Development Policies And International Aid PDF

Development policies and international aid Cours 1 : history and explanation of economic development worldwide - Questions - Why did some nations succeed and other fails ? - Why did wealth and power become distributed as they now are ? - Why did economic history unfold differently on different conti...

Development policies and international aid Cours 1 : history and explanation of economic development worldwide - Questions - Why did some nations succeed and other fails ? - Why did wealth and power become distributed as they now are ? - Why did economic history unfold differently on different continents ? - Why eurasian societies became disproportionately powerful and innovative ? A) Poverty worldwide : the facts - Numbers - 9,2% of the global population => live under the poverty line : $ 1,90 per day - This population is mainly located in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia ( 90%) - About 26% of the global population lives in extreme or moderate poverty => under $ 3,20 a day - About 47% of the global population lives in moderate poverty=> under $6,85 a day - Effort has been made to reduce poverty = passing from 36% in 1990 of the global population to 9,2% in 2022 - From 1995 to 2015 => poor countries have grown faster than rich countries - Harder to grow after 2015 - False explanation of disparity - Biological differences in intelligence or technology - no scientific evidence supporting that certain races or groups are inherently smarter or more capable in technological development. - Climate effects on development - colder climates stimulate innovation and hard work, leading to advanced societies. However, history shows that Northern European societies were not early contributors to civilization - Development - Definition through freedom - Development can be defined as the expansion of people's freedoms and capabilities - factors can contribute to development, they are tools rather than the ultimate goals. - Those means are the growth of GNP, the rise in personal incomes, industrialization, technological advances and social modernization - Sources of unfreedom = source of underdevelopment - Development requires removing barriers to freedom - The barriers are : poverty, hunger, treatable diseases, lack of clean water, limited economic and educational opportunities, social inequality, and political repression. B) Questions to why some countries are more developed - Paradox of wealth and deprivation - Despite living in a world of unprecedented wealth, significant disparities remain - why such extreme contrasts persist between wealthy and impoverished countries, pointing toward a need to address the deeper roots of inequality. - Questions that arise - Why Western Eurasian societies were able to dominate others through wealth, technology, and conquest ? - Proximate Causes of Western Dominance - Capitalisme, scientific inquiry, technological advancements, strong institutions, even immunity to certain diseases = cites for Historians as actors that enabled Western European conquests. => but those factors can explain development only in specific historical contexts - Geographic uniqueness - Why these factors emerged only in Western Eurasia, instead of in other parts of the world. - why technological and social advancements began in just a few specific regions and then spread unevenly across the globe - Distinguishing proximate from Ultimate Explanation - The ultimate explanation are geography, ecology, and historical context C) The history of the causes - the geographical factor = food surplus - the shift from food gathering to food production is a key turning point. - conditions favorable to agriculture were a foundational ultimate cause that enabled certain societies to advance in ways that hunter-gatherer societies could not. - Food factors : societies that rely on gathering food from the environment can create food surpluses. - The food surplus implies then : - societies can support full-time non-food producers - as artisans, craftsmen, intellectuals, and bureaucrats, who contribute to technological and cultural advances. - support specialists who can develop technology, political systems, and writing, which further facilitate governance - leads to increased population size and density, - as stable food supplies support larger communities. - + Food surplus provides more calories, enabling larger populations to thrive and grow. - Improve transportation and military power - Surplus resources enable societies to invest in transportation and military technology, facilitating trade, territorial expansion, and wars. - Benefits of Domestic Animals - animals play a crucial role in supporting dense societies - Provide food ( meat, milk, and dairy products) - Fertilizing Land: Manure improves soil fertility - Labor for Agriculture: Animals like oxen and horses can pull plows - Surplus food enables more complex social structures - specialized roles, hierarchical organization, and systems of governance. - + developing class structures and divisions of labor. - Certain regions, particularly in Eurasia, had advantages - climates, soils, and native plant and animal species conducive to early food production - It laid to he foundation for the social and technological advances that ultimately supported large, organized societies - Fertile Crescent about 10 000 years ago ? - The supply of wild animal ( like gazelles ) dwindled => people turned to more reliable food = shift from hunting and gathering to farming and domestication - + he Fertile Crescent was home to several key animals that could be domesticated - The region had a rich selection of plants, such as wheat, barley, and