Distribution of Land and Water PDF - Plate Tectonics and Earth's Features

 Explain the processes of continental drift and plate tectonics, and describe how they have influenced the current distribution of continents and crustal features. Construct a model or diagram showing the movement of tectonic plates and how they create features such as mountain...

 Explain the processes of continental drift and plate tectonics, and describe how they have influenced the current distribution of continents and crustal features. Construct a model or diagram showing the movement of tectonic plates and how they create features such as mountains, trenches, and rift valleys. Demonstrate an appreciation for Earth's dynamic nature by discussing the importance of geological changes and how they impact human life, ecosystems, and natural disasters. Crust Mantle Core  The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is the thinnest layer, ranging from about 5 to 70 kilometers in thickness. The crust can be further divided into two types: continental crust and oceanic crust. Continental Crust Oceanic Crust The continental crust is the The oceanic crust is the thicker layer of the Earth's thinner layer of the Earth's crust that is found under the crust that is found under the continents. It is about 35 ocean basins. It is about 7 kilometers thick on average. kilometers thick on average.  The mantle is the layer beneath the Earth's crust. It is the thickest layer, extending from the base of the crust to a depth of approximately 2,900 kilometers. The mantle can be divided into an upper and lower layer. Upper Mantle Lower Mantle The upper mantle is relatively The solid lower mantle rigid and contains the contributes to the overall asthenosphere, a semi-fluid convection and heat layer that allows the transfer within the Earth's movement of tectonic plates. interior.  The core is the innermost layer of the Earth, situated beneath the mantle. It is divided into two distinct regions: the outer core and the inner core. Outer Core Inner Core The outer core is a liquid layer The inner core is the solid, composed mainly of molten central part of the earth. It iron and nickel. It has a has a radius of about 1,220 thickness of about 2,300 kilometers and is composed kilometers. of solid iron and nickel.  Crust The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is the thinnest layer, ranging from about 5 to 70 kilometers in thickness. Mantle The mantle is the layer beneath the Earth's crust. It is the thickest layer, extending from the base of the crust to a depth of approximately 2,900 kilometers. Core The core is the innermost layer of the Earth, situated beneath the mantle. It is divided into two distinct regions: the outer core and the inner core. The plate tectonics theory states that the Earth's lithosphere (the rigid outer layer) is broken into large, rigid pieces called tectonic plates. These plates float and move on the semi- fluid asthenosphere, a hot and slowly flowing layer of the mantle beneath them. Divergent Plate Convergent Plate Transform Plate (Sliding Plates) At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other. This movement results in the creation of new crust as magma rises from the mantle, solidifies, and forms new oceanic crust. Divergent boundaries are responsible for the continuous reshaping and formation of Earth's crust. (Sliding Plates) On land, divergent plate boundaries create mid-ocean ridge and rift valleys. The crust in these areas stretches and thins, causing the land to sink and create a valley. Magma from the mantle can rise to the surface, leading to volcanic activity.  Convergent boundaries are places where tectonic plates collide or come together. When two plates meet, their interactions can result in various geological phenomena. Convergent boundaries contribute to the formation of mountains, volcanic activity, and earthquakes. The Himalayas is formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.  When two continental plates collide, neither plate is subducted due to their low density. Instead, the two plates compress and crumple, creating highly folded and uplifted mountain ranges.  Transform boundaries occur when two plates slide past each other horizontally. The movement along these boundaries can cause earthquakes, as the plates grind against each other. Transform boundaries redistribute stress and accommodates the movement between neighboring plates. Unlike convergent or divergent boundaries, there is no creation or destruction of crust at transform boundaries. The plates simply grind against each other horizontally. Causes earthquakes due to the build-up and sudden release of stress (e.g., the San Andreas Fault in California).  