Functional English - Week 1 PDF

FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH WEEK # 01 BY MS. TAYYABA ZAHID  WORD CLASSES  Words are divided into different kinds or classes according to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence, known as Word Classes or Word Forms. They are...

FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH WEEK # 01 BY MS. TAYYABA ZAHID  WORD CLASSES  Words are divided into different kinds or classes according to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence, known as Word Classes or Word Forms. They are also known as Parts of Speech. 1. Noun 2. Adjective 3. Pronoun 4. Verb 5. Adverb 6. Preposition 7. Conjunction 8. Interjection  NOUN  A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, or thing. For Example: Akbar was a great King. The rose smells sweet. The sun shines bright.  The word thing includes: All objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell; and something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.  There are different kinds of noun.  KINDS OF NOUN: COMMON NOUN  A Common Noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind.  Common here means shared by all.  Common nouns are general names and are not capitalized unless they begin the sentence or are part of a title.  The word girl is a Common Noun, because it is a name common to all girls.  Asoka was a wise king.  The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun king might be applied to any other king as well as to Asoka.  We call Asoka a Proper Noun, and king a Common Noun.  PROPER NOUN  Noun that refer to specific people, organizations, or places are Proper nouns.  Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning.  Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns; as, He was the Lukman (the wisest man) of his age. Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare (the greatest dramatist) of India. Indian Space Research Organization is known as the best organization.  COLLECTIVE NOUN  A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole; as,  Collective nouns are different names given to collections or groups, be they birds or animals.  Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation, parliament, committee.  A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels.  An army = a collection of soldiers.  A crowd = a collection of people.  The police dispersed the crowd.  The French army was defeated at Waterloo.  The jury found the prisoner guilty.  A herd of cattle is passing.  ABSTRACT NOUN  An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs; as.  Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness, brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery.  Action - Laughter, theft, movement, judgment, hatred.  State - Childhood, boyhood, youth, slavery, sleep, sickness, death, poverty.  The names of the Arts and Science (e.g., grammar, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract Nouns. Abstract Nouns are formed:  From Adjectives; as, Kindness from kind; honesty from honest.  From Verbs: as, Obedience from obey; growth from grow.  From Common Nouns; as, Childhood from child; slavery from slave.  COUNTABLE NOUN  The nouns that refer to things which can be counted are countable nouns. They are easy to recognize.  For example, we can count pens, chairs, people, dogs, cats, etc.  They can be singular or plural. When they are singular, we must use a/an/the/my/this. I want an apple. Where is my pen?  When countable nouns are plural, we can use them alone. For example, I want apples. Pens are lying on the table.  UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  Uncountable nouns refer to items, concepts, etc. that cannot be divided into separate elements.  These are further classified as concrete and abstract nouns.  Examples of concrete nouns are iron, rice, and furniture etc.  You can experience this group of nouns with your five senses: you see them, hear them, smell them, taste them, and feel them. For example,  Ramya licked the ice cream.  Here ice cream is a concrete noun. We can see the pink color. We can taste the vanilla flavor. We can feel our tongue growing numb from the cold. Any noun that one can experience with at least one of the five senses is a concrete noun.  Whereas, we cannot experience abstract nouns in the same way as concrete nouns. For example, concentration, homework, and freedom. We cannot see the color of concentration, we can neither taste it, nor hear it.  COMPOUND NOUNS  Nouns that are made up of two or more words are called compound nouns.  Compound nouns are formed by nouns modified by other adjectives or nouns. For example, toothpaste is a compound noun formed by two nouns. Black bird has black as an adjective and bird as noun.  In both these examples, the first word modifies or describes the second word, telling us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. And the second part identifies the object or person in question.  Weekly magazine (adjective + noun)  Swimming pool (verb + noun)  Underground (preposition + noun)  Haircut (noun + verb)  Hanger-on (noun + preposition)  Dry washing (adjective + verb)  Input (preposition + verb)  GERUND NOUN  Nouns that are formed from a verb by adding ‘ing’ are called gerund nouns.  It can follow a preposition, adjective, or most often a verb.  For example, I love dancing. I love participating in drawing competitions.  