DPSY 514 Comprehensive Study Guide.docx

**Less important** - HOWEVER Hal indicated to us “know it” for many of these concepts **MORE IMPORTANT** in the updated study guide DPSY 514 Test 1 Study Guide COMPREHENSIVE Terms and Content Areas Perception, Attention, & Memory They underly personality formation Perception: a huge factor in pe...

**Less important** - HOWEVER Hal indicated to us “know it” for many of these concepts **MORE IMPORTANT** in the updated study guide DPSY 514 Test 1 Study Guide COMPREHENSIVE Terms and Content Areas Perception, Attention, & Memory They underly personality formation Perception: a huge factor in personality dev - “if perception distorts our vision of the world, everything that lies downstream (cognitively) can lead to brain dysfunction and maladjustment. An undiagnosed perceptual problem can lead to feelings of inadequacy and shame. (pg. 53-54) Attention: what experiences and aspects of people will smo consciously focus on (neurons are constantly in a constant state of readiness and base rate activity, building/refining mental maps). Having a form of expectation/knowing of what is about to confront us and preparing for it (the attending part) plays a role in perception. Some stimuli can be avoided actively/not attended to (e.g. autism) Memory: we reconstruct our memories when we recount emotionally laden events and these then impact future associations/encoding we make/do They are primed by prior experience Perception: we see the world using info from the environment through our senses and previously stored knowledge (memory plays a role in this). Each perception influences subsequent perceptions in how they ae encoded and experienced Attention: we mark novel/rewarding stimuli for future attending in our memories which effects future attention Memory: For example, when presented with ambiguous stimuli, our previous knowledge helps us to make sense of it. Extent to which new material can be remembered depends on its meaningfulness (Levels of processing theory – Craik & Lockhart, 1972) They are malleable Perception: As experiences as had, connections are formed with others are pruned. Neurons become primed to experience the expected and distress occurs when the unexpected is encountered Attention: Attention can be distracted from one task if attention is called to another (e.g. preferential attending to events with emotional valence) Memory: False memories are common and even imagined events become real to us (e.g. treating PTSD and trauma narrative – what is real and what is not doesn’t even really matter) They are NOT fully objective Perception: constructive vs ecological (which has problems), we recognize that we do not see/sense the world as it is (color paper). There’s an interaction of incoming sensory(filtered) representations Attention: Selectivity, the cognitive and affective process of assigning emotional weight to perceptions, effects attentions (we don’t attend to everything equally – e.g. selective attention to name - cocktail party phenomenon). Our attention is automatic and biased! Memory: Illusion of memory - we think/perceive/remember more of our world than we actually do – inaccurately remembering something that did not occur (e.g. eyewitness research) PERCEPTION The senses (5 or 7) – taken from reading HW: Ratey (2002) Chapter 2 Perception 1) SMELL – the “smell” connection is much faster and more decisive than the systems for the other sense and not much filtering goes on before action is called for by emotional memory the OLFACTORY NERVES HAVE A HOTLINE TO THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN – odors are taken in through the nostrils, processed as electro-chemical information, and passed onto the amygdala and then to the cortex without crossing through the thalamus which all other sensory input has to go through) – in other words, the sense of smell has a direct afferent pathway to the amygdala 2) Taste – there are two current theories regarding how tastes get encoded into neural firing patterns: 1) specificity theory – neurons are tuned to response to specific taste qualities 2) fiber-pattern theory – signals are generated by the pattern of activity in many nerve fibers; substances that have similar taste will elicit similar patterns, just as similar smells elicit similar patterns 5 categories of taste receptors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami Taste and olfaction constantly undergo a cycle of birth, development, and death (neurogenesis) 3) Touch – the first of the five sense to develop, and is far more developed than hearing or seeing in newborns 4) Sound – Evidence that our brains continually shape what we hear: more neuronal networks extending from the brain to the ears than there are coming from the ears to the brain. Also both sides of the brain work together in discriminating complex sounds. 5) Vision (Sight) – cones are responsible for color vision and most of our visual perception in normal and bright light // rods have poor visual acuity but are much more sensitive to low levels of light and provide the best part of our vision when dark 6) Sense of direction – debated/nontraditional 7) Sense for sex – debated/nontraditional RATEY & THE RELATIONSHIP B/T SENSATION AND MENTAL DISORDERS Psychopathology may actually be a surface manifestation of an underlying issue with perception, attention, and memory (which is shown in the case of Ricky from reading HW: Ratey (2002) Chapter 2 Perception) Case of Delores – example of tactile/auditory sensitivity Perceptual issues may produce emotional/personality issues Maladaptive traits are initially adaptive strengths used to survive in an environment Neurodivergent behavior may be caused by an increased sensitivity to stimuli and inability to filter out irrelevant stimuli – behavior as emotion regulation to cut down incoming sensory information/stimulation (eye-aversion, stimming, etc.) - autism as a problem with sensory integration Example: Autism Information comes into the system too fast to process. So, shut down and try to avoid stimulation. (3 theories – Thye (2018) 1) temporal bind hypothesis 2) intense world theory 3) atypical hierarchical info processing) INTENSE WORLD THEORY - Thye (2018) section 7.2 The