Inorganic Chemistry Notes PDF

Okay, here's the conversion of the provided text into a structured markdown format. I've done my best to maintain accuracy and formatting, including math formulas in LaTeX. # Inorganic Chemistry 28 January 2025 ## Water Water plays an important role in the maintenance of biological systems. ###...

Okay, here's the conversion of the provided text into a structured markdown format. I've done my best to maintain accuracy and formatting, including math formulas in LaTeX. # Inorganic Chemistry 28 January 2025 ## Water Water plays an important role in the maintenance of biological systems. ### Functions of Water #### Temperature Regulation * In humans, the sweat glands produce sweat, which cools the body as it evaporates from the body surface in a process called perspiration. * In a similar way, plants are cooled by the loss of water vapour from their leaves in a process called transpiration. #### Form / Support Water is a very important constituent of the body and plays an important role in providing form / support in plants and animals. Animals such as worms / jellyfish, use water in special chambers in their body to give their bodies support. This use of water pressure to provide form, and enable movement is called hydrostatic skeleton. * Plants grow upright and keep their shape due to the pressure of water (turgor pressure) inside the cells. #### Transport Medium Water transports substances around the body. * Water is the main constituent of blood to enable blood cells, hormones and dissolved gases, electrolytes and nutrients to be transported around the body. #### Lubricating agent Water is the main constituent of saliva which helps chewing and swallowing and also allows food to pass easily along the alimentary canal. * Water is the main constituent of tears which helps keep the eye lubricated. #### Solvent for biological chemicals The liquid in which substances dissolve is called a solvent. Water is known as the universal solvent as more substances dissolve in water than any other liquid. * All chemical reactions in living organisms take place in water. #### Reactant Water takes place in several classes of chemical reactions. * During hydrolysis reactions, water is added to the reaction to break down large molecules into smaller molecules. * Water can be split into hydrogen & oxygen atoms to provide energy for complex chemical reactions such as photosynthesis. ### Keywords **Constituent:** Being a part of a whole. **Lubricate:** An action to minimize friction and allow smooth movement. ## Minerals Dietary minerals are the chemical elements that living organisms require to maintain health. In humans, essential minerals include: * Calcium * Phosphorous * Potassium * Sulfur * Sodium * Chlorine * Magnesium ### Macro-elements / Macro-nutrients Are nutrients that are required in large quantities by living organisms. * The main Macro-nutrients are: * Potassium * Sodium * Calcium * Phosphorus Then we have: * Carbon * Hydrogen * Oxygen * Nitrogen * Chloride * Magnesium * Sulfur * Are the nutrients we require in very small quantities for development and growth. They include: * Iron * Iodine * Chromium * Cobalt * Copper * Manganese * Zinc * Selenium ## Inorganic Fertilisers The use of fertilisers: * When crops are regularly grown and harvested on the same piece of land, the soil becomes depleted of one or more nutrients! * Fertilisers are natural or non-natural mixtures of chemical substances that are used to return depleted nutrients to the soil and improve the nutrient content of the soil and promote plant growth. * Inorganic nutrients (Such as nitrates and phosphates) are added to the soil in the form of inorganic fertilisers. ### Effect of fertilisers on the environment: * Using large amounts of fertilisers can be harmful to the environment. * Fertilisers wash off into rivers where they are poisonous to plant and animal life. * The accumulation of fertilisers in rivers can lead to a process known as eutrophication. * This Process occurs when excessive nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) from the land (fertilisers) runoff into rivers and lakes. This leads to high growth of water plants. * Eutrophication leads to lost water plant growth blocking sunlight. * Underwater Plants stop photosynthesizing and die. * Decomposing plants and bacteria use up oxygen, causing fish / other animals to suffocate. * This process reduces oxygen levels, harming aquatic life. ## Organic Compounds * Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon, usually bonded with hydrogen and other elements like oxygen, nitrogen & phosphorus. * They are essential for life and are more complex in structure compared to inorganic compounds. ### Examples: * Carbohydrates * Lipids * Protein * Enzymes * Vitamins * Nucleic acids (DNA / RNA) ### a) Carbohydrates Elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen Hydrogen to Oxygen ratio = 2:1 Monomer (building blocks): Saccharides (Greek: Sugar) ### (b) Lipids: Cholesterol * Cholesterol is a lipid found in the human body. Sourced from both diet & liver production. Functions: * Component of cell membranes * Needed to produce Vitamin D #### Health Effects: * Excess cholesterol can deposit on blood vessel walls leading to atherosclerosis (narrowing of blood vessels). * If a blockage occurs in a vessel supplying the heart, it can result in a heart attack. #### Types of cholesterol: * HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) * Good cholesterol which is beneficial to the body. * LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) * Bad cholesterol which is harmful in high amounts. #### RISK factors for high Cholesterol: * Diet high in saturated fats * Obesity * Lack of exercise * Genetics * Aging * Fruits & vegetables don't contain cholesterol. ### c) Protein: Enzymes. * Enzymes & their role in Metabolism: * Enzymes are complex Protein molecules that act as biological catalysts, Speeding up biochemical reactions in living organisms without being used up in the Process. They are involved in both: * Anabolic reactions (building new molecules) * Catabolic reactions (breaking down molecules) Enzymes Play a crucial role in processes such as: * Photosynthesis * Cellular respiration * Digestion of food in animals. * The lock (Key) theory of Enzyme Action: * The enzyme has a specific active site that matches the shape of it's substrate. * When the substrate binds to the enzyme, an Enzyme - Substrate Complex is formed. * The Substrate undergoes a process / chemical reaction, either breaking down or rearranging into new products. * The Products are released and the enzyme remains unchanged and free to act on another Substrate. #### Industrial Used Of Enzymes: * Biological Washing Powders: Contain Protease to break down Protein stains like blood / egg. * Leather Production: Enzymes help in Processing animal hides. * Brewing Industry: Enzymes aid in the beer-making Process. - ## Carbohydrates Composition: Are composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). * The name carbohydrate suggests carbon & water, meaning it following the general formula C_(H2O) The 3 groups: * **Monosaccharides:** (Single sugars) * Examples: Glucose / Fructose * **Disaccharides:** (Double sugars) * Examples: Maltose / Sucrose * **Polysaccharides:** (Many linked sugars) * Example: Starch / Cellulose / glycogen Source: Monosaccharides & Disaccharides are found in: Fruits / vegetables Polysaccharides : Are found in Bread, rice, flour / Pasta / potatoes Function: * Provides energy for plants & animals * Plants store carbohydrates as Starch l animals store it as glycogen * Cellulose forms cell walls ## Lipids **EXAMPLES:** Fols & Oils, Steroids, Cholesterol. **Composition:** Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen. The H:O ratio is greater than 2:1. Formed when glycerol combines with 3 fatty acids. **Types of Fatty Acids:** * Saturated Fats: Have single bonds in the fatty acid chains (solid at room temperature) * Unsaturated Fats: Have one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chains (liquid at RT) **Source:** Animal Source: Butter / Fatty meats / solid Plant Source: Oils / NuLs **Function:** Energy Source: Provides twice the energy compared to carbohydrates. **Insulation:** Fat (blubber) under the skin: Prevents heat loss in animals Most Plants Store Oils In Their Seeds ## Protein **Examples:** Albumen, enzymes & Haemoglobin **Composition:** Carbon * Hydrogen, oxygen & nitrogen Some Proteins may Contain Sulphur+ Phosphorus or iron **Properties of proteins:** **Temperature sensitivity:** High temperatures denature proteins, causing them to lose their shape and function. Low temperatures render enzymes inactive **Specificity of Enzymes:** Enzymes are Highly specific in the state reactions they catalyze due to their unique share **Source:** Animal Sources: Fish, meat & eggs Plants Sources: Nuts & beans **Function:** & Growth & repair of body tissues. **Enzymes:** Proteins that speed up chemical reactions **Hormones:** Proteins that act as chemical messengers in the blood **Haemoglobin** A Protein in the blood that transfers oxygen and carbon dioxide Let me know if you'd like any specific adjustments!