Divergent Boundaries At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other. This movement results in the creation of new crust. Convergent Boundaries Convergent boundaries are places where tectonic plates collide or come together. When two plates meet, their interactions can result in various geological phenomena. Transform Boundaries Transform boundaries occur when two plates slide past each other horizontally. The movement along these boundaries can cause earthquakes. The Pangaea Theory, also known as Continental Drift Theory, was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It suggests that all the continents were once joined together in a single massive landmass called Pangaea (Greek for "all Earth") around 300 million years ago. Over time, Pangaea gradually broke apart and the continents drifted to their present positions. The coastlines of continents, such as South America and Africa, fit together like puzzle pieces, suggesting they were once connected. Identical fossils of ancient plants and animals, such as the Mesosaurus (a freshwater reptile) and Glossopteris (a prehistoric plant), have been found on continents that are now separated by vast oceans. This indicates these landmasses were once connected. Mesosaurus (a freshwater reptile) Glossopteris (a prehistoric plant) Similar rock formations and mountain ranges are found on continents that are now far apart. For example, the Appalachian Mountains in North America have similar geological features to mountain ranges in Scotland and Greenland. Fossilized remains of tropical plants have been found in Antarctica, suggesting that the continent was once located in a much warmer region.  Ginkgoales (Ancient Ginkgo Trees) Fossilized Ginkgo leaves have been found in rock formations from the Jurassic period in Antarctica. The fossils show characteristic fan-shaped leaves with veins splitting repeatedly, similar to the modern Ginkgo biloba. Around 200 million years ago, Pangaea began to break apart due to the movement of tectonic plates. This process led to the formation of two major landmasses: Laurasia (North America, Europe, and Asia) Gondwana (South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India)  Continents Oceans & Seas Major Landforms  29% of Earth's surface is land. 71% of Earth's surface is covered by water. The vast majority of Earth's water (about 97%) is found in oceans, while the remaining 3% is freshwater in lakes, rivers, glaciers, and underground sources. The largest and deepest ocean on Earth, covering more than 30% of the planet’s surface and stretching from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south. The second-largest ocean, separating the continents of North and South America from Europe and Africa. It is well known for the Mid- Atlantic Ridge, a massive underwater mountain range that runs down its center The third-largest ocean, located primarily in the Southern Hemisphere and bordered by Asia to the north, Africa to the west, and Australia to the east. It is the warmest ocean in the world and is a vital region for monsoon weather patterns that affect South Asia. The smallest and coldest of the five oceans, located around the North Pole. It is covered by sea ice for most of the year, though due to climate change, this ice is shrinking. Encircling Antarctica, this ocean plays a major role in regulating Earth’s climate by influencing ocean currents and acting as a carbon sink. It is home to some of the world's most extreme conditions, with strong winds and icy waters. The sea is a huge body of salty water that covers most of the Earth. It is connected to the bigger oceans and is home to many animals, plants, and tiny living things.  This sea is located between Europe, Africa, and Asia and has played a crucial role in human history. It was the center of ancient civilizations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Phoenicians. The Mediterranean has been a hub for trade, cultural exchange, and military conflicts throughout history.  A tropical sea located in the Western Hemisphere, bordered by Central and South America and home to many islands, including Cuba, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. It is famous for its clear blue waters, coral reefs, and vibrant marine biodiversity. The Caribbean has a rich cultural history influenced by indigenous peoples, European colonization, and the transatlantic slave trade.  A cold northern sea situated between Alaska (USA) and Russia, forming part of the Pacific Ocean. It is ecologically significant as a key migration route for marine species such as whales, seals, and fish. The Bering Sea is also an important fishing ground, supplying seafood like pollock and crab. Historically, it was a key passage for early human migration from Asia to North America via the now- submerged Bering Land Bridge.  A warm and salty sea located between northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. It is one of the saltiest seas in the world due to high evaporation and low rainfall. The Red Sea is famous for its stunning coral reefs and diverse marine life, making it a major destination for divers and marine biologists.  A brackish sea (a mix of salt and freshwater) located between Northern Europe and Russia. It is surrounded by countries like Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Germany. The Baltic Sea has a unique ecosystem due to its low salinity and seasonal ice cover. A mountain is a large natural elevation of the Earth's surface that rises significantly higher than the surrounding land. It is typically formed by tectonic movements, volcanic activity, or erosion over millions of years.  Mt. Everest Andes Mountain Great Plains (North America) Eurasian Steppe (Europe/Asia) A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area. It is sometimes called a "tableland" due to its flat top. Tibetan Plateau (Asia) Colorado Plateau (North America) B for blur C for confetti D for a drumroll M for mic drop O for bubbles Q for quiet U for unveil 0-9 Any number from 0-9 for a timer