Intense World Theory offers another mechanism for how the sensory and social features of ASD may be related. This neurobiologically-informed theory proposes that there is excessive functioning of neural circuits, such that the neural circuits are hyper-reactive, hyper-plastic, and generally up-regulated. This creates an intense world, a fragmented world (with focus on individual components of the environment), and an aversive world. Low-level sensory perception is enhanced (intense world), coupled with deficits in sensory integration (fragmented world). Such perceptual up-regulation results in an avoidance of highly emotional and unpredictable cues, such as eyes, faces, and social interactions. This results in eye gaze aversion, social withdrawal, limited communication, and a focus on stable, predictable cues instead. Throughout development, this could lead to an over-specialization for perceiving primary sensory cues at the expense of the ability to navigate in a socially complex world (Markram and Markram, 2010). In this way, the Intense World Theory explains both the unique sensory and social features of ASD and offers a mechanism for how an up-regulation in primary sensory perception results in social avoidance and withdrawal. Stim to avoid stimulation, making noises, screaming Shy and awkward so socially excluded. Get loud and aggressive in order to be heard Are rejected which hurts their self-esteem and self image Depression and anxiety Sensory integration issues… not combining sensory modalities into a cohesive map of the world. Case of Ricky – example of visual distortions Case of Rolf – example of visual processing problem (specific dyslexia) According to Ratey: perception…”is a huge factor in personality development” CONSTRUCTIVIST VS ECOLOGICAL THEORIES OF PERCEPTION Ecological theories: perception involves the process of picking up info from the environment; doesn’t require construction or elaboration. In other words, you see things EXACTLY as they are and there’s no interpretation involved. The issue with these theories are that we actually do not see the world as it truly is e.g. color paper is not TRULY that color rather it is showing the wavelength of light that is reflecting off of it e.g. for the dalmatian pic, you would just “see dots” Constructive theories: the process of seeing is active; our view of the world is constructed from a mix of info from the environment and previously stored knowledge/expectations + image on retina. This requires previous learning as we need to know something about the world in order to perceive it (if you don’t have a template, you can’t map it). e.g. recognizing dalmatians in an abstract representation of a dog being walked due to previously knowing what dalmatians look like BLIND SPOT PHENOMENON Our brains have a need to predict patterns and are prone to see things that are not there and to ignore things that should not be there aka Perceptual/memory systems fill in the blanks for us e.g. When you hold out a paper in front of you (with dot and cross), bring it close enough and the dot disappears (same with blind spots and driving) e.g. counting the dots between the squares e.g. The “Door” Study from Simons & Levin (1998) USE IT OR LOSE IT If you don’t use a certain system in the brain, you will lose it, especially if in the early stages of development Example: Kittens in striped boxes If you raise a kitten in striped box vs. horizontal bars across the room, the cat will walk into the bars because it won’t see them Example: Occurs in emotional pathways as well Young baby who does not experience certain emotional sets from parents will have those emotional pathways pruned (not completely but significantly downgraded) THE RELATIONSHIP B/T THE THALAMUS, THE AMYGDALA, THE SENSES, AND CORTICAL ATTRIBUTIONS ATTENTION – comes after perception - what experiences and aspects of people will smo consciously focus on Focused attention: ability to attend to one event from a mass of competing stimuli Divided attention: attempt to attend to more than one thing at a time STAGES OF ATTENTION – AMEN – four distinct components together create brain’s ability to attend/monitor the environment. – e and n are stages 4 and 3 A – 1) Arousal (vigilance, startle value, e.g. oriented to door if the door is slammed) Ability to suddenly increase alertness, controlled by the reticular activating system. The hippocampus works as a protective filter to conserve the brain’s energy by inhibiting the system. – involuntary basically M – 2) Motor orientation (e.g. looking for street while driving) After startling, you must orient your body (specifically the body’s sense organs) towards novel object in question – involuntary basically (3 steps: disengage, move, engage) N – 3) Novel Detection & Reward Seeking (e.g. first time trying a drug) After above 2, this system governed by mesolimbic pathway directs the selection (2 reasons – novel, take note of new stimuli OR rewarding, assigning emotional value to stimulus for memory) of where to focus our attention mediated by dopamine pathways (serotonin and endorphins) E – 4) Executive Organization (e.g. ignoring conversations to hear friend speak at party) Frontal lobe, commands our actions and integrates our attention with short-and long-term goals Plays a major role in the ability to sustain attention by blocking out irrelevant stimuli AN EMOTION TAG (IN THE AMYGDALA) when the brain stores a memory of an event or action, it also stores an associated emotion with it aka the amygdala assigns emotional significance to incoming signals (e.g. in a text convo, you perceive affect that may not be there). HOWEVER, tags come partly from memory so it can lead to bias/prejudgment of incoming stimuli assigned preconsciously Automatic Attention: fast, demands minimal attention, doesn’t interfere w/other activities, unavailable to consciousness, hard to change once learned (e.g. stroop test, automatic reading words/colors) Controlled Attention: limited capacity, requires conscious control, easier to change (e.g. stroop test inhibition of automatic attending to words/reading) ATTENTIONAL FILTER Things changing basically and you not noticing – directing our attention to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli (it is automatic and biased) E.g. which cup has the Hershey's Kiss, dude in a gorilla suit, or people’s shirts changing color, eyewitness testimony Multi Store Model by Atkinson & Shriffrin Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) There is shallow processing (route memory) and deep processing (active learning/experiential learning) & meaningfulness (familiarity/imagery) of info to individual determines depth of analysis which affects how well something is remembered. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) Capacity 5-9 separate items (7+or-2 Miller’s Magic Number) The Central Executive, The Phonological Loop (articulatory loop rehearsal system), & The visuospatial sketchpad are part of the model from 1974 Articulatory loop rehearsal system allows us to repeat things to ourself in our heads, the duration of which lasts about 5-20 seconds in our working memory Rehearsal can increase duration Maintenance rehearsal upkeeping info through reviewing it intermittently in a largely passive manner. Elaborative rehearsal elaborate on the info and draw relevant associations from the info (e.g. making a story about info) Chunking put it in bits (e.g. phone numbers) Forgetting RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Information before interferes with ability to remember; recency effect recall is better at the end // is the consequence - learning of an old task before new task, which impairs the ability to learn or remember the new task now. when you memorize A and B and try and remember A, but B interferes. Example: trying to remember person’s name, but you forget because you keep learning names of other people after the fact and only remembering most recent names. PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: Information after interferes with ability to remember; primacy effect recall is better at beginning // is the consequence - learning of a new task impairs the retention of the previously learned task. When you memorize A and B and try to remember B, but A interferes Example: trying to remember person’s name, but you keep focusing on other persons’ name you remembered before Decay: loss of something due to lack of rehearsal EPISODIC MEMORY Long term memory that involves recollection of previous events together with their context of time, place, emotion, etc (e.g. replaying an event in head) Takes place mostly in hippocampus and surrounding structures in the temporal lobe (associated with semantic memory store) Clive Wearing, anterograde amnesia – inability to form new episodic memories didn’t affect procedural or semantic memory Semantic Memory Long term memory involving capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers, which is essential for the use and understanding of language Takes place in similar areas of episodic memory, 3 important areas (the hippocampus, the neocortex, and the amygdala) Two types of retrograde amnesia (one that affects personal events – autobiographical retrograde amnesia; one that affects acquired knowledge – semantic retrograde amnesia) PROCEDURAL MEMORY Long term memory that involves knowledge of motor skills and how to do things (e.g. how to replace a tire) Takes place/is stored in the brain structures of the cerebellum, caudate nucleus, putamen (basal ganglia), and motor cortex Spread Activation Model Holds that people organize their knowledge of the world based on their personal experiences, which in turn form the network of ideas that is the person’s knowledge of the world STATE DEPENDENT MEMORY (internal/emotion) State Dependent Memory (emotion) is the concept that we remember information better if we are in the same physical, mental, or emotional state as when the memory was formed (at time of encoding and at time of recall). For example, if you're happy when you learn something, you're likely to recall it better when you're happy again. CONTEXT DEPENDENT MEMORY (external/places or situations) Context Dependent Memory refers to the phenomenon where it's easier to remember information if we are in the same place or situation (external environment and conditions) where the memory was created. For example, you might remember study material better when you're in the same room where you originally studied it. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – what separates classical from operant is involuntary vs voluntary, classical usually is involved in initial learning and operant is involved in maintenance Classical conditioning uses reflexive behavior (automatic) a type of learning in which an initially neutral stimulus—the conditioned stimulus (CS)—when paired with a stimulus that elicits a reflex response—the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)—results in a learned, or conditioned, response (CR) when the CS is presented The more unfamiliar the CS or the more powerful the UCS the faster the CR takes For example, the sound of a tone (NS) will be turned into a CS after being repeatedly paired with food (UCS) learning is only said to have occurred when a particular stimulus consistently produces a response that it did not previously produce NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS) : the OG CS that doesn’t evoke a response until paired with the UCS Ex: bell (pre condish) UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS) : an event/thing that constantly and automatically elicits an unconditioned response (UCR); any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occuring, automatic response Ex: food CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) : an event/thing that elicits response post-conditioning (NS becomes CS) Ex: bell (post condish) UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) : an action that an UCS elicits; occurs automatically when the UCS is presented; is reflexive/involuntary response, the behavior/content/context is the same tho as the conditioned response (not always but most of time), things like speed, form, and intensity of behavior may vary tho Ex: salivation (pre condish), before learning has occurred CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR) : action that conditioned stimulus elicits Ex: salivation (post condish), after learning has occurred CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND PHOBIAS According to John Watson, neurotic symptoms (phobias) are controlled/introduced via classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning – this is called Mower’s two-stage theory, 1947 (classical conditioning + higher-order conditioning + operant conditioning in phobias + OCD) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eo7jcI8fAuI Little Albert experiment Loud noise = UCS, Rat = NS → CS, Crying = UCR → CR during conditioning, loud noise (UCS) was associated with rat (NS→CS). This led to crying (UCR—> CR). The rat (NS) becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) and crying (UCR) becomes the conditioned response (CR). When he got older, Albert was scared of other furry things (stimulus generalization) STIMULUS GENERALIZATION: the extension or broadening of a CR from the original CS to another, similar stimulus; generalization of fears showed that emotions CAN be learned! Ex: White hair is threatening to Little Albert Appetitive vs. Aversive Conditioning Appetitive Conditioning: a form of associative learning; a type of unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer is a pleasant event or a stimulus the participant tends to approach Aversive Conditioning: Conditioning in which the UCS is an aversive stimulus Conditioned emotional response: an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response learned through classical conditioning (e.g. anxiety, fearing the sound of the dentist’s drill) Conditioned reflex: is an automatic response that occurs as the result of previous experience. A conditioned reflex involves little conscious thought or awareness on the part of the learner. (e.g. listening for thunder when you see lightning.) Contiguity: The more closely in time two events occurred, more likely they were to become associated; as time passes, association becomes less likely. (e.g. For example, when people are house training a dog -- you notice that the dog went to the bathroom on the rug,. If the dog had the accident hours ago, it will not do any good to scold the dog because too much time has passed for the dog to associate your scolding with the accident. But, if you catch the dog right after the accident occurred, it is more likely to become associated with the accident.) TYPES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING DELAY CONDITIONING (BEST LEARNING)⭐⭐⭐ Type of Forward Conditioning (CS presented before US) CS precedes & overlaps w/ US Bell rings first and overlaps with food Optimal time between onset of CS and US depends on nature of target response (0.5 seconds) MOST EFFICIENT for establishing CR TRACE CONDITIONING Type of Forward Conditioning (CS presented before US) CS is presented then terminated prior to US Bell rings then stops just before food is presented Produces a weaker CR than delay conditioning SIMULTANEOUS CONDITIONING CS and US are presented and withdrawn at the same time Bell and food both presented (and begin/end) simultaneously Less effective than Trace Conditioning BACKWARD CONDITIONING (NO LEARNING) US presented then CS Food presented then bell Does not usually produce a CR Notes on # of CC trials More conditioning trials = the stronger/more persistent the CR BUT CR is usually weaker in intensity/magnitude than the UR Repeated exposure to US/ intended CS before CS & US are paired slows down acquisition of CR (see below) EXTINCTION Breaking/unlinking the association between the CS and US can extinguish NOT ERASE the new CS>CR reflex: Present the CS alone repeatedly Initially, CS evokes strong CRs With repetition, however, CS becomes less effective, similar to beginning of training Extinction probably doesn’t erase the CS-US connection, just inhibits it: Stress, new context, and/or passage of time can make the CS effective again! This suggests that the classically conditioned memory survived extinction gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR tendency. Extinction occurs from multiple presentations of CS without the US. Building the CS/CR connection definition is acquisition SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY Temporary return after delay CR was suppressed, not eliminated Spontaneous recovery does not always occur and is often short-lived CR tends to be weaker than originally was HIGHER/SECOND-ORDER CONDITIONING Under umbrella of classical conditioning 2nd neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with a previously established CS + 2nd stimulus eventually produces a CR Ex: Going to McDonalds and getting a hamburger. Associating hamburger with McDonalds. Seeing and associating the golden arches to McDonalds. Secondarily, beginning to associate the golden arches with cravings for a hamburger. Compound Conditioning: 2 cues (e.g., tone and light) appear together, withdrawn together. The two cues compete with each other and neither produces as much learning as it would have if presented individually. Overshadowing and Blocking are observed under this Blocking = learning does not occur as strongly because the new CS is blocked by another CS that was already associated with the CR. Overshadowing = the concurrent presentation of a more salient CS LATENT INHIBITION Pre-expose to CS repeatedly Then pair CS with US Learning is inhibited Ex: car alarm; having heard car alarm many times without the car being stolen will habituate someone to the car alarm and will not activate them to be concerned that a car is being broken in to. LI = exposure to neutral stimulus prior to learning occurring; because of prior exposure, the stimuli is no longer neutral/novel enough to create an association (ex: child always yelled at by parent, parents attempts to associate yelling with kids’ poor behavior but kid won’t respond to yelling if its done all the time) HABITUATION Repeated presentation results in stimulus becoming non-relevant, non-evocative. The diminished effectiveness of a stimulus in eliciting a response, following repeated exposure to the stimulus. When something has already been learned and you get too used to the stimulus and stop responding Ex: bell rings, dog gets food, bell rings, dog gets food…after a while bell rings and dog starts to salivate, the bell rings