peas, that were particularly suited for cultivation - They were rich in proteins provided substantial calories - They could be planted and harvested within few month and stored for long periods = food stability - + self pollination of some plants = making crop yields more predictable and reliable. - It was first an Unintentional Selection - Initially, humans unintentionally encouraged the growth of certain plants by gathering and eating the largest and most nutritious seeds or fruits. - Then it became intentional selection - Over time, people began to actively select specific plant traits : Larger Seeds and Fruits / Mutated Peas with Enclosed Seeds / Mutated Wild Wheat with Non- Shattering Stems ( Les gens préféraient le blé présentant une mutation qui maintenait les graines attachées à la tige, ce qui le rendait récoltable et donc plus facile à cultiver) - Fruit agriculture : As agricultural knowledge advanced, humans learned how to propagate fruit trees selectively, allowing for the domestication of fruits - East-West vs. North-South Axes - In Eurasia - the primary axis is East-West, meaning that regions along this axis share similar day lengths and seasonal patterns. - specific climate in one part of Eurasia = agriculture and animal domestication were introduced to other areas along the same latitude - Eurasia had a much larger population overall and more interconnected societies, which meant greater potential for competition, innovation, and exchange = drove progress - In north-south axes - In Africa and the Americas, the main axis is North-South, meaning there are drastic climate and day-length differences along the axis - = crops and animals adapted to one region’s conditions could not easily survive or thrive when moved to vastly different climates. - = limited the spread of agriculture and technology between regions, slowing development. - American populations were often smaller and geographically isolated by mountains, deserts, and forests - The diseases - significant role of infectious diseases in shaping human history - the development of dense, sedentary agricultural societies led to the rise of devastating "crowd diseases. » - The conquest - the European conquest of the Americas - began with Columbus’s voyage in 1492. - European diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles, to which Indigenous Americans had no immunity, decimated native populations - = making conquest easier. - Diseases also devastated European populations - Plague => killed about a quarter of Europe’s population in the 14th century. - The effect on the population - Small and mobile population - small, mobile bands, do not sustain crowd diseases because they lack the population size - = when a disease strikes, it often kills everyone in the group before it can spread further. - Large, Dense Populations - High population density allowed crowd diseases to sustain themselves and become endemic, with diseases passing from person to person continually. - + Domestic animals (like cows, pigs, and chickens) carried pathogens that could jump to humans. D) the birth of state - the progression of social structures - Humain societies evolved from - Band to tribes to chiefdoms to states => because of the larger population - By the end of the 19th century, states dominated the world, replacing smaller social units. - The definition of a state - A state is a centralized organization with a monopoly on legitimate force within a specific territory - tasked with enforcing rules and managing a population. - Not the same as a nation : a state is a political entity while a nation refers to a group with a shared identity or culture. - Theories on the Origin of The state - security theory - States arose to provide security protecting people from external threats or internat conflict - Economic theory - States formed to manage trade, create and enforce property rights and support economic stability - Institutional theory - States are better equipped to resolve conflicts and maintain order in complex large societies - Social contract theory - Philosopher like Hobbes and Locke argued that states emerged to improve life - State role is to protect the civil society - Divine right theory - Some ruler = claim authority was granted by a divine power => religious legitimacy - Neo-darwinian theory - This perspective suggests that sates evolved through a form of social selection => structure better adapted to manage resources and population growth Development policies and internationale aids Cours 2 : the role of history and institutions in economic development A) The different theories - the Douglas North’s pov - focusing on how societies evolve through different stages and how their institutions impact economic growth and stability. - Stages of Economic Development - Tribal and Village Societies - Early societies were based on close social networks and kinship ties - personal relationships governed interactions - these societies faced high risks of theft and violence due to a lack of formal institutions - Urban societies - Urban centers and specialized labor needed institutions to enforce property rights and prevent fraud or theft - Access to order - Limited access to order - In early stages = societies often develop “limited access orders” - institutions are designed to serve the interests of the elites who control the political system - Violence is limited : elite actors maintain law and order to protect their rent - Monopoly : elite actors control key ressources = limiting access to economic opportunities for others = stifles economic growth - The elite often resist to change = institutional change => even if it benefits the greater good - Open access order - Advanced societies have institutions that provide broader access to economic and political opportunities - It encourage competition = supporting economic growth - It stimulate creative destruction - Is more responsive to social needs => Countries such as the UK or USA became rich because their citizens overthrew the elites who controlled power and created a society where political rights were more broadly distributed - Because the government is accountable to citizens - Peace = development => ODD 16 - Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson et James Robinson theory - Their research shows that institutions designed to exploit populations hinder long-term growth - They demonstrated that during colonization, prosperous, densely populated areas were often subjected to "extractive" systems benefiting a small elite, leading to different institutional paths around the world. - they emphasize that inclusive and democratic institutions provide a stronger foundation for sustained growth - unlike authoritarian regimes, which may experience rapid but often unstable growth, as seen in China. - Amartya Sen - Who is he - an Indian economist, Known for his groundbreaking work in welfare economics, social choice theory, and development economics - Awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences - has focused on issues like poverty, inequality, and social justice. - Capability Approach emphasizes individual freedoms and capabilities as central to development, shaping policies to address human well-being beyond economic growth. - The theory - developement as freedom - development is not just about economic growth or delivering resources. - it’s about enabling people to have the freedom to shape their own lives - Development should focus on expanding individual capabilities - the chance to make choices and pursue their goals - The state and society should support and protect human capabilities - Create conditions allowing people to actively participate and contribute to development. - Development = require variety of institutions, including legal, market, educational, healthcare, political, and media systems - Instruments of freedom - five types of freedoms - Political freedoms - The right to participate in political processes and decision-making - Economic facilities - Freedom to engage in economic transactions, access finance, and make choices regarding employment and resources. - Social opportunities - Access to essential services like education and healthcare that improve quality of life and empower individuals. - Transparency guarantee - Institutions that ensure honesty, prevent corruption, and enable people to trust and engage in fair transactions. - Protective security - A safety net to protect individuals from extreme hardships like famine or destitution, ensuring emergency support B) History of inequalities and dynamic of societies - Patterns disrupted by political and social revolution - Certain patterns of inequality tend to persist overtime or in certain time are disrupted by political and social revolution - The Low Countries (Netherlands) in 1581 - During the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) - The Dutch revolted against Spanish rule => establishing the Dutch Republic - = major shift - promoted political independence and economic growth - England in 1688 - Glorious revolution - led to the overthrow of King James II and established a constitutional monarchy - => establishment of parliament - This shift helped promote economic development + political stability + rule of law - North America vs. South America - North America, European colonization led to the establishment of relatively inclusive institutions - In contrast South American colonies were structured with more extractive institutions that concentrated wealth and power in the hands of elites => contributed to inequality - Japan during the Meiji Restoration (1868) - Japan underwent a period of rapid modernization and reform - The Meiji government embraced Western technology and institutions - France after the French Revolution of 1789 - The revolution led to the abolition of feudal privileges - promotion of individual rights, and the establishment of more egalitarian principles - > more details on the slides Development policies and international aid Cours 3 : the cultural factor or cultural explanation A ) Concept of culture - Definition - Culture is a set of customs, habits, uses, rules, purposes, beliefs, religions, artistic parcticies - Those define society - Is a symbolic system that regulates the relationship between "the social reality and the real world » => - Concept of conscious and unconsciousness in culture - culture and human psyche shape the way we perceive and interact with both our inner subjective world and the outer objectif world - The social reality => the world as it is understood and constructed by people => it’s how people relate to each other, interpret actions, and give meaning to their experiences - The real world => refers to the physical or material world => tangible reality existing independently of our interpretations - anthropology studies the relationship between culture and society - Psychoanalysis =>introduced the notion of subconscious => either individual or collective - The concept of sickness of society - => entire societies can exhibit collective dysfunctions that impact the mental health of their members - Georges Devereux => how cultural factors influence mental health and how certain cultural practices or beliefs affect the members of the society - a society marked by extreme inequality, chronic violence, or oppressive practices may foster widespread anxiety, despair, or aggression