THE NOUN: GENDER  Living beings are of either the male or the female sex Boy (Lion, Hero, Cock-sparrow) Girl (Lioness, Heroine, Hen-sparrow)  The first word of each pair is the name of a male animal.  The second word of each pair is the name of a female animal.  A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the Masculine Gender.  A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of the Feminine Gender.  A noun that denotes either a male or a female is said to be of the Common Gender; as Parent, child, friend, pupil, servant, thief, relation, enemy, cousin, person, orphan, student, baby, monarch, neighbour, infant.  THE NOUN: GENDER (Cont.)  A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female (i.e., thing without life).is said to be of the Neuter Gender; as, Book, pen, room, tree.  The Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence; as,  The Sun, Summer, Winter, Time, Death, The sun sheds his beams on rich and poor alike.  The Feminine Gender is sometimes applied to objects remarkable for beauty, gentleness, and gracefulness; as,  The Moon, the Earth, Spring, Autumn, Nature, Liberty, Justice, Mercy, Peace, Hope, Charity.  The moon has hidden her face behind a cloud.  Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.  ADJECTIVE  Read the following sentences :- Sita is a clever girl. (Girl of what kind?) I don't like that boy, (Which boy ?) He gave me five mangoes. (How many mangoes?) There is little time for preparation. (How much time ?)  In sentence 1, ‘clever’ shows what kind of girl Sita is; or, in other words, ‘clever’ describes the girl Sita.  In sentence 2, ‘that’ points out which boy is meant.  In sentence 3, ‘five’ shows how many mangoes he gave me.  In sentence 4, ‘little’ shows how much time there is for preparation.  A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an Adjective.  So we may define an Adjective as a word used with a noun to add something for its meaning.  KINDS OF ADJECTIVE : ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY  Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:-  Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as, Kolkata is a large city. He is an honest man. The foolish old crow tried to sing. This is a Grammar of the English  Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc.) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives.  Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?  ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY  Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant as, I ate some rice. He showed much patience. He has little intelligence. We have had enough exercise. He has lost all his wealth.  Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?  ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER (NUMERAL ADJECTIVES)  Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,  The hand has five fingers.  Few cats like cold water.  There are no pictures in this book.  I have taught you many things.  All men must die.  Here are some ripe mangoes.  ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER (NUMERAL ADJECTIVES) Cont.  Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three kinds:- (i) Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact number; as, One, two, three, etc. -- These are called Cardinals. First, second, third, etc. -- These are called Ordinals. [A Cardinal denotes how many, and an Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be seen that Ordinals really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.] (ii) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an exact number; as, All, no; many, few; some, any; certain, several, sundry. (iii) Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each one of a number; as., Each boy must take his turn. India expects every man to do his duty. Every word of it is false.  DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES  Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as, This boy is stronger than Hari. That boy is industrious. These mangoes are sour. Those rascals must be punished.  Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question: Which ?  It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns and these and those with Plural nouns.  INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES  What, which and whose, when they are used with nouns to ask questions, are called Interrogative Adjectives; as, What manner of man is he? Which way shall we go? Whose book is this?  PRONOUNS  A word that is thus used instead of a noun is called a Pronoun. It substitutes the noun in a paragraph or piece of writing to avoid repetition of the noun. I am young. We are young. You are young. They are young. He (she, it) is young.  I, we, you, he, (she, it), they are called Personal Pronouns because they stand for the three persons. (i) the person speaking.. (ii) the person spoken to, and (iii) the person spoken of.  The Pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the First Person  The Pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal Pronoun of the Second Person.  You is used both in the singular and plural  The pronouns he (she) and they, which denote the person or persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the Third Person.  TYPES OF PRONOUN  Relative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to relate one part of the sentence to another. Some examples of relative pronouns are that, which, where, when, why, what, whom and whose.  