and dog starts to salivate, but it will stop responding after a while Applies to both classical and operant conditioning Exposure therapy based on habituation… Associative Bias: Some associations innately easier to make (the Garcia-Koelling taste-aversion study, Seems we have some innate preferences for forming associations that can override statistical correlations Tone + taste paired with poison, only taste provokes CR Tone + taste paired with shock, only tone provokes CR In nature, tastes go with getting sick, sounds with getting hurt One-Trial Learning: One-trial learning is a form of learning involving a change in behaviour that occurs with only one experience. Whether one-trial learning is a particular type of CC is still a topic of some debate. (e.g. taste aversion - conditioned response that results from a person or animal establishing an association between a particular food and being or feeling ill after having consumed it at some time in the past.) The association is usually the result of a single experience & the particular food will be avoided in the future. Garcia Effect (1966): Garcia and Koelling's research identified the Garcia Effect, demonstrating that animals are more likely to form aversions to tastes rather than visual or auditory stimuli. This research challenged traditional conditioning theories and highlighted the selective nature of learning in certain contexts. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND DRUG OVERDOSE: Drug users become increasingly less responsive to effects of drug Tolerance is specific to specific environments Familiar environment becomes associated with a compensatory response Taking drug in unfamiliar environment leads to lack of tolerance drug overdose Ex: context dependent memory occurs when associating certain places with the unconditioned response (aka when heroin hits your sysem). Your body responds and sees the conditioned stimulus (aka the location) and will know that the heroin is incoming, and respond by putting compensatory response in place. If you change locations, your body will compensate/prepare for the hit but you’ll be somewhere new; if you use in a new location, you can overdose due to the conditioned compensatory response Conditioned compensatory response (CR): is an automatic response that is opposite to the effect of alcohol or substance usage. Conditioned behavior is a key part of substance addiction. This response has many implications. For instance, a drug user will be most tolerant to the drug in the presence of cues that have been associated with it, because such cues elicit compensatory responses. As a result, overdose is usually not due to an increase in dosage, but due to taking the drug in a new place without the familiar cues, which would have otherwise allowed the user to tolerate the drug. CR includes a heightened pain sensitivity, and decreased body temperature, and might cause discomfort, thus motivating the drug user to continue usage of the drug. This is one of several ways classical conditioning might be a factor in drug addiction and dependence. Counterconditioning: aka stimulus substitution is a type of therapy based on the principles of classical conditioning that attempts to replace bad or unpleasant responses to a stimulus with more pleasant or adaptive response. a particular response to a certain stimulus is replaced by a new response. This new response can deter the person from the stimulus if that is the desired response. For example, a person may feel positive feelings towards smoking. Through a behavioral therapy technique they would learn to feel negatively about their smoking. Two techniques that are used in Counterconditioning are aversion therapy and systematic desensitization. In aversion therapy the client is taught to experience negative in the presence of the stimulus, with the aim that the client will eventually feel repelled by the stimulus. In systematic desensitization, the therapist seeks to help the client fight anxiety and other troublesome responses by teaching the client a set of relaxation techniques OPERANT CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING: Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.   Operant conditioning uses operant tor voluntary behavior PUNISHMENT: A punishment is anything that decreases the likelihood of a behavior to occur  Positive Punishment: Adding a consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future response. Something added (positive) to environment to decrease a behavior (punishment)  Negative Punishment: Taking away a certain item after the undesired behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. Taking away = negative. Decrease behavior = punishment  REINFORCER: A reinforcer is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior to occur. It must follow/be contingent on the desired response for operant conditioning to occur  “POSITIVE” Application of a Stimulus (+ add)  “NEGATIVE” Removal or Withholding of a Stimulus (- subtract)      THORNDIKE’S STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY All learning consists primarily of strengthening of the relationship between stimulus and response Proposed 3 laws as part of this theory The law of effect** MOST IMP – behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently OR a response followed by a good effect is likely to be repeated AND behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently. The law of exercise – The connection b/t stimuli and response can be strengthened (by practicing hard or often) or weakened (discontinuing practice). The law of readiness – Satisfaction results when an individual is ready to learn and is allowed to do so. Being forced to learn when not ready, or being prevented from learning when ready to learn results in ineffective learning, Dude presented the puzzle box w/ kitties Premack Principle: UNDER POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - A high probability behavior used to reinforce a low probability behavior (e.g. therapist wants to increase time student studies, student watches TV a lot, tell student they can watch TV only after he studies for an hour – the low probability behavior)  EXTINCTION; (In operant conditioning VS classical