the spirit of each professional or social subgroup, in the soul of each individual, as well as in those who create advertising. Advertisements can be both rational an irrational at the same time, informative and stimulating. They rely on the conscious and the unconscious background of the individual. Advertising is at the junction of economics and psychoanalysis because the act of buying is not just an economical act, it releases or creates tension, It is accompanied by a whole group of projection, regressions, conducts and emotions, all having their origin in the subconscious. 30 years ago, such a formula, now banal, which stated that we bought "our own image" through the selection of a specific brand of cigarettes or cars, would have probably been incomprehensible, despite the insignificant or non-existent differences of a practical or financial nature. "Virtuous critics ignore, however, the ludico-aesthetic nature of advertising. They assume that a consumer will consider true all the images seen and that the effectiveness of advertising is an effect of indoctrination" (Edgar Morin, preface to Cadet and Cathelat, 1968). We must, however, take into account the fact that, since the 19th century, the press would no longer exist without the support of advertising. Psychologically, advertisements presuppose a social terrain where novelty represents a basic value. Advertisements appear based on the renewal of technology and the appearance of new products and services. If they do not appear, they must be reinvented, even if they are new only seemingly. Advertisements may not create new needs, but they can revive them, awaken them, discover them, rather than "manufacture" them. The public is easily seduced by the new words that appear in advertisements: the slogans that amuse us, annoy us, or even obsess us. Recognizing the formal regularities, such as repetitions of sounds, unclear terms, balancing effects, symmetries or ruptures, deviations from stereotypical formulas, the valorization of some positions, advertisements demonstrate that slogans apply the communicative resources of signs, symbols, myths, languages in general. It often happens that the representative fragment of the advertisement text is remembered better than the product name. Sociological, anthropological and cultural studies on advertising have identified a strong socio-cultural phenomenon (not entirely new, but profound) namely the link between national ethos, style and socio-cultural model of advertisements, concluding that, in order to be accepted and successful, an advertisement must be adapted to the "spirit of a people." Several studies reveal the relationship between the national ethos of the French, for example, and certain semiological features of French advertisements. This is observed in various aspects: the "stylish" man , charm, refinement and the unmistakable rhetoric of the French discourse impregnate the advertising creations produced by French groups (whether it is about perfumes, wines, lingerie, clothing, fashion). It is often noted, as a subtle characteristic of French advertising, that it answers the Frenchman's need to be "flattered" and to the Frenchman's propensity to be addressed as a "free" and "independent" spirit. Thus, French advertisements, to a greater extent than American, English or even German ones, are created to ensure a public that is happy to be given full trust and freedom in decoding the message, which led to the avoidance of impressive slogans addressed to an individual treated as a simple consumer. Even the color scheme of French advertisements post- ## 365 the imprint of preferences for a certain color spectrum, the emphasis is put on pale colors, "colorless" backgrounds. Thus, France is identified emblematically with the "subtlety" of wines and with perfumes, while cigarettes, whiskey, Coca Cola and fast food could be considered the emblem of America. Advertising and Hollywood are not only a reflection of the "American dream" and of the "American lifestyle," but also the essential factors of production and reproduction of this socio-economic and cultural model, which asserts "healthy principles of life", the image of the "happy family", of the "successful man," dynamic, innovative, unconstrained by borders or obstacles. Therefore, in American advertisements, there is a "positive inexhaustible energy," a "boisterous optimism" but also the ideas of freedom and independence (which have, admittedly, entered into the general advertising culture). There is an evocative suggestion, under a comparative cultural aspect, in the analysis of advertisements for two brands of perfume - Dolce Vita by Dior (France) and Tommy Girl (USA), 4 ## 366 which highlights (essay presented by Elena Manuela Grigore at the Faculty of Sociology and Social Assistance at the University of Bucharest), based on readings from "Ogilvy on Advertising," "Introduction to Advertising" - by Dan Petre and Mihaela Nicola, etc., the cultural-national imprint of the two advertisements. On a black and white background, the Dior brand is inscribed in black and white (the most contrasting colors), which stands out