Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices, and Applications PDF

Digital Electronics Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications Anil K. Maini © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-03214-5 Digital Electronics Principles, Devices and Applications Anil K. Maini Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), India Copyright © 2007...

Digital Electronics Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications Anil K. Maini © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-03214-5 Digital Electronics Principles, Devices and Applications Anil K. Maini Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO), India Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone +44 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): [email protected] Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to [email protected], or faxed to (+44) 1243 770620. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 42 McDougall Street, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 6045 Freemont Blvd, Mississauga, ONT, Canada L5R 4J3 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Anniversary Logo Design: Richard J. Pacifico Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Maini, Anil Kumar. Digital electronics : principles, devices, and applications / Anil Kumar Maini. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-03214-5 (Cloth) 1. Digital electronics. I. Title. TK7868.D5M275 2007 621.381—dc22 2007020666 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-470-03214-5 (HB) Typeset in 9/11pt Times by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.  In the loving memory of my father, Shri Sukhdev Raj Maini, who has been a source of inspiration, courage and strength to me to face all challenges in life, and above all instilled in me the value of helping people to make this world a better place. Anil K. Maini Contents Preface xxi 1 Number Systems 1 1.1 Analogue Versus Digital 1 1.2 Introduction to Number Systems 2 1.3 Decimal Number System 2 1.4 Binary Number System 3 1.4.1 Advantages 3 1.5 Octal Number System 4 1.6 Hexadecimal Number System 4 1.7 Number Systems – Some Common Terms 4 1.7.1 Binary Number System 4 1.7.2 Decimal Number System 5 1.7.3 Octal Number System 5 1.7.4 Hexadecimal Number System 5 1.8 Number Representation in Binary 5 1.8.1 Sign-Bit Magnitude 5 1.8.2 1’s Complement 6 1.8.3 2’s Complement 6 1.9 Finding the Decimal Equivalent 6 1.9.1 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion 6 1.9.2 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion 6 1.9.3 Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion 7 1.10 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion 7 1.11 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion 8 1.12 Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion 9 1.13 Binary–Octal and Octal–Binary Conversions 9 1.14 Hex–Binary and Binary–Hex Conversions 10 1.15 Hex–Octal and Octal–Hex Conversions 10 1.16 The Four Axioms 11 1.17 Floating-Point Numbers 12 1.17.1 Range of Numbers and Precision 13 1.17.2 Floating-Point Number Formats 13 viii Contents Review Questions 17 Problems 17 Further Reading 18 2 Binary Codes 19 2.1 Binary Coded Decimal 19 2.1.1 BCD-to-Binary Conversion 20 2.1.2 Binary-to-BCD Conversion 20 2.1.3 Higher-Density BCD Encoding 21 2.1.4 Packed and Unpacked BCD Numbers 21 2.2 Excess-3 Code 21 2.3 Gray Code 23 2.3.1 Binary–Gray Code Conversion 24 2.3.2 Gray Code–Binary Conversion 25 2.3.3 n-ary Gray Code 25 2.3.4 Applications 25 2.4 Alphanumeric Codes 27 2.4.1 ASCII code 28 2.4.2 EBCDIC code 31 2.4.3 Unicode 37 2.5 Seven-segment Display Code 38 2.6 Error Detection and Correction Codes 40 2.6.1 Parity Code 41 2.6.2 Repetition Code 41 2.6.3 Cyclic Redundancy Check Code 