conditioning)  Extinction in operant conditioning is when reinforcement is withheld from a previously reinforced behavior causes the behavior to decrease/eliminate. Side effects are response burst (get worse before get better/behavior increases initially), spontaneous recovery (down the line the behavior may resurface but it will be weaker), and behavioral contrast (beh contrast will not be on test)  Extinction in classical conditioning occurs when the conditioned stimulus is applied repeatedly without being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the learned behavior occurs less often and eventually stops altogether, and conditioned stimulus returns to neutral. (e.g. in vivo exposure with response prevention, implosive therapy, EMDR) Continuous (reward follows every correct response, learning occurs rapidly, extinguishes quickly once reward is stopped) vs intermittent reinforcement (reward follows only some correct responses, learning of behavior takes longer, resistant to extinction) Operant Schedules of learning (4 types of intermittent schedules) FIXED RATIO Fixed ratio is where we reinforce based on a fixed, predictable number of responses. The faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they will receive. Characteristic patterns are high rates of response and shorter pause following each reinforcer.     VARIABLE RATIO (GAMBLER’S SCHEDULE) Variable ratio is most effective and where the reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses. Characteristic patterns are high and steady rates of response and little or no post-reinforcer pausing.    FIXED INTERVAL Fixed Interval is where reinforcement is contingent upon first response after a fixed, predictable period of time. A “scallop” pattern occurs where we stop responding after a reinforcer is delivered, then begin responding again towards the end of the reinforcement schedule.    VARIABLE INTERVAL Variable intervals produce slow and steady responses that are relatively resistant to extinction. We reinforce the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time    An operant is a freely emitted behavior, aka under an animal’s own volitional control, whereas in classical conditioning, conditioning is automatic/spontaneous. Called an “operant’ because subject operates on environment to obtain reinforcement   SHAPING: reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behavior (step-by-step reinforcement to a desired behavior (e.g. bear on a bicycle), teaching a new behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior, ONLY FINAL BEHAVIOR IS OF INTEREST (e.g. dogs jumping for photo) …VS CHAINING – the entire sequence of behaviors is important (some behaviors require both shaping and chaining  Differential Reinforcement: combines positive reinforcement with extinction and involves reinforcing alternative behaviors while ignoring the target behavior (the opposite of traditional discipline) - (e.g. only encourage child’s positive behavior and ignore negative behavior)  Negative Practice: requires individual to deliberately repeat the undesirable behavior to the point it becomes aversive (e.g. nail biting), in classical conditioning this is called aversive counterconditioning, but in operant conditioning, this is called negative practice (same thing) LATENT INHIBITION (IN OPERANT CONDITIONING) - person learns that the punishment isn’t that bad (see above earlier in classical conditioning) or if reinforcement is no longer given. HABITUATION - Habituation is due to OVER or CONSTANT Stimulation usually associated with a startle or negative response, whereas extinction just describes the SEPARATION of association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus usually associated with a positive response (ie. salivation).  PEAK END RULE: For most events, people remember the most intense emotional part and how it ended e.g., 3 year relationship with partner and end of year 2 bothers them, then you may elicit a downward spiral. If you ask how the relationship was, they'll probably say it was a difficult negative relationship. (Remember the PEAK and the END of relationship)  Contrast effect: When an extreme (negative or positive) event is used as a standard against which to compare a stimulus or one’s current state e.g., first relationship as standard, comparing every subsequent experience with those intiail feelings  Counterfactual Thinking: A tendency to create possible alternative to life events that have already occurred (e.g. should have... would have...), replaying old information like you could have had an opportunity for a “do over”. There are upward counterfactual vs downward counterfactual (bronze – I would haven’t been here if I didn’t do just a couple seconds faster wow 😊)    Critical Periods – the critical growth period (first 1.5 years) of the cortical, limbic, brainstem, and autonomic centers int eh early maturing right brain that influences the infant’s capacity to self-regulate emotions Dis-integration – When intense fear memories cannot be accommodated within existing schemas, they are split off, are not integrated, and are not subsequently under conscious control ED TRONIC’S THE STILL FACE PARADIGM Tronick’s Still Face Paradigm: A demonstration of infant stress response in which a mother stops reacting to her baby. The baby tries but fails to re-engage the mother, showing the importance of parental responsiveness.  HOTEC (Higher Order Theory of Emotional Consciousness)  HOTEC (Higher Order Theory of Emotional Consciousness) suggests that feelings arise from cognitive processes. It proposes that emotions are not just simple physiological responses, but involve higher mental processes. In simpler terms, we don't just feel emotions; we also perceive, understand, and think about them. For example, you don't just feel fear when watching a scary movie, but your mind also processes this fear and acknowledges it.  From LeDoux & Brown, 2017 above – Emotional Life is Critical to Conscious Awareness, High order conscious order of data, higher order representations of the lower order inputs  THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF EMOTION  Theories of Emotion: There are many, like the James-Lange theory (emotions result from physiological reactions) or the Schachter-Singer theory (emotions come from physical responses and our thoughts about them).  