distinctly. The brand is more important than the image. At the bottom, the name of the perfume and the significant slogan "l’esprit du bonheur" are also written in yellow. The entire photograph has been composed to highlight the "Dior" brand with its meanings: class, refinement (the pearls around the woman's neck), the tradition of the brand (as well as of France, "nationalist" - the simplicity of the image, of the colors, of the text, the refined bottle), sensuality (traded by the woman's look). Everything signifies an expensive perfume, "of class." It is as if the image of France and the French, a nation with a tradition, proud of its past and values, an advocate of a modern that is articulated with the "classic," the image of Paris, the city of lovers, of refinement, of beauty, of refined style, of subtlety. The advertisement for the American Tommy perfume is in line with the spirit of America and with a standard value - "independence," inscribed in the slogan “A declaration of independence” and by the American flag. The image is more important than the text (the opposite of the previously commented advertisement). It is an image created as a simple snapshot of life, something that expresses unsophisticated freedom. It is like an emblem of America and of the American people made up of simple, direct, strong individuals, attached to supreme values like freedom and independence. The message is "popular," accessible to everyone, direct, just like the American is as well. In the amalgam of society and postmodern culture, tradition, spirit and national cultural forms retain their local roots, challenging as if the tendencies of globalization that are increasingly evident at technology, media level, including advertising. This is why we are witnessing a paradox that expresses the tendency to uniformity and that of originality and individualization of culture. Despite the fact that through mass media, the advertising field extends on the media front and the first temptation is to wear in advertising creations cliches that are universally valid (something that is still frequently observed in advertising that is broadcasted or even created in Romania), the postmodern individual no longer seeks universality, but specificity. This attitude stems from a 5 ## 367 reaction to the spirit of a culture in which technology imposes a uniformity of spiritual standards. If from a technological point of view we can talk about alignment with equivalent quality and competitiveness standards, when referring to the spiritual aspect, a unification of cultures an traditions is unacceptable. Hence the legitimate reaction to the tendencies of unification of the style of advertisement and especially against the inadequacy of advertisement to the culture and lifestyle of Romanians. All in all, there is a clash of mentalities in the field of advertising as well, between the European cultural horizon, the American cultural horizon, and on another scale between what is specific to national cultural areas. These divisions can be explained by the fact that each culture propagates in its artistic space the values at the base of the national cultural style, in the case of France, the essential values being: "distinction", "refinement", "subtlety," in the United States, those linked to "pragmatism," "independence,", "dynamism", "modernism", and in the case of Romanians, the basic ideas being: "adaptability," "creativity", "humor". These concepts are transposed into advertising through distinct approaches, "a superior arrogance", a direct and straightforward address and not least a new and original way of addressing. The novelty of this mosaic advertising landscape lies in its particularity, resulting from the fact that advertisements "take on national color," being relevant how the same object is signified in different forms of advertising connected to different cultural and national traditions. ### 7. Semiotics, colors and the image of perfume The rhetoric of advertising is, par excellence, a construction that works with symbols-images. Products are no longer marketable except by the inoculation of symbols through which the rational component of the Cartesian cogito-type is added that of the euphorizing, utopian, acronic dimension, the impetus of imagination and reverie, through which the affective merges with the persuasive and informative (D. Rovenţa-Frumuşani, 1999, p. 135). If on a cognitive level communication is informative, on the contrary, on an affective level, it tries to install the recipient in a favorable attitude, with elements of information, suggestion or integration. Through the symbolism of its products, one could say that advertising sells lifestyles. Angela Goddard, J. J. Boutaud use as an example to analyze the rhetoric of advertising (A. Goddard, 2002, p. 10) the spots promoting a particular perfume: to make a perfume a temple of memory, Paul Valéry said. Perfumes, like photographs or music, have the incredible power to send you back in time (exactly in "their" time), to perfectly remind you about the state, the person, the place or the atmosphere with which our mind associates them. The