41 2.6.4 Hamming Code 42 Review Questions 44 Problems 45 Further Reading 45 3 Digital Arithmetic 47 3.1 Basic Rules of Binary Addition and Subtraction 47 3.2 Addition of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 49 3.2.1 Addition Using the 2’s Complement Method 49 3.3 Subtraction of Larger-Bit Binary Numbers 52 3.3.1 Subtraction Using 2’s Complement Arithmetic 53 3.4 BCD Addition and Subtraction in Excess-3 Code 57 3.4.1 Addition 57 3.4.2 Subtraction 57 3.5 Binary Multiplication 58 3.5.1 Repeated Left-Shift and Add Algorithm 59 3.5.2 Repeated Add and Right-Shift Algorithm 59 3.6 Binary Division 60 3.6.1 Repeated Right-Shift and Subtract Algorithm 61 3.6.2 Repeated Subtract and Left-Shift Algorithm 62 3.7 Floating-Point Arithmetic 64 3.7.1 Addition and Subtraction 65 3.7.2 Multiplication and Division 65 Contents ix Review Questions 67 Problems 68 Further Reading 68 4 Logic Gates and Related Devices 69 4.1 Positive and Negative Logic 69 4.2 Truth Table 70 4.3 Logic Gates 71 4.3.1 OR Gate 71 4.3.2 AND Gate 73 4.3.3 NOT Gate 75 4.3.4 EXCLUSIVE-OR Gate 76 4.3.5 NAND Gate 79 4.3.6 NOR Gate 79 4.3.7 EXCLUSIVE-NOR Gate 80 4.3.8 INHIBIT Gate 82 4.4 Universal Gates 85 4.5 Gates with Open Collector/Drain Outputs 85 4.6 Tristate Logic Gates 87 4.7 AND-OR-INVERT Gates 87 4.8 Schmitt Gates 88 4.9 Special Output Gates 91 4.10 Fan-Out of Logic Gates 95 4.11 Buffers and Transceivers 98 4.12 IEEE/ANSI Standard Symbols 100 4.12.1 IEEE/ANSI Standards – Salient Features 100 4.12.2 ANSI Symbols for Logic Gate ICs 101 4.13 Some Common Applications of Logic Gates 102 4.13.1 OR Gate 103 4.13.2 AND Gate 104 4.13.3 EX-OR/EX-NOR Gate 104 4.13.4 Inverter 105 4.14 Application-Relevant Information 107 Review Questions 109 Problems 110 Further Reading 114 5 Logic Families 115 5.1 Logic Families – Significance and Types 115 5.1.1 Significance 115 5.1.2 Types of Logic Family 116 5.2 Characteristic Parameters 118 5.3 Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) 124 5.3.1 Standard TTL 125 5.3.2 Other Logic Gates in Standard TTL 127 5.3.3 Low-Power TTL 133 5.3.4 High-Power TTL (74H/54H) 134 5.3.5 Schottky TTL (74S/54S) 135 x Contents 5.3.6 Low-Power Schottky TTL (74LS/54LS) 136 5.3.7 Advanced Low-Power Schottky TTL (74ALS/54ALS) 137 5.3.8 Advanced Schottky TTL (74AS/54AS) 139 5.3.9 Fairchild Advanced Schottky TTL (74F/54F) 140 5.3.10 Floating and Unused Inputs 141 5.3.11 Current Transients and Power Supply Decoupling 142 5.4 Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) 147 5.4.1 Different Subfamilies 147 5.4.2 Logic Gate Implementation in ECL 148 5.4.3 Salient Features of ECL 150 5.5 CMOS Logic Family 151 5.5.1 Circuit Implementation of Logic Functions 151 5.5.2 CMOS Subfamilies 165 5.6 BiCMOS Logic 170 5.6.1 BiCMOS Inverter 171 5.6.2 BiCMOS NAND 171 5.7 NMOS and PMOS Logic 172 5.7.1 PMOS Logic 173 5.7.2 NMOS Logic 174 5.8 Integrated Injection Logic (I2 L) Family 174 5.9 Comparison of Different Logic Families 176 5.10 Guidelines to Using TTL Devices 176 5.11 Guidelines to Handling and Using CMOS Devices 179 5.12 Interfacing with Different Logic Families 179 5.12.1 CMOS-to-TTL Interface 179 5.12.2 TTL-to-CMOS Interface 180 5.12.3 TTL-to-ECL and ECL-to-TTL Interfaces 180 5.12.4 CMOS-to-ECL and ECL-to-CMOS Interfaces 183 5.13 Classification of Digital ICs 183 5.14 Application-Relevant Information 184 Review Questions 185 Problems 185 Further Reading 187 6 Boolean Algebra and Simplification Techniques 189 6.1 Introduction to Boolean Algebra 189 6.1.1 Variables, Literals and Terms in Boolean Expressions 190 6.1.2 Equivalent and Complement of Boolean Expressions 190 6.1.3 Dual of a Boolean Expression 191 6.2 Postulates of Boolean Algebra 192 6.3 Theorems of Boolean Algebra 192 6.3.1 Theorem 1 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 