Possessive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to show possession. Some examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, theirs and its.  Reflexive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer back to the subject in the sentence. Some examples of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves, themselves and yourselves.  Demonstrative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to point to specific objects. Some examples of demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those.  Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to ask questions. Some examples of interrogative pronouns are who, what, when, why and where.  TYPES OF PRONOUN(Cont.)  Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any particular person, place or thing. Some examples of indefinite pronouns are someone, somebody, somewhere, something, anyone, anybody, anywhere, anything, no one, nobody, nowhere, everyone, everybody, everywhere, everything, each, none, few, and many.  Personal Pronouns are simple pronouns that are used to substitute proper names. Some examples of personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, him, her, he, she, us and them.  Subject Pronouns are pronouns that perform the action in a sentence. Some examples of subject pronouns are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and one.  Object Pronouns are pronouns that receive the action in a sentence. Some examples of object pronouns are me, us, him, her and them.  Reciprocal Pronouns are pronouns that are used to express a mutual relationship. Some examples of reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.  Pronouns formed by adding ever, so, or soever to who, which and what are called Compound Relative Pronouns. They are:- Whoever, whoso, whosoever; whichever; whatever, whatsoever.  VERB  A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about a person or thing. Verb comes from the Latin verbum, a word. It is so called because it is the most important word in a sentence.  A Verb may tell us- (1) What a person or thing does; as, Hari laughs. The clock strikes. (2) What is done to a person or thing ; as, Hari is scolded. The window is broken. (3) What a person or thing is; as, The cat is dead. Glass is brittle. I feel sorry.  VERB (Cont.)  A Verb often consists of more than one word; as, The girls were singing. I have learnt my lesson. The watch has been found.  Read these sentences:- 1. The boy kicks the football. 2. The boy laughs loudly.  In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb kicks passes over from the doer or subject boy to some Object football. The verb kicks is, therefore, called a Transitive Verb. (Transitive means passing over.)  In sentence 2, the action denoted by the verb laughs stops with the doer or Subject boy and does not pass over to an Object, The verb laughs is, therefore, called an Intransitive Verb. (Intransitive means not passing over.)  TRANSITIVE VERB/INTRANSITIVE VERB  Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which passes over from the doer or Subject to an object.  An Intransitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action which does not pass over to an object, or which expresses a state or being ; as,  He ran a long distance. (Action)  The baby sleeps. (State)  There is a flaw in this diamond. (Being)  GERUNDS  Any verb with the -ing form used as a subject of a verb and acting like a verb-noun is called a gerund. Meditating is her favourite kind of relaxation.  Meditating is formed by adding -ing to the verb meditate.  Compound gerund forms are formed by keeping a past participle after the gerunds of have and be. Some sentences of compound gerund forms are given below: Having worked for ten hours, he felt sleepy. He loves being appreciated. In the compound nouns dancing-shoes, frying-pan, and writing-table, dancing, frying, and writing are gerunds. They mean ‘shoes for dancing’, ‘a pan for frying’, and ‘a table for writing’, respectively.  ADVERBS  An adverb is a word that adds more information about a place, time, manner, cause, or degree to a verb, an adjective, a phrase, or another adverb.  A typical adverb may be recognized by the –ly suffix that has been attached to an adjective such as beautifully, quickly, slowly, nicely, humbly, and mortally. Rama runs quickly. This is a very sweet mango. Govind reads quite clearly.  In sentence 1, quickly shows how (or in what manner) Rama runs; that is, quickly modifies the Verb runs.  In sentence 2, very shows how much (or in what degree) the mango is sweet; that is, very modifies the Adjective sweet.  In sentence 3, quite shows how far (or to what extent) Govind reads clearly; that is, quite modifies the Adverb clearly.  KINDS OF ADVERB (Cont.)  A word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another Adverb is called an Adverb. The words quickly, very, and quite are, therefore, Adverbs.  Adverbs may be divided into the following classes, according to their meaning :- (1) Adverbs of Time (which show when) I have heard this before. That day he arrived late. (2) Adverbs of Frequency (which show how often). I have told you twice. I have not seen him once. He often makes mistakes.  