image of perfume comes from a sensory and sensitive universe of great richness and complexity, not reducible to the need to smell perfume to feel it. Advertising in the field of perfumery is generally based on the idea of sensuality, carnality, pleasure and desire. In this sense, there is a varied imagery such as: - The jewel-like woman, unique and full of glamour: mostly blonde, with extreme sensitivity and sexuality, using perfume as a weapon of seduction (Xpose perfume by Christina Aguilera). There have been criticisms made regarding the degrading exploitation of the woman's image. - The enigmatic man, sometimes accessory, but often combining a ambiguous sexuality with a selfish identity, aware of an exceptional body that he uses in the seduction process (Diavolo perfume by A. Banderas). - Exceptional body, used to illustrate a heavenly status of the couple, both traditional and new (Versace Jeans perfume, limited edition or Str8 perfume); - The way of presenting perfume for women, generally rounded, to suggest femininity, the undulating curve of the hips, fertility, or rather with inward borders for men's perfumes, evoking stability, solidity or stubbornness. Another instrument, present in the examples above, as well as in others (Céline Dion, Jennifer Lopez, Madonna), is the labeling of the product with a well-known figure in the public image market. She becomes a symbol of a certain category of individuals; she can be trusted, because she produces predictable associations, cultivating a feeling of belonging and recognition in recipients. Advertising not only sells products, but also dreams, and dream traders invent meaning and ideology (A. Helbo, apud J.-J. Boutaud, 2005, p. 43). When it comes expressly to happiness, well-being, beauty, eternal youth, advertising responds to the essential aspirations of human existence (M. Jouve, 2005, p. 24). A trademark is not limited to what is common to different products, it becomes a symbol for certain ideas or ideals, in some cases, it is identical with the concept of absolute luxury; numerous component elements make it so that, in most cases, buyers purchase these products to create a status and identity totally different from those common, similar to the status of a celebrity. The symbols used are interpretive, in other words, they arouse certain meanings and feelings to those who perceive them, through colour, shape, symbol associated with that product, etc. Advertising relies here on the notoriety of a certain brand, relying on name and leadership (Calvin Klein, Cacharel, Chanel, Christian Dior, Givenchy, Armani, Hugo Boss, etc.). Chanel presented an advertisement in which Vanessa Paradis, standing up, pours perfume from a huge bottle. The composition is reminiscent of a famous painting, La source (The Source), painted in 1856 by Ingres, a painting which exploits the theme of femininity. The change of substance in the container - perfume instead of water - also invites the search for other meanings. Emphasis is now put on the ineffable: perfume is an indescribable substance, the woman also escapes any definition. both the size of the bottle and the fact that it is full tell us that the ineffable will never run dry. This is the idea that the title - L'esprit de Chanel (The Spirit of Chanel) - wants to transmit to consumers. From visual images, a transition is made to mental images, from sensations to representations. Sometimes, the advertising message does not address a specific segment, but average consumers, by offering a line of "prêt-à-porter" on a budget. In these cases, the image of ## 368 advertisements becomes one that does not stand out from the majority of other advertising campaigns (B.U., Prêt-à-porter, Str8, etc.). Such advertisements generally appeal to a utilitarian or playful valorization in the axiology of consumption. The appeal to humor is also on the rise, sometimes reaching the point of being perceived as a sign of creativity. The reflex-effect is the purchase of the product that made us laugh through the amusing story. Humor is therefore a means by which persuasion is strengthened: through humor, we relate more easily. Comic advertisements (for example, for the Adidas men's perfume) are not just made to entertain people, but to create as much a good relationship as possible with the product and as memorable a relationship as possible (the identification of the consumer with a certain category of people or with certain personality traits suggested symbolically by the comic situation presented). The power of symbolizing the image is realized through the perception of the image itself and of the verbal text that accompanies it; it represents a vehicle for certain messages (A. Goddard, 2002, p. 25). Text, image and music do not have to be consonant to "communicate." Pleasant sounds, euphonic are those retained as positive, pleasant, even playful: - vowels "repercussive" (a, o), "clear" (e, i), "mute" (u), surrounded by letters that are also positive: "Do You Dare?", Britney Spears, Curious, 2004; - the vowel sound e, followed by nasal sounds, produces a feeling of fullness - the vowel "e" , followed by