James-Lange /// body before emotion/thought   Observation of your own bodily response, but NOT limbic circuitry  Emotion is our conscious awareness of our physiological responses to stimuli  We feel afraid because we tremble, we feel sorry because we cry, we feel heart racing and then feel afraid  J-L – Just –le body  Cannon-Bard /// simultaneous processing theory   I’m watching a movie, a tear falls, “that’s a sad situation” → sad  We have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body is responding, not afterward  Cognitions influence emotions – someone can feel fear because of cognitive process without physiological signs of arousal   Our heart races as we experience fear  Cannon- body (n) emotion (n) simultaneous (nn)   Schachter-Singer /// two-factor theory   Body + label – attribution of emotion (same physiology may have different attributes – e.g. can be perceived as excitement or fear)  Two-factor theory suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling  Schacter-Singer – two S /two factor theory   When people become physiologically aroused by one stimulus, their emotional response to another stimulus is heightened  Highlighted the role of appraisal in labeling emotions: “this agitation is fear.”  LeDoux & Zajonc /// limbic system activation   Long shape in the dark? It’s a snake! → Fear circuit  Incoming signals into the thalamus → cortical evaluation → amygdala  Actually, survival startle activation  Some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes and dislikes, develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought  LeDoux – LowRoad to amygdala  Body/brain without conscious thoughts – emotins are instant, before cognitive appraisal – automatically react to unknown sounds before appraising it   Lazarus /// appraisal definition of emotions  “top-down” cognitive appraisal (is it dangerous or not? is that a threat? Is that something I would enjoy) influences/defines our emotion (sometimes without our awareness)  The sound is “just the wind”      Orthogonal: no correlation, in relation to studies regarding what different ages mean when differentiating b/t emotions...when you’re working with kids and they say they are happy, it probably doesn’t mean that they aren’t sad. As you age (20 yrs), when smo says they are happy, it most likely means they aren’t feeling sad.    NEGATIVITY BIAS: Even when of equal intensity, things of a more negative nature (e.g. unpleasant thoughts, emotions, or social interactions; harmful/traumatic events) have a greater effect on one's psychological state and processes than neutral or positive things. Something very positive will generally have less of an impact on a person's behavior and cognition than something equally emotional but negative.  POSITIVITY BIAS: People tend to interpret neutral situations (baseline) as mildly positive, and rate their lives as good, most of the time. The positivity offset stands in notable asymmetry to the negativity bias.  Remember to watch the video again from LeDoux, 2 types: fear as feeling and fear as unconscious  General Network of Cognition (GNC): Fear results from the cognitive appraisal that you are in a dangerous situation and that physical or psychological harm may come to you. Needs conscious awareness  Consciousness: Involves cognitive processes such as attention, working memory, and metacognition, specific brain circuits are involved in introspectively reporting conscious experiences, involves various areas of the lateral and medial prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex and insular cortex.  In terms of optimal child development, which level of mirroring is best? Warm, available, and responsive through social reciprocity, empathic attunement, you have to mirror the child at least “semi-accurately” aka Approximative Mirroring (you actually don’t want perfect mirroring rather controlled error so that your kid doesn’t turn into a narcissist/assume their perspective applies to everyone), you need to repair the mis-attunement though) which leads to secure attachment aka Discrepancies help the infant organize his/her self-state awareness Mentalizing and the development of emotion regulation. Emotion regulation starts with mirroring, synchrony, and parental responses to the child. 1) the baby is inferring the mom’s intentions – mentalizing, predicting mom’s mind 2) when baby doesn't get reciprocity, baby loses physiological control of their body, becomes dysregulated 3) when parent dysregulates the child through Non responsiveness/never re-regulates you, then the kid has a dysregulated emotional system. Bowlby refers to the parent/this concept as a “Psychic Organizer”. Teleogy (my actions are motivated by the desired outcome - primitive thinker where one uses a means ends analysis) to mentalizing (I have an image of myself as someone who is motivated by beliefs, feelings, and intentions AND I see this mage of myself reflected in the behaviors and vocalizations of my caregiver towards me) Dissociation: the deactivation of anxiety, “a disruption of and/or discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior.”  Watch the Peter Fonagy video again – after 6 months long before they become verbal look around and try to figure out what it is that the person they are interacting with knows or doesn’t know and they will adjust their actions in terms of what they think is going on in that person’s mind… FIRST 3 years of life, we find out about the nature of our own minds and the nature of each of our thoughts and feelings in the relationship with others False belief task: watch the video again – slide 4, a type of task used in theory of mind studies in which children must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that they possess. For example, children shown that a candy box contains pennies rather than candy are asked what someone else would expect to find in the box. Children of about 3 years or younger would say pennies, whereas older children would correctly reply candy.  Attachment theory is a theory of emotion regulation!    