among its members. B) Culture and economic development - GNP depends on culture ? - GNP relies on cultural issues such as => type of consumption, desires, beliefs, career interest, aspiration for the future, values around innovation, the social structure => affect economic productivity - Cultures that value industriousness and education may foster economic growth - Culture => porosity = means that cultures are always changing, borrowing ideas, and adapting to new contexts, rather than being closed systems. - Transcendence : Individuals within a culture have the agency to question, adapt, and even move beyond cultural norms - The risks of traditions - Traditions => may be bad for traditions - Achille Mbembe. : tradition often implies a refusal of responsibility a search for an external culprit => there is tendency to accuse external oppression/ external forces being responsible for everything bad happening - Moussa Konate : African societies were founded and based on the results of traumas caused by colonisation - societies were based on pride, refusal of shame, inward looking - Withdraw and isolate themselves from external influences - Colonisation caused doubt and fears => resentment against white men and the « west » and mistrust against modernity - Tradition = culturally embedded meanings to sickness.` - External spiritual cause - In these cultural frameworks, illness may be believed to result from external spiritual influences => angry spirits, curses, or mystical forces acting upon the person - Some cultures interpret illness as a consequence of violating social or moral norms - Breaking a rule or defying a tradition = illness of society may be seen as a punishment - Sorcery - Relationship = base of a society = base of productiveness - Sorcery affect and harms those relations = mean less productivity - Belief in sorcery attributes specific misfortunes to intentional acts by others, which can create a sense of fear and suspicion within the community - Babies - ? Demander - Cultural Matters project - research initiative from Harvard University that identifies cultural values that contribute significantly to economic development. - 24 values identified in the study 4 main groups of values - Social behaviour : encompasses norms and practices related to interpersonal relationships and social cohesion - Economic attitudes : beliefs and approaches toward financial practices like savings, investments, and work. - Vices and virtues : traits that can either hinder or foster development, such as discipline and integrity. - Openness to the World: refers to how open a society is to foreign ideas, people, and practices, which can influence economic growth. - Out if 24, 2 values are important - Refusal of fatalism - The future can be shaped and influenced by current actions - This attitude encourages practices such as savings, investments, seeking education, and consistent hard work - Adherence to rules and standards - not everything is acceptable in a functioning society. Adherence to punctuality, rigorousness, respect for the law, and respect for foreigners is essential - ensures a predictable and fair environment, which is attractive for both domestic and foreign investors - Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory - => illustrates how the values embedded within a society's culture affect the behavior and attitudes of its members - 6 dimensions - Power distance - Feminity vs masculinity - Uncertainty avoidance - Individualism vs collectivism - Long term vs Short term Orientation - Indulegance vs Restraint C) The theories for development in Africa - Features of African traditions : Moussa Konate - Strong social pressure : - emphasise the importance of community over the individual - social pressure for people to conform to cultural norms - individuals are expected to uphold customs and behaviors that maintain harmony within the community. - Women as victims of submission to Men : - Traditional gender roles in many African societies often place women in subordinate positions - social and economic disparities between men and women - Women may face limitations in personal autonomy and opportunities due to cultural expectations around marriage, family responsibilities, and male authority - Forced conviviality : - Conviviality, or sociable togetherness, is highly valued in many African cultures - there is an expectation to participate actively in social gatherings, rituals, and community events - people are often required to engage in social interactions even if they might prefer not to. - Priority to the family - Family is often at the center of African traditional values - strong emphasis on loyalty and support among family members - individuals are expected to provide financially for extended family members, sometimes at a personal or professional cost - + nepotism => people may use their positions to benefit family and friends, prioritizing personal connections over merit or legality - Relation to Time - Profane time => ordinary, everyday time - Scared => ceremonies, and important cultural events - is cyclical and deeply connected to spiritual and communal rhythms rather than linear, individual progress. => to be verifier - Urban elites and development : Axelle Kabou - Urban Elites and Development - => urban elites, rather than traditional customs, are often resistant to development. - This resistance stems from their perception of development initiatives from the west is perceived as an admission of cultural and racial inferiority - Reject colonial influence but also beneficial aspects of development and technology that could foster progress - Borrow without complex => Kabou suggests that Africans should, adopt