nasal sounds, produces a feeling of fullness: "Between love and madness lies Obsession," Calvin Klein, 1985; - expressive sounds are those that express something: - r, vibrating letter, gives the sensation of rolling: "Your fragrance. Your rules," Hugo Boss Deep Red; - p, h, k, t, explosive letters, give the impression of outburst: "No bottles to break - juicy hearts", Arpege Perfume. The image of perfume operates under the pressure of metaphor and metonymy, which promote an iconic display and symbolic extensions of a potentially infinite variety, but often threatened by stereotypes and redundancy (J. J. Boutaud, 2005, p. 90). It acts at a wider aesthetic threshold, that of symbolic interaction with an olfactory universe, whether it is realistic or not. The image does not make us smell perfume, but allows us to feel it, but even more strongly, perhaps, when it is visible, audible, touchable, when it reveals through image its profound nature or character. The seduction of taboos (symbols considered taboo) represents one of the extremely effective strategies of contemporary advertising: if until the mid-1990s, commercial advertisements with overtly sexual subjects reached a market coverage rate of 87.2% on average, by the year 2000, this subject was joined by another, perceived as much more sensitive by the community: difference. It seems that through the constant use of sexual subjects in advertisements, advertising promoters made nudity exhibited on television no longer a taboo in today's world. Thus, at the base of certain types of advertising, there is an idea of promotion that speculates on areas considered sensitive, even intimate, of the collective mind, in order to seduce. J. J. Boutaud delves deeper in a rather original way into the analysis of the perfume image at three levels (sensory, aesthetic, sensitive) of representation and figurative construction, 6 ## 369 starting from the premise that the term "image" covers, equally, visual space as well as olfactory space, cognitive, mental or symbolic space: - the figurative space of internal sensations, which esthetic communication tries to restore (it is about the "olfactory image" or the "olfactory form", which refers to some "discrete signs" such as volatility, orientation, diffusion or penetration of perfume, which can find numerous figurative equivalences in images "and which is linked to the experience and olfactory memory of the individual; - figurative space of sensuality, between esthesis and synesthesia (interlacing of senses), synesthesia and syncretism (interlacing of signs). The sensory reaction to esthesis stems from a global activity in which the senses cooperate (Merleau-Ponty). So, "To smell a perfume means both to give the substance a volume, a depth, a rhythm, as well as notes borrowed from the natural world (floral, vegetal, fruity, etc.), which are extended when needed with musical, chromatic notes. Esthesis evokes synesthesia, which is not just a game of osmotic influence between senses, but also a game of correspondences, of permutations. The image does not make us smell the perfume, but allows us to feel it even more strongly, when it is visible, audible, touchable, when it reveals through image its deep nature or character. The senses mix, given that the image of the perfume adds to synesthesia and syncretism" - the figurative space of the sensible, of the sensory with symbolic forms of representation and intelligibility of the perfume world ("figurativity of the symbolic," with representations and social connotations of the perfume image - the relationship with a way of life, with a certain social scene; with stereotypes, archetypes and symbols from different eras and cultures; perfume as an object of desire, as a universe of passion, as reverie, the register of discourses about perfume in literature, mass media, legends, commercial discourses that construct the imaginary of the perfume). In the rhetorical image of perfume, the following textual expressive modes predominate: metaphor (symbolic similarities with various shapes) and metonymy (differences in shapes), which act as common places of construction, in form and content: body, desire, nature, always in topical relation with the bottle, which is itself a form and figure in this associative universe, in which "figurative stereotypes" like woman flower, diaphanous and airy objects or "phallic tension" forms predominate. At the level of the figurative image of the perfume (treated through the Peircian semiotic trichotomy as: icon, index, symbol), the author J. J. Boutaud operates a transition from the text of the perfume image (treated through the Peircian semiotic trichotomy as: icon, index, symbol), to the evaluation of the communication context, which means to relativize the content in relation to the relationship, no longer to consider the figurative message (word, image, sound, movement) in "what it is," but for "what it does" and for what actors of communication do with it" (a translation from semiotic-interpretation to pragmatic-relationship with the actors who use the language of images and relate to the advertising campaign as a "placing in a social scene," in a "interactive dramaturgy, of self-image and the image of others according to certain values.") So, the author of this complex analysis of the advertising image of perfume relates, but also distinguishes, three figurative levels of the image: the rhetorical, focused on the figures of the message (mainly metaphor and metonymy in the iconic and verbal 7 ## 370 text, but also including iconic and realistic imagery in accordance with the principles of semiotics), the pragmatic, focused on the image relationship with communication actors, and the aesthetic, focused on the form of the message (plastic esthetics) and on the form of the relationship that it includes (communication esthetics), from which the overall image of the perfume is constituted (J. J. Boutaud, 2004, pp. 97-106). ### 8. Colors in advertising. The history of colors and the genesis of color symbolism Symbols presuppose and a certain game of colors used in an advertisement, as well as of the texts or sounds in the background. It is precisely for this reason that nowadays, more and more producers - such as Chanel, Yves Saint Laurent and others - resort to color designers, they anticipate trends in the matter and know how to choose colors based on the intended influence on human behavior: - red accelerates muscular activity, symbolizing action, power, dynamism, as well as love, desire and joy (Passion perfume); - black represents solemnity, seriousness, distinction, mystery (Hugo Boss, Little Black Dress); - white symbolizes purity, innocence, perfection, peace, simplicity (Knowing perfume by Lauder, Pret-à-porter); - pink symbolizes love, enthusiasm, joviality and cheerfulness (Xpose, B.U.); - blue symbolizes adventure, freedom, ideal, romanticism, going beyond worries and loyalty (Adidas perfume), It is the preferred color of European men; - green represents spring, youth, hope, trust, victory (B.U.) etc. Each color thus has its own symbolism, not being used at random. A classic example is the four Dior perfumes: Poison, Tendre Poison, Hypnotic Poison and Pure Poison. While having almost the same scent, all these perfumes evoke a different imaginary thanks to the color of the bottle used in advertising: sensual purple, insolent green, diabolical red or sophisticated white. In general, it was noted that in terms of bright, light colors, they are the ones that sell best (probably because they give the impression that a certain piece or product is larger). However, the sobriety of a color, the more the consumer associates the product with luxury. To understand the uses of colors in advertising, as well as in painting or in television images, a brief excursion into the history of color symbolism in different eras and cultures is in order. The brief references that follow are taken from the famous work of Italian Manlio Brusatin Storia delle couleurs (1983, 1986). The author re-traces the history of "colors" as symbols, but also the history of scientific theories about color. In terms of the sensory-symbolic dimension of colors, Brusatin clarifies: "Colors are not the reality of bodies, they are neither life nor exactly a law of nature. They are the reflection of a abstraction of nature, the artificial in the natural. That is, figures. Figures of colors and their meaning, "streams of images before they are fixed in concepts", meaning and "not meanings, but emotions, impressions, memories" (Manlio Brusatin, 1986, p. 10). ## 371 Regarding the explanation and scientific analysis of colors, it is worth noting two decisive moments, opposed as ways of explaining colors: Newton and Goethe. Newton represents the position of light science, "the physics of visibility, which is elaborated through its division - refraction in a glass prism - to offer the sight fundamental colors and by recombination to define a color beyond all colors, the universal color of the totalizing mixture, the white that equalizes the transcendental color, the primary color of light." Newton formulated a law of colors, establishing a "rule" - the spectrum of colors as variable expressions (seven fundamental colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet that appear in the natural prism) of light emission and of its decomposition into the seven colors that are prismatic irradiations of light. "Thus, the individuality and materiality of color will no longer pertain to painting, nor to literature about color and chiaroscuro. Colors are no longer a "figure" of pictorial production, but a transmission of light and its decomposition." (M. Brusatin, 1986, pp. 68-69). Goethe represents the opposite position: the affirmation of color as a manifestation of "the pre-romantic exaltation of the being that perceives. Outlining the primary nature of white light and the secondary nature of chromatic sensations, Goethe outlines the program of a physiognomy-physiology of sight" (M. Brusatin, 1986, p. 71) in which, through a dialectic of opacity and transparency, the secret action of a Nature artist is revealed. "Color is now linked, both to light and to darkness, to black and to white. 