Secure Base a concept in developmental psychology that refers to a consistent and reliable source of support and comfort, typically provided by a primary caregiver, which allows an individual to explore and engage with their environment confidently.    Proximity seeking the behavior of seeking closeness or physical contact with a caregiver or attachment figure, especially in times of distress or uncertainty, to gain comfort, security, and reassurance.     Symbolic proximity a psychological state where individuals seek emotional closeness or connection with others through symbolic means, such as communication, gestures, or shared experiences, rather than physical proximity.    Goal-directed partnership –the evolving relationship between a child and their caregiver where the child learns to balance their individual goals and desires with those of the caregiver, leading to mutual cooperation and understanding.    Attachment based secondary affect regulation strategies (there are 2) hyperactivation, characterized by anxiety and a tendency to seek proximity to the attachment figure, and deactivation, marked by avoidance of seeking proximity. In hyperactivation, individuals may intensify negative emotions, engage in pervasive threat scanning, and easily access painful memories. Characterized by strong emotional activation to triggers (flooding), proximity seeking is deemed a viable option, Energetic effort to maintain proximity, Closely monitor the environment and attempt to head off potential threats (Hypervigilance), Intensification of negative affect, Upregulation by parental models, Ruminate on real or imagined negative events, Confirmation biases, Easy access to congruent painful memories, Spread activation, Stuck in the “on position”, Over focus on relationship partners, and Neglect of other life areas In deactivation, they may suppress emotions, avoid seeking support, and exhibit extreme self-reliance and cognitive organization of memories. Characterized by proximity seeking not being a viable option, Deny attachment needs and inhibit support seeking, Suppression of disturbing thoughts and feelings, Behavioral avoidance of closeness, intimacy, close relationships, Active inattention to threatening social events, Extreme self-reliance and achievement orientations. Going around the core conflict of insecurity, Cognitive organization, Autobiographical memories not linked with emotional content   Spread activation the process by which the activation of one node or concept in a network spreads or influences the activation of related nodes or concepts. It suggests that when one concept is activated in memory, the activation spreads to associated or connected concepts, making them more accessible and easier to retrieve. This concept is often used to explain how the mind organizes and retrieves information in memory networks.    Know how these secondary affect regulation strategies combine to define 4 attachment styles Disorganized = fearful Preoccupied = anxious Dismissing = avoidant     Basic parenting patterns that predict the various attachment styles  Secure Style involves feeling lovable and worthy of support, trusting others to provide help when needed, seeing the world as safe and predictable, understanding cause and effect well, and possessing strong emotional regulation abilities.    Preoccupied Style is characterized by devaluing oneself and overvaluing others, seeking reassurance frequently which can lead to rejection and social failures, prioritizing social relationships over other life areas, and experiencing high levels of emotionally reactive distress.    Dismissing Style entails valuing oneself above others, being highly self-reliant and dismissing the need for interpersonal closeness, turning to achievement goals in the face of social challenges, and addressing mood concerns by solving problems in achievement areas.    Fearful Style is marked by a negative self-image and high levels of distrust and negative impressions of others, experiencing emotional dysregulation and cognitive disorganization, and possibly having a history of childhood trauma.    The role of anxiety in the attachment system  Evolutionary story: We’re born and need to explore and find protection for survival. Child goes off to explore, becomes anxious in this exploration, and seeks safety. Seek proximity and goal corrected partnership. Safe haven is the place to return when distressed. Secure base is the platform for exploration.    Homeostatic mechanism balances security and exploration needs, using anxiety as a cue to return to the secure base and maintaining anxiety within a tolerable range.    Secure Base Parenting (consistently: warm, available, responsive, sensitively attuned).     What activates the attachment system? Attachment system can activate due to real danger, relationship threats, subjective appraisals, imagined threats, and basic needs being unmet.  Internalization (of the attachment system) Internalization in young children begins with seeking real physical proximity, evolving into the development of internal working models that enable symbolic proximity seeking. Proximity seeking becomes the primary affect regulation strategy for individuals with a secure attachment style.  Know how the various attachment styles relate to perception, attention, and memory.  CAN INTUIT BASED ON EARLIER INFO Understand how operant conditioning differentially reinforces or punishes various emotion-regulation strategies in children.   Treatment considerations emphasize the importance of establishing a secure therapeutic relationship before applying cognitive behavioral techniques, particularly for disorganized clients, with interpersonal and emotion-focused approaches being prioritized. The therapist acts as a psychic organizer to provide stability.  Anxiously attached clients may feel invalidated by directive or cognitive behavioral approaches, so validating the adaptive significance of their attachment style is suggested to reduce treatment resistance and help them understand their behaviors.  Clients with dismissing attachment styles may perceive less benefit and more risk in psychotherapy, potentially leading to less positive attitudes toward seeking treatment. Higher attachment avoidance is linked to premature treatment dropout.