useful innovations from the West, much like Japan did during the Meiji Restoration - this period, Japan adopted Western technologies and practices to modernize rapidly without losing its cultural identity - pragmatic approach as a model for Africa. - View on Indigeneity and origins : Achille Mbembe’s - Encourages africans to move beyond an excessive focus on « origins » - Encourages for a forward looking perspective embracing global influences and positions - Assimilate without being assimilated : Senghor’s - African can. Assimilate Western knowledge, technology and practices while preserving their own cultural identity - Balanced approach where one can adopt beneficial aspect of other cultures without losing one’s own sens of self - the relationship between culture : tradition and modernity : Georges Balandier - The negative judgement on western solutions ( globalisation ) created a lack of common African understanding and common vision of future - The risk of being torn between cultures without mastering either one creates a vacuum - When a society is exposed to external cultural influences it can be pulled between its traditional heritage and the demands of modernity. = being caught between the two - This vacuum creates cultural shocks or traumas when traditional and modern values clashes - The lack of a clear cultural framework can result in - Withdrawal or regression to basic biological instincts - Creates psychological troubles => sectarisme ou radicalisation D) Religion vs growth - The protestant ethic and the Spirit of capitalism : Max Weber - The theory : Calviniste think - salvation or damnation is preordained by God - A lack of self-confidence or faith in one’s salvation was interpreted as a sign of being damned. - Therefore worldly success => achieved through hard work and discipline became a marker of one’s confidence = salvation - Calvinists viewed frivolous spending on luxuries as sinful => promoting a culture of thrift and reinvestment - Charity was discourage = promote laziness - Laziness and failure = moral and spiritual failings and damnation => reinforce the will to work and succeed - It shaped the capitalist society - Societies with more protestant are those having more developed capitalist economy - Protestantism and Calvinism = Accumulation of wealth through disciplined work + reinvestment of profits instead of spending on luxuries or charity. - The support of the theory by Lenski’s Study - American sociologist Gerhard Lenski - Protestants displayed stronger capitalist tendencies than Catholics - Criticism - Critic 1 - economic development was more influenced by rising literacy rates - Literacy rates was influenced by protestantisme due to its emphasis on individual Bible reading. - Fernand Braudel’s view - He highlights historical economic shifts - argues that the dominance of Northern Europe was less about religious ideology and more about geographical and historical continuity. - Exemple : Amsterdam emulated Venice’s capitalist structures, London copied Amsterdam, and later New York followed London - Protestant and Confucian Cultures VS Islam and Catholicism - Protestant and confucian cultures - = more supportive of economic growth due to their values and practices that align with work ethics, discipline, and a forward-thinking mentality. - Confucianism places importance on discipline, respect for hierarchy, and collective progress - Islamic and Catholic cultures - may have certain characteristics that are less conducive to fostering economic development. - religious practices and priorities might focus more on communal rituals and spiritual conviction rather than economic gain. - ( pas très convaincu de ce point => verifier la théorie du prof ) Development policies and international aid Cours 4 : development and demography A) Population growth has an impact on the economy : The relationship of between demography and economic development - through three key demographic factors: stock, structure, and flow. - stock : refers to the total population size - Malthus explains that population growth may outpace food production, potentially leading to scarcity. - While this view has largely been mitigated by technological advances in food production, it remains relevant in some regions like the Sahel, where resources can be insufficient. - structure : examines the population's age distribution - A high proportion of young dependents (e.g., children and adolescents) can strain the economy. - = fewer people in the workforce to support a large dependent population, there is increased demand on social services and reduced savings - Flow : captures the rate of population change - Without proportional increase in resources => rapid population growth can overwhelm essential services, including education, job markets, and food supplies, leading to negative economic and social effects - Demographic dividend - Definition - The demographic dividend is an economic growth potential that arises when fertility and mortality rates decline. - Higher working-age population proportion = fewer dependents per worker, allowing for greater productivity and economic growth. - Cause of age structure change - Demographic dividend => follows declines in fertility (fewer births) - improvements in child survival rates (lower mortality) - = a long terme => a population experiences a larger working-age cohort and relatively fewer dependents. - It occurs when the percentage of people able to work reaches its highest height - + if 2 condition are met : education and job creations - Challenges in Lesser Developed Countries - less developed countries have made significant strides in reducing child mortality but still experience high birth rates - Because of this, they often have large dependent populations and are unable to achieve the demographic shift necessary to enjoy the demographic dividend. - In developed countries = low fertility causes the population to be older : it inflates again the dependancy ratio => Europe - The five stages of demographic transition - 1 ) high stationary stage - birth rates and death rates are high, leading to a stable and low population growth. = population remain slow - Because = Lack of healthcare - 2) early expanding stage - Death rates decline due to improved healthcare but birth rate remain high = Rapid population growth - Because = technological advances - 3) late expanding stage - Birth rates begin to decline while death rates remain low. = Population growth slows - Because = social norms change. => access to education for women - 4) Low Stationary stage - birth rates and death rates are low = Population growth is minimal or zero, and aging populations begin to emerge. - Because = widespread contraception, urbanization, and lifestyle changes. - 5) Declining stage - Birth rates fall below death rates = population decline + aging population dominate - Becauses = very low fertility due to economic pression, careers priorities etc B ) the Problem of demographic expansion en Afrique - Big population, few infrastructures - women have an average of 7.3 children, and the population doubles every 18 years. - Such high birth rates result in an extremely young population, increasing the dependency ratio and overwhelming resources. - + lack of infrastructure, teachers, and resources to accommodate the growing number of children. - + Formal education compete with traditional religious schools => may not align with modern educational goals or economic needs. - + Employment opportunities are insufficient to absorb the growing number of young people entering the labor market. - According to the UN, Banque mondial - Stage five => Africa = growth of population - The part of the population => shaped in pyramid - Les jeunes = la part de la population la plus important - The population is going to decrease => taux de fécondité from 2020-2025 to 2095 is decreasing drastically - The gov budget per habitant is low in Afrique - + taux de natalité comparer au taux d’analphabétisme => c’est chaud - + extremisme religieux en hausse = hausse de la mortalité => demographic shift - Few flux financier + are privé - + population urbain is increasing = plus de demande en ressources Development policies and international aid Cours 5 : The theory : The west and the rest : Niall Ferguson A) The beginning - In the 15th century, Europe was a miserable backwater => going through war etc - While the Orient = civilizations had been far ahead for centuries. - Chinese technology, - Indian and Persian mathematics, Arab algebra - Europe took advantages of all the other civilisation - They took advantages of the Jew religion - They bastaralized languages - Were indebted to Oriental sciences - They did it to - create a civilisation capable of conquering the Orient, Americas, Australia and Africa - convert peoples all over the world to western way of life B) The institution : 6 novel institutions and associated ideas and behaviour - Competition - Is viewed as the Engine of Innovation and Expansion - competitive systems are dynamic - They encourage experimentation, adaptation, and learning from failures - This dynamism led western societies leap ahead in certain areas => Technological innovation, Global trade networks, Colonization efforts ( brought wealth and resources back to Europe) - Exemple : Europe VS China - In Europe - geographic diversity (mountains, rivers, jagged coastlines) contributed to political fragmentation, leading to the development of multiple, competing monarchies, city- states, and republics. - political competition between states drove - Maritime exploration - The creation of powerful trading companies - Rivalry between social classes, economic groups, and institutions - fueled the rapid spread of new ideas - Protestant Reform = spurred innovation in printing and communication to spread religious ideas = facilitated scientific and cultural developments. - China - was a unified, centralized empire dominated a vast and relatively homogenous plain - This monolithic structure, reduced incentives for regional powers to compete - = stifling innovation and exploration - Japan - Japan’s Meiji Restoration - the arrival of Western powers = realization of their technological and military superiority - Japan forced = to open up and adopt Western practices to compete effectively. - Science - Islamic World - The early dominance if the islamic world science - During the 8th to 13th centuries - The Abbasid Caliphate and Islamic Golden Age - The Islamic world was at the forefront of scientific and intellectual progress. - Greek texts on philosophy, mathematics, and science were translated into Arabic - Exemple of scientist - Algebra: Introduced by Al-Khwarizmi. - Experimental Science: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), through his Book of Optics - Decline in Scientific Progress - By the 16th and 17th centuries - the Islamic world, particularly the Ottoman Empire, experienced a stagnation in scientific progress - Islamic clerics increasingly viewed Greek philosophy and scientific inquiry as incompatible with the Quran. - Sultan Selim’s 1515 decree banning printing presses hindered the dissemination of knowledge. - Western World - Séparation église, état - Christianity’s principle of separating church and state = created space for secular governance and intellectual inquiry. - allowed universities and scholars to operate with some degree of