192 6.3.2 Theorem 2 (Operations with ‘0’ and ‘1’) 193 6.3.3 Theorem 3 (Idempotent or Identity Laws) 193 6.3.4 Theorem 4 (Complementation Law) 193 6.3.5 Theorem 5 (Commutative Laws) 194 6.3.6 Theorem 6 (Associative Laws) 194 6.3.7 Theorem 7 (Distributive Laws) 195 Contents xi 6.3.8 Theorem 8 196 6.3.9 Theorem 9 197 6.3.10 Theorem 10 (Absorption Law or Redundancy Law) 197 6.3.11 Theorem 11 197 6.3.12 Theorem 12 (Consensus Theorem) 198 6.3.13 Theorem 13 (DeMorgan’s Theorem) 199 6.3.14 Theorem 14 (Transposition Theorem) 200 6.3.15 Theorem 15 201 6.3.16 Theorem 16 201 6.3.17 Theorem 17 (Involution Law) 202 6.4 Simplification Techniques 204 6.4.1 Sum-of-Products Boolean Expressions 204 6.4.2 Product-of-Sums Expressions 205 6.4.3 Expanded Forms of Boolean Expressions 206 6.4.4 Canonical Form of Boolean Expressions 206 6.4.5  and  Nomenclature 207 6.5 Quine–McCluskey Tabular Method 208 6.5.1 Tabular Method for Multi-Output Functions 212 6.6 Karnaugh Map Method 216 6.6.1 Construction of a Karnaugh Map 216 6.6.2 Karnaugh Map for Boolean Expressions with a Larger Number of Variables 222 6.6.3 Karnaugh Maps for Multi-Output Functions 225 Review Questions 230 Problems 230 Further Reading 231 7 Arithmetic Circuits 233 7.1 Combinational Circuits 233 7.2 Implementing Combinational Logic 235 7.3 Arithmetic Circuits – Basic Building Blocks 236 7.3.1 Half-Adder 236 7.3.2 Full Adder 237 7.3.3 Half-Subtractor 240 7.3.4 Full Subtractor 242 7.3.5 Controlled Inverter 244 7.4 Adder–Subtractor 245 7.5 BCD Adder 246 7.6 Carry Propagation–Look-Ahead Carry Generator 254 7.7 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 260 7.8 Multipliers 260 7.9 Magnitude Comparator 261 7.9.1 Cascading Magnitude Comparators 263 7.10 Application-Relevant Information 266 Review Questions 266 Problems 267 Further Reading 268 xii Contents 8 Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 269 8.1 Multiplexer 269 8.1.1 Inside the Multiplexer 271 8.1.2 Implementing Boolean Functions with Multiplexers 273 8.1.3 Multiplexers for Parallel-to-Serial Data Conversion 277 8.1.4 Cascading Multiplexer Circuits 280 8.2 Encoders 280 8.2.1 Priority Encoder 281 8.3 Demultiplexers and Decoders 285 8.3.1 Implementing Boolean Functions with Decoders 286 8.3.2 Cascading Decoder Circuits 288 8.4 Application-Relevant Information 293 Review Questions 294 Problems 295 Further Reading 298 9 Programmable Logic Devices 299 9.1 Fixed Logic Versus Programmable Logic 299 9.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages 301 9.2 Programmable Logic Devices – An Overview 302 9.2.1 Programmable ROMs 302 9.2.2 Programmable Logic Array 302 9.2.3 Programmable Array Logic 304 9.2.4 Generic Array Logic 305 9.2.5 Complex Programmable Logic Device 306 9.2.6 Field-Programmable Gate Array 307 9.3 Programmable ROMs 308 9.4 Programmable Logic Array 312 9.5 Programmable Array Logic 317 9.5.1 PAL Architecture 319 9.5.2 PAL Numbering System 320 9.6 Generic Array Logic 325 9.7 Complex Programmable Logic Devices 328 9.7.1 Internal Architecture 328 9.7.2 Applications 330 9.8 Field-Programmable Gate Arrays 331 9.8.1 Internal Architecture 331 9.8.2 Applications 333 9.9 Programmable Interconnect Technologies 333 9.9.1 Fuse 334 9.9.2 Floating-Gate Transistor Switch 334 9.9.3 Static RAM-Controlled Programmable Switches 335 9.9.4 Antifuse 335 9.10 Design and Development of Programmable Logic Hardware 337 9.11 Programming Languages 338 9.11.1 ABEL-Hardware Description Language 339 9.11.2 VHDL-VHSIC Hardware Description Language 339 Contents xiii 9.11.3 Verilog 339 9.11.4 Java HDL 340 9.12 Application Information on PLDs 340 9.12.1 SPLDs 340 9.12.2 CPLDs 343 9.12.3 FPGAs 349 Review Questions 352 Problems 353 Further Reading 355 10 Flip-Flops and Related Devices 357 10.1 