KINDS OF ADVERB (Cont.) (3) Adverbs of Place (which show where). Stand here. Go there. The little lamb followed Mary everywhere. My brother is out. (4) Adverbs of Manner (which show how or in what manner). The Sikhs fought bravely. The boy works hard. I was agreeably disappointed.  KINDS OF ADVERB (Cont.) (5) Adverbs of Degree or Quantity (which show how much, or in what degree or to what extent). He was too careless. Is that any better? These mangoes are almost ripe. I am fully prepared. You are quite wrong. (6) Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation Surely you are mistaken. He certainly went. (7) Adverbs of Reason He is hence unable to refute the charge. He therefore left school.  PREPOSITION 1. There is a cow in the field. 2. He is fond of tea. 3. The cat jumped of the chair.  In sentence 1, the word in shows the relation between two things - cow and field.  In sentence 2, the word of shows the relation between the attribute expressed by the adjective fond and tea.  In sentence 3, the word off shows the relation between the action expressed by the verb jumped and the chair.  The words in, of, off are here used as Prepositions.  A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation the person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to something else.  KINDS OF PREPOSITION (CONT.)  Compound Prepositions which are generally formed by prefixing a Preposition (usually a = no or be = by) to a Noun, an Adjective or an Adverb.) About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without.  Phrase Prepositions (Groups of words used with the force of a single  preposition.)  according to -- in accordance with -- in place of  agreeably to -- in addition to -- in reference to  along with -- in (on) behalf of -- in regard to  away from -- in case of -- in spite of  because of -- in comparison to -- instead of  KINDS OF PREPOSITION (Cont.)  by dint of -- in compliance with -- in the event of  by means of -- in consequence of -- on account of  by reason of -- in course of -- owing to  by virtue of -- in favour of -- with a view to  by way of -- in front of -- with an eye to  conformably to -- in lieu of -- with reference to  for the sake of -- in order to -- with regard to  CONJUNCTION  A Conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences, and sometimes words. 1. God made the country and man made the town. 2. Our hoard is little, but our hearts are great. 3. She must weep, or she will die. 4. Two and two make four.  In 1, 2 and 3, the Conjunctions join together two sentences. In4, the Conjunction joins together two words only.  Conjunctions join together sentences and often make them more compact.  'Balu and Vithal, are good bowlers’ is a short way of saying  'Balu is a good bowler and Vithal is a good bowler’.  Conjunctions merely join: They do no other work.  COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS  A Co-ordinating Conjunction joins together clauses of equal rank.  And, but, for, or, nor, also, either-or, neither-nor.  Co-ordinating Conjunctions have various kinds: (1) Cumulative or Copulative which merely add one statement to another; as,  We carved not a line, and we raised hot a stone. (2) Adversative which express opposition or contrast between two statements; as,  He is slow, but he is sure.  I was annoyed, still I kept quiet. (3) Disjunctive or Alternative which express a choice between two alternatives; as,  She must weep, or she will die.  Either he is mad, or she will die.  SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION  A Subordinating Conjunction joins a clause to another on, which it depends for its full meaning.  The chief Subordinating Conjunctions are:-  After, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as, when, where, while.  Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified according to their meaning, as follows:- (1) Time.  I would die before I lied. (2) Cause or Reason.  My strength is as the strength of ten, because my heart is pure.  Since you wish it, it shall be done.  SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION(Cont.) (3) Purpose.  We eat so that we may live.  He held my hand lest I should fall. (4) Result or Consequence.  He was so tired that he could scarcely stand (5) Condition.  Rama will go if Hari goes. (6) Comparison. He is stronger than Rustum.  INTERJECTION  A short sound, word or phrase spoken suddenly to express an emotion. Hurray! We won the match. Ouch! That really hurt badly. Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed. Oh my God! That was unexpected.  A primary interjection is a word or sound that can only be used as an interjection. Primary interjections do not have alternative meanings and can’t function as another part of speech (i.e., noun, verb, or adjective). (e.g., “um-hum” or “mm-hmm”)  INTERJECTION (Cont.)  A secondary interjection is a word that is typically used as another part of speech (such as a noun, verb, or adjective) that can also be used as an interjection. Goodness! That was a close one. Awesome! Do that trick again.  A volitive interjection is used to give a command or make a request. For example, the volitive interjection “shh” or “shush” is used to command someone to be quiet. Shh! I can’t focus when you’re singing. Ahem. Please pay attention.  Greetings and parting words/phrases are interjections used to acknowledge or welcome someone or to express good wishes at the end of a conversation. Hey! Hello! It’s good to see you. Bye! See you soon! Drive safe.