independence from religious authorities. - Renaissance - in the 14th century - revived interest in classical knowledge from Greek and Roman civilizations - Science = focus on empirical observation and experimentation - The Printing Press - Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century - facilitated the rapid dissemination of scientific works - enabling scholars across Europe to build upon each other’s discoveries - The Reformation - in the 16th century - Martin Luther’s challenge to the Catholic Church - weakened centralized religious authority. - Scientific revolution and enlightenment - 16th and 17th centuries - the rise of the Scientific Revolution in Europe. - Figures like Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and Kepler made foundational contributions - Science became a systematic pursuit of knowledge based on observation, experimentation, and reason - Why Europe and Not Elsewhere? - Europe’s political fragmentation and cultural diversity created an environment of competition and collaboration. - The weakening of religious authority allowed new ideas to flourish without being immediately suppressed. - The institutionalization of science provided a structured platform for scientific inquiry and debate. ( through organizations like the Royal Society in England ) - Property rights - Def - refers to the role of property rights and legal institutions in fostering economic growth, political stability, and individual freedom - comparison between Anglo-America vs Latin America - highlights how differences in property systems contributed to diverging trajectories of development. - The importance of property rights - Secure and enforceable property rights create incentives to invest, innovate, and trade - ensure that individuals can reap the benefits of their labor and investments - Property rights require a strong legal framework and institutions - Exemple : Anglo-saxon model Vs latin america - In North America - settlers brought institutional frameworks from England - emphasized the protection of individual property rights. - Scarcity of wealth => the economy in North America developed based on small-scale agriculture and enterprise - The establishment of representative governments and constitutions after the American revolution = limited arbitrary power. - The sale of small plots of land = allowed for broad-based economic participation and a thriving middle class - This system encouraged entrepreneurship, innovation and rapid industrialization - In Latine america - Latin America’s colonization by Spain and Portugal was based on - the exploitation of indigenous populations - the extraction of wealth - landholdings = concentrated = were controlled by a small elite - little room for economic mobility - The legal and institutional frameworks = often failed to protect individual property rights - System = Corruption, lack of transparency, and political instability - highly unequal society = power were concentrated in the hands of a few - Recent Improvements in Latin America - Economic Reforms Since the 1980s - Privatization, foreign investment, and export-oriented strategies have contributed to higher growth rates - Medecine - Def - transformative role of Western medical advancements in shaping global demographics, public health - medical innovation extended life expectancy + became a tool for imperial expansion. - Life expectancy increase - In western world - In 1800, global life expectancy was about 28.5 years - high infant mortality - the prevalence of diseases - By 2001, it had risen to 66.6 years - Innovations such as vaccines, antiseptics, and antibiotics revolutionized healthcare => The study of diseases like malaria and yellow fever inspired European medical innovators - In the colonies - Improvement of the pop health - In Asian and African countries, life expectancy improved during the colonial period due to the introduction of Western medical practices. - In French West Africa (early 20th century), a free healthcare service for indigenous populations was created - Exemple : Vaccination campaigns, such as compulsory smallpox immunization reduced the prevalence of deadly diseases - Why they did that - The "Scramble for Africa » was a race for territory and resources + a quest for scientific knowledge about tropical diseases. - Coloniser invested in combating tropical diseases like malaria, cholera, and yellow fever => for maintaining their presence in tropical regions - The consumer society - Def - Explains how the rise of consumption transformed class dynamics, labor relations, and geopolitics. - illustrates how capitalism’s ability to satisfy consumer desires played a role in the economic triumph of the West over communism - Theory of Marx’s - He believed industrial capitalism would create an intolerably unequal society - Capitalisme would divided society between - The bourgeoisie (capital owners) - would exploit workers to generate profit - The proletariat (working class) - would remain impoverished and eventually revolt to overthrow the capitalist system. - Though he missed that => workers are also consumers - Higher wages meant increased purchasing power = stimulation of D and S - In industrialized nations, wages rose significantly, creating a middle class and avoiding the revolutionary conditions - Capitalism between the classes - Among the social classes - The consumer society democratized access to good - Affordable products became available to the majority, diminishing visible class disparities - Workers, instead of revolting => favored strikes and negotiations to improve wages and working conditions. - Fought for the recognition of workers as consumers - rising living standards in industrialized