Multivibrator 357 10.1.1 Bistable Multivibrator 357 10.1.2 Schmitt Trigger 358 10.1.3 Monostable Multivibrator 360 10.1.4 Astable Multivibrator 362 10.2 Integrated Circuit (IC) Multivibrators 363 10.2.1 Digital IC-Based Monostable Multivibrator 363 10.2.2 IC Timer-Based Multivibrators 363 10.3 R-S Flip-Flop 373 10.3.1 R-S Flip-Flop with Active LOW Inputs 374 10.3.2 R-S Flip-Flop with Active HIGH Inputs 375 10.3.3 Clocked R-S Flip-Flop 377 10.4 Level-Triggered and Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops 381 10.5 J -K Flip-Flop 382 10.5.1 J -K Flip-Flop with PRESET and CLEAR Inputs 382 10.5.2 Master–Slave Flip-Flops 382 10.6 Toggle Flip-Flop (T Flip-Flop) 390 10.6.1 J-K Flip-Flop as a Toggle Flip-Flop 391 10.7 D Flip-Flop 394 10.7.1 J -K Flip-Flop as D Flip-Flop 395 10.7.2 D Latch 395 10.8 Synchronous and Asynchronous Inputs 398 10.9 Flip-Flop Timing Parameters 399 10.9.1 Set-Up and Hold Times 399 10.9.2 Propagation Delay 399 10.9.3 Clock Pulse HIGH and LOW Times 401 10.9.4 Asynchronous Input Active Pulse Width 401 10.9.5 Clock Transition Times 402 10.9.6 Maximum Clock Frequency 402 10.10 Flip-Flop Applications 402 10.10.1 Switch Debouncing 402 10.10.2 Flip-Flop Synchronization 404 10.10.3 Detecting the Sequence of Edges 404 10.11 Application-Relevant Data 407 Review Questions 408 Problems 409 Further Reading 410 xiv Contents 11 Counters and Registers 411 11.1 Ripple (Asynchronous) Counter 411 11.1.1 Propagation Delay in Ripple Counters 412 11.2 Synchronous Counter 413 11.3 Modulus of a Counter 413 11.4 Binary Ripple Counter – Operational Basics 413 11.4.1 Binary Ripple Counters with a Modulus of Less than 2N 416 11.4.2 Ripple Counters in IC Form 418 11.5 Synchronous (or Parallel) Counters 423 11.6 UP/DOWN Counters 425 11.7 Decade and BCD Counters 426 11.8 Presettable Counters 426 11.8.1 Variable Modulus with Presettable Counters 428 11.9 Decoding a Counter 428 11.10 Cascading Counters 433 11.10.1 Cascading Binary Counters 433 11.10.2 Cascading BCD Counters 435 11.11 Designing Counters with Arbitrary Sequences 438 11.11.1 Excitation Table of a Flip-Flop 438 11.11.2 State Transition Diagram 439 11.11.3 Design Procedure 439 11.12 Shift Register 447 11.12.1 Serial-In Serial-Out Shift Register 449 11.12.2 Serial-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 452 11.12.3 Parallel-In Serial-Out Shift Register 452 11.12.4 Parallel-In Parallel-Out Shift Register 453 11.12.5 Bidirectional Shift Register 455 11.12.6 Universal Shift Register 455 11.13 Shift Register Counters 459 11.13.1 Ring Counter 459 11.13.2 Shift Counter 460 11.14 IEEE/ANSI Symbology for Registers and Counters 464 11.14.1 Counters 464 11.14.2 Registers 466 11.15 Application-Relevant Information 466 Review Questions 466 Problems 469 Further Reading 471 12 Data Conversion Circuits – D/A and A/D Converters 473 12.1 Digital-to-Analogue Converters 473 12.1.1 Simple Resistive Divider Network for D/A Conversion 474 12.1.2 Binary Ladder Network for D/A Conversion 475 12.2 D/A Converter Specifications 476 12.2.1 Resolution 476 12.2.2 Accuracy 477 12.2.3 Conversion Speed or Settling Time 477 12.2.4 Dynamic Range 478 Contents xv 12.2.5 Nonlinearity and Differential Nonlinearity 478 12.2.6 Monotonocity 478 12.3 Types of D/A Converter 479 12.3.1 Multiplying D/A Converters 479 12.3.2 Bipolar-Output D/A Converters 480 12.3.3 Companding D/A Converters 480 12.4 Modes of Operation 480 12.4.1 Current Steering Mode of Operation 480 12.4.2 Voltage Switching Mode of Operation 481 12.5 BCD-Input D/A Converter 482 12.6 Integrated Circuit D/A Converters 486 12.6.1 DAC-08 486 12.6.2 DAC-0808 487 12.6.3 DAC-80 487 12.6.4 AD 7524 489 12.6.5 DAC-1408/DAC-1508 489 12.7 D/A Converter Applications 490 12.7.1 D/A Converter as a Multiplier 490 12.7.2 D/A converter as a Divider 