8 ## 372 Which mixed together give gray; gray and not white (of light, n. ns.) is therefore the color that unites all other colors" (M. Brusatin, 1986, p. 12). Goethe also distinguished between "physiological" (or subjective) colors, "physical" colors that are both subjective and objective, and ,chemical" (objective) colors, fixed naturally and artificially on bodies and substances. Symbolically, colors have been and are associated with meanings and ways of signification that are extremely varied. The author notes, for example, the importance of blue in oriental culture and other cultural permutations in color symbolism: "Before any association, blue is intrinsically oriental and confusing (a shaded light), compared to Western thought, which contains a principle of net distinction between the world of ideas and being (white and black) and that of nature and substance (yellow and red). Or, another example, the history of purple (purple color) and its technical production (coloristic value of goods) and the political status of purple as an imperial color to which "barbaric color" (caerelus color) is opposed, that is, dark blue with which some tribes painted their bodies to appear in battle "as an army of specters." An inversion of valued colors took place from the Greeks to the Romans: yellow predominated in Greek culture, while red in Roman culture. Relevant was the Christian triangle of colors (purple, green and white), which is inverted in Islam; black symbolized the “infernal kingdom” of eternal damnation in pagan thought, to become the standard color of the bourgeois man's suit in the 19th century. Similar transformations have taken place in the chromatic architecture of significant buildings: the yellow-light color (or white) of "Mediterranean" construction is replaced by the predominant red of Roman civil constructions (burnt earth and brick) ## 373 as well as the red brick of Roman monuments, a contrast that will mark the time in which the image of the "Occidental City" will be marked for a long time. With the Industrial Era, the brilliance of metallic colors (metal constructions) comes into play and becomes a kind of symbol of technological and industrial progress. An urban-industrial esthetics in the "shiny steel" shade where countless shades of gray dominate the "modern" look and which, in turn, is confronted over time by the "utopic green" which aims to give a new (let's say "ecological") image to the modern and postmodern city. The spectrum of seven colors will be reduced by the compositional procedures to three basic colors: yellow, red and blue. Basic colors are related, as Manlio Brusatin points out, according to a principle of complementarity and contrast (applied in painting, as well as in advertising, in architectural decorations or in clothing). Thus, yellow and violet are complementary, and they can easily be combined; red and green, blue and orange. Even in popular speech, we find expressions like: a green "leaning towards yellow or blue;" an orange “leaning towards yellow or red," a violet "leaning towards red or blue." Other colors are in a contrasting relationship: we do not speak of a violet "leaning towards yellow," of a green that "leans towards red," of an "orange leaning towards blue." The green, a true color of nature, is explained, according to Brusatin, by two principles that govern any color: shadow (blue) and light (yellow). The military use of colors changes radically with the First World War: before, armies were brightly and diversely colored, in order to stand out and impress the enemy, while with the First World War (re-taking the tradition of colonial armies) mimetic colors (khaki at the most) are imposed to camouflage the troops and create surprise through invisibility. On the other hand, "peace vehicles" and "ambulances" are marked by an untouchable white. In the industrial city of the modern world, the white - as a "recognized unity of all colors" - and the black - with its negative connotation - become "reference colors", precisely because of their "absence of color;" their polarity, one representing clarity and the other drawing towards yellow, obscurity, represent the center of reference to which the mixture of colors tends to "neutral colors", lacking in aggression such as gray. Color fascicles no longer correspond, as in the past, to certain behaviors, instead, they embody determined objects: "flag, costume, uniform, painting, garden." There is an emphasis on the symbolic, significant value of colors. They lose their "natural nature", functioning more as signs and supports of symbolic identification: "national colors, colors of fashion, colors of the official world, colors of painting and art, advertising or green". The polarity of white and black becomes the axis of symbolization and identification: white - joy, the aspiration for life and success, black - mourning and misfortune, after having been used for masquerades and incognito in the 18th century, black will be defined as the symbolic color of "respect.” In mourning clothes as well as in the total colour of the bourgeoisie. Analogously, other colors are supports and symbols of identification: pink for girls, blue for