nations. - US vs URSS - Cold War = highlighted the stark contrast between Capitalism and abundance vs shortages in communist regimes - Capitalism = Western Europe - offered a lifestyle of consumer choice and comfort - Those products represented freedom and prosperity - Soviet shortcoming - Central planning in the USSR failed to meet the dynamic and diverse demands of consumers. - The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized this disparity => difference between the 2 blocs - The work ethic - Def - explores how attitudes toward labor have shaped individual productivity societal development, and the economic growth - Work ethic is the belief that labor has moral value - It emphasizes diligence, discipline, and responsibility as virtues that enhance individual and collective outcomes - History - Work as punishment - In ancient greece = Work was considered a burden, meant for slaves and the lower classes. The elite pursued intellectual and leisure activities. - In the old testament : work is framed as a punishment for original sin - Work as a way to success - Max Weber Protestant Ethic => linked hard work to spiritual salvation and economic success. - The importance of work ethic for growth - A strong work ethic fosters higher productivity, savings rates, and investment - Asian nations, particularly China and South Korea, exhibit a strong work ethic with longer working hours and higher participation rates. = driven economic growth - Americans balance a strong work ethic with a culture of consumption and productivity - Work ethic in culture - Hofstede and others have studied how cultural dimensions influence work behaviour - individualistic societies may prioritize personal leisure, while collectivist societies focus on group productivity. - However, an overemphasis on labor without consideration for well-being Development policies and international aid Cours 6 : Official development assistance A) The ODA - Definition - ODA is a government aid specifically aimed at - fostering economic development - improving welfare in developing countries - ODA can be provided in 2 forms of delivery - Bilateral => directly from a donor country to a recipient country - Multilateral => through international organisations ( World bank, UN agencies... ) - ODA consist of - Grants => direct funding with no repayment required - Soft loan => Loans with favorable terms including a minimum grant element of 25% - ODA can finance either - The general budget of the recipient country - Finance a specific protect ( infrastructures, social programs etc... ) - Effectiveness ( 3 POV ) - It works and it is necessary - ODA is essential for supporting development and addressing urgent needs - Jeffrey Sachs ( The Bottom Billion and The End of Poverty) - Believes some countries are stuck in a "poverty trap" due to challenges like geography or infrastructure deficits. - Advocates for foreign aid as a critical solution to break these traps - It doesn’t work - ODA fails to achieve it’s goals due to inefficiencies corruption, or dependency issues => policy framework - William Easterly - Arguing that foreign aid is often ineffective or harmful due to issues like corruption, dependency, and poor implementation. - Peter Bauer and Dambisa Moyo - aid can stifle local initiative and development. - The arguments against - Weakens the Receiving Country - ODA can undermine the recipient country's ownership and motivation for self- reliance. - Loss of Skilled Personnel - The competent civil servants are rescuited by foreian aid agencies - draining the public sector of talent. - Saturates the management capacity of the receiving country - overwhelm the recipient country's administrative capacity - Blocks Reforms and Local Taxation - discourage necessary domestic reforms or taxation efforts = dependency. - Unintended Consequences - Can produce unexpected negative outcomes on the ground - Check La revanche des contextes by JP Olivier de Sardan - Donor contradiction - donor agencies may prioritize their own agendas over genuine development. - Influence of lobbies an trends - decisions can be shaped by political lobbies or fashionable development models, rather than evidence-based needs. - It depends - Success varies based on context => governance quality, project design, recipient commitment to reforms etc - Esther Duflo - Proposes focusing on microeconomic interventions (targeted, small-scale actions) to make a tangible impact in alleviating poverty. C ) Why and How ODA are implemented - to meet the goals - The 8 Millenium Development Goals (2000-2015) - Develop a global partnership for development - Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger - Achieve universal primary education - Ensure environmental sustainability - Promote gender equality and empower women - Combat HIV/aids, malaria and other diseases - Improve maternal health - Reduce child mortality - the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030) ( les ODDs) - How are they implemented - 142 countries = eligible to receive ODA - High quality ODA requires - tailoring - modalities, channels and financing types - Take into account debt of the countries - Today in Africa = less ODA / flux more private D) ODA between progression and depression - Total amount of ODA is 224 billion USD in 2024 - 15th COP of the UN in 2009 = collective goal for developed countries to mobilise 100 billion/ year USD by 2020 for climat action - DAC focus more on social sectors in low income countries and production sector in middle income countries => but ODA decrease - Share of ODA for the least developed countries = 22,5% vs 30% in 2000 - Budget support during Covid 2021 rose then sharp reduction in 2021