490 12.7.3 Programmable Integrator 491 12.7.4 Low-Frequency Function Generator 492 12.7.5 Digitally Controlled Filters 493 12.8 A/D Converters 495 12.9 A/D Converter Specifications 495 12.9.1 Resolution 495 12.9.2 Accuracy 496 12.9.3 Gain and Offset Errors 496 12.9.4 Gain and Offset Drifts 496 12.9.5 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Phenomenon 496 12.9.6 Quantization Error 496 12.9.7 Nonlinearity 497 12.9.8 Differential Nonlinearity 497 12.9.9 Conversion Time 498 12.9.10 Aperture and Acquisition Times 498 12.9.11 Code Width 499 12.10 A/D Converter Terminology 499 12.10.1 Unipolar Mode Operation 499 12.10.2 Bipolar Mode Operation 499 12.10.3 Coding 499 12.10.4 Low Byte and High Byte 499 12.10.5 Right-Justified Data, Left-Justified Data 499 12.10.6 Command Register, Status Register 500 12.10.7 Control Lines 500 12.11 Types of A/D Converter 500 12.11.1 Simultaneous or Flash A/D Converters 500 12.11.2 Half-Flash A/D Converter 503 12.11.3 Counter-Type A/D Converter 504 12.11.4 Tracking-Type A/D Converter 505 xvi Contents 12.11.5 Successive Approximation Type A/D Converter 505 12.11.6 Single-, Dual- and Multislope A/D Converters 506 12.11.7 Sigma-Delta A/D Converter 509 12.12 Integrated Circuit A/D Converters 513 12.12.1 ADC-0800 513 12.12.2 ADC-0808 514 12.12.3 ADC-80/AD ADC-80 515 12.12.4 ADC-84/ADC-85/AD ADC-84/AD ADC-85/AD-5240 516 12.12.5 AD 7820 516 12.12.6 ICL 7106/ICL 7107 517 12.13 A/D Converter Applications 520 12.13.1 Data Acquisition 521 Review Questions 522 Problems 523 Further Reading 523 13 Microprocessors 525 13.1 Introduction to Microprocessors 525 13.2 Evolution of Microprocessors 527 13.3 Inside a Microprocessor 528 13.3.1 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 529 13.3.2 Register File 529 13.3.3 Control Unit 531 13.4 Basic Microprocessor Instructions 531 13.4.1 Data Transfer Instructions 531 13.4.2 Arithmetic Instructions 532 13.4.3 Logic Instructions 533 13.4.4 Control Transfer or Branch or Program Control Instructions 533 13.4.5 Machine Control Instructions 534 13.5 Addressing Modes 534 13.5.1 Absolute or Memory Direct Addressing Mode 534 13.5.2 Immediate Addressing Mode 535 13.5.3 Register Direct Addressing Mode 535 13.5.4 Register Indirect Addressing Mode 535 13.5.5 Indexed Addressing Mode 536 13.5.6 Implicit Addressing Mode and Relative Addressing Mode 537 13.6 Microprocessor Selection 537 13.6.1 Selection Criteria 537 13.6.2 Microprocessor Selection Table for Common Applications 539 13.7 Programming Microprocessors 540 13.8 RISC Versus CISC Processors 541 13.9 Eight-Bit Microprocessors 541 13.9.1 8085 Microprocessor 541 13.9.2 Motorola 6800 Microprocessor 544 13.9.3 Zilog Z80 Microprocessor 546 13.10 16-Bit Microprocessors 547 13.10.1 8086 Microprocessor 547 13.10.2 80186 Microprocessor 548 Contents xvii 13.10.3 80286 Microprocessor 548 13.10.4 MC68000 Microprocessor 549 13.11 32-Bit Microprocessors 551 13.11.1 80386 Microprocessor 551 13.11.2 MC68020 Microprocessor 553 13.11.3 MC68030 Microprocessor 554 13.11.4 80486 Microprocessor 555 13.11.5 PowerPC RISC Microprocessors 557 13.12 Pentium Series of Microprocessors 557 13.12.1 Salient Features 558 13.12.2 Pentium Pro Microprocessor 559 13.12.3 Pentium II Series 559 13.12.4 Pentium III and Pentium IV Microprocessors 559 13.12.5 Pentium M, D and Extreme Edition Processors 559 13.12.6 Celeron and Xeon Processors 560 13.13 Microprocessors for Embedded Applications 560 13.14 Peripheral Devices 560 13.14.1 Programmable Timer/Counter 561 13.14.2 Programmable Peripheral Interface 561 13.14.3 Programmable Interrupt Controller 561 13.14.4 DMA Controller 561 13.14.5 Programmable Communication Interface 562 13.14.6 Math Coprocessor 562 13.14.7 Programmable Keyboard/Display Interface 562 13.14.8 Programmable CRT Controller 562 13.14.9 Floppy Disk Controller 563 13.14.10 Clock Generator 563 13.14.11 Octal Bus Transceiver 563 Review Questions 563 Further Reading 564 14 Microcontrollers 565 14.1 Introduction to the Microcontroller 565 14.1.1 Applications 567 14.2 Inside the Microcontroller 567 14.2.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) 568 14.2.2 Random Access Memory (RAM) 569 14.2.3 Read Only Memory (ROM) 569 14.2.4 Special-Function Registers 569 14.2.5 Peripheral Components 569 14.3 Microcontroller Architecture 574 14.3.1 Architecture to Access Memory 574 14.3.2 Mapping Special-Function Registers into Memory Space 576 14.3.3 Processor Architecture 577 14.4 Power-Saving Modes 579 14.5 Application-Relevant Information 580 14.5.1 Eight-Bit Microcontrollers 580 14.5.2 16-Bit Microcontrollers 588 xviii Contents 14.5.3 32-Bit Microcontrollers 590 14.6 Interfacing Peripheral Devices with a Microcontroller 592 14.6.1 Interfacing LEDs 592 14.6.2 Interfacing Electromechanical Relays 593 14.6.3 Interfacing Keyboards 594 14.6.4 Interfacing Seven-Segment Displays 596 14.6.5 Interfacing LCD Displays 598 14.6.6 Interfacing A/D Converters 600 14.6.7 Interfacing D/A Converters 600 Review Questions 602 Problems 602 Further Reading 603 15 Computer Fundamentals 605 15.1 Anatomy of a Computer 605 15.1.1 Central Processing Unit 605 15.1.2 Memory 606 15.1.3 Input/Output Ports 607 15.2 A Computer System 607 15.3 Types of Computer System 607 15.3.1 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Applications 607 15.3.2 Classification of Computers on the Basis of the Technology Used 608 15.3.3 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Size and Capacity 609 15.4 Computer Memory 610 15.4.1 Primary Memory 611 15.5 Random Access Memory 612 15.5.1 Static RAM 612 15.5.2 Dynamic RAM 619 15.5.3 RAM Applications 622 15.6 Read Only Memory 622 15.6.1 ROM Architecture 623 15.6.2 Types of ROM 624 15.6.3 Applications of ROMs 629 15.7 Expanding Memory Capacity 632 15.7.1 Word Size Expansion 632 15.7.2 Memory Location Expansion 634 15.8 Input and Output Ports 637 15.8.1 Serial Ports 638 15.8.2 Parallel Ports 640 15.8.3 Internal Buses 642 15.9 Input/Output Devices 642 15.9.1 Input Devices 643 15.9.2 Output Devices 643 15.10 Secondary Storage or Auxiliary Storage 645 15.10.1 Magnetic Storage Devices 645 15.10.2 Magneto-Optical Storage Devices 648 15.10.3 Optical Storage Devices 648 15.10.4 USB Flash Drive 650 Contents xix Review Questions 650 Problems 650 Further Reading 651 16 Troubleshooting Digital Circuits and Test Equipment 653 16.1 General Troubleshooting Guidelines 653 16.1.1 Faults Internal to Digital Integrated Circuits 654 16.1.2 Faults External to Digital Integrated Circuits 655 16.2 Troubleshooting Sequential Logic Circuits 659 16.3 Troubleshooting Arithmetic Circuits 663 16.4 Troubleshooting Memory Devices 664 16.4.1 Troubleshooting RAM Devices 664 16.4.2 Troubleshooting ROM Devices 664 16.5 Test and Measuring Equipment 665 16.6 Digital Multimeter 665 16.6.1 Advantages of Using a Digital Multimeter 666 16.6.2 Inside the Digital Meter 666 16.6.3 Significance of the Half-Digit 666 16.7 Oscilloscope 668 16.7.1 Importance of Specifications and Front-Panel Controls 668 16.7.2 Types of Oscilloscope 669 16.8 Analogue Oscilloscopes 669 16.9 CRT Storage Type Analogue Oscilloscopes 669 16.10 Digital Oscilloscopes 669 16.11 Analogue Versus Digital Oscilloscopes 672 16.12 Oscilloscope Specifications 672 16.12.1 Analogue Oscilloscopes 673 16.12.2 Analogue Storage Oscilloscope 674 16.12.3 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 674 16.13 Oscilloscope Probes 677 16.13.1 Probe Compensation 677 16.14 Frequency Counter 678 16.14.1 Universal Counters – Functional Modes 679 16.14.2 Basic Counter Architecture 679 16.14.3 Reciprocal Counters 681 16.14.4 Continuous-Count Counters 682 16.14.5 Counter Specifications 682 16.14.6 Microwave Counters 683 16.15 Frequency Synthesizers and Synthesized Function/Signal Generators 684 16.15.1 Direct Frequency Synthesis 684 16.15.2 Indirect Synthesis 685 16.15.3 Sampled Sine Synthesis (Direct Digital Synthesis) 687 16.15.4 Important Specifications 689 16.15.5 Synthesized Function Generators 689 16.15.6 Arbitrary Waveform Generator 690 16.16 Logic Probe 691 16.17 Logic Analyser 692 16.17.1 Operational Modes 692 xx Contents 16.17.2 Logic Analyser Architecture 692 16.17.3 Key Specifications 695 16.18 Computer–Instrument Interface Standards 696 16.18.1 IEEE-488 Interface 696 16.19 Virtual Instrumentation 697 16.19.1 Use of Virtual Instruments 698 16.19.2 Components of a Virtual Instrument 700 Review Questions 703 Problems 704 Further Reading 705 Index 707 Preface Digital electronics is essential to understanding the design and working of a wide range of applications, from consumer and industrial electronics to communications; from embedded systems, and computers to security and military equipment. As the devices used in these applications decrease in size and employ more complex technology, it is essential for engineers and students to fully understand both the fundamentals and also the implementation and application principles of digital electronics, devices and integrated circuits, thus enabling them to use the most appropriate and effective technique to suit their technical needs. Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications is a comprehensive book covering, in one volume, both the fundamentals of digital electronics and the applications of digital devices and integrated circuits. It is different from similar books on the subject in more than one way. Each chapter in the book, whether it is related to operational fundamentals or applications, is amply illustrated with diagrams and design examples. In addition, the book covers several new topics, which are of relevance to any one having an interest in digital electronics and not covered in the books already in print on the subject. These include digital troubleshooting, digital instrumentation, programmable logic devices, microprocessors and microcontrollers. While the book covers in entirety what is required by undergraduate and graduate level students of engineering in electrical, electronics, computer science and information technology disciplines, it is intended to be a very useful reference book for professionals, R&D scientists and students at post graduate level. The book is divided into sixteen chapters covering seven major topics. These are: digital electronics fundamentals (chapters 1 to 6), combinational logic circuits (chapters 7 and 8), programmable logic devices (chapter 9), sequential logic circuits (chapters 10 and 11), data conversion devices and circuits (chapter 12), microprocessors, microcontrollers and microcomputers (chapters 13 to 15) and digital troubleshooting and instrumentation (chapter 16). The contents of each of the sixteen chapters are briefly described in the following paragraphs. The first six chapters deal with the fundamental topics of digital electronics. These include different number systems that can be used to represent data and binary codes used for representing numeric and alphanumeric data. Conversion from one number system to another and similarly conversion from one code to another is discussed at length in these chapters. Binary arithmetic, covering different methods of performing arithmetic operations on binary numbers is discussed next. Chapters four and five cover logic gates and logic families. The main topics covered in these two chapters are various logic gates and related devices, different logic families used to hardware implement digital integrated circuits, the interface between digital ICs belonging to different logic families and application information such xxii Preface as guidelines for using logic devices of different families. Boolean algebra and its various postulates and theorems and minimization techniques, providing exhaustive coverage of both Karnaugh mapping and Quine-McCluskey techniques, are discussed in chapter six. The discussion includes application of these minimization techniques for multi-output Boolean functions and Boolean functions with larger number of variables. The concepts underlying different fundamental topics of digital electronics and discussed in first six chapters have been amply illustrated with solved examples. As a follow-up to logic gates – the most basic building block of combinational logic – chapters 7 and 8 are devoted to more complex combinational logic circuits. While chapter seven covers arithmetic circuits, including different types of adders and subtractors, such as half and full adder and subtractor, adder-subtractor, larger bit adders and subtractors, multipliers, look ahead carry generator, magnitude comparator, and arithmetic logic unit, chapter eight covers multiplexers, de-multiplexers, encoders and decoders. This is followed by a detailed account of programmable logic devices in chapter nine. Simple programmable logic devices (SPLDs) such as PAL, PLA, GAL and HAL devices, complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) and field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) have been exhaustively treated in terms of their architecture, features and applications. Popular devices, from various international manufacturers, in the three above-mentioned categories of programmable logic devices are also covered with regard to their architecture, features and facilities. The next two chapters, 10 and 11, cover the sequential logic circuits. Discussion begins with the most fundamental building block of sequential logic, that is, flip flop. Different types of flip flops are covered in detail with regard to their operational fundamentals, different varieties in each of the categories of flip flops and their applications. Multivibrator circuits, being operationally similar to flip flops, are also covered at length in this chapter. Counters and registers are the other very important building blocks of sequential logic with enormous application potential. These are covered in chapter 11. Particular emphasis is given to timing requirements and design of counters with varying count sequence requirements. The chapter also includes a detailed description of the design principles of counters with arbitrary count sequences. Different types of shift registers and some special counters that have evolved out of shift registers have been covered in detail. Chapter 12 covers data conversion circuits including digital-to-analogue and analogue-to-digital converters. Topics covered in this chapter include operational basics, characteristic parameters, types and applications. Emphasis is given to definition and interpretation of the terminology and the performance parameters that characterize these devices. Different types of digital-to-analogue and analogue-to-digital converters, together with their merits and drawbacks are also addressed. Particular attention is given to their applications. Towards the end of the chapter, application oriented information in the form of popular type numbers along with their major performance specifications, pin connection diagrams etc. is presented. Another highlight of the chapter is the inclusion of detailed descriptions of newer types of converters, such as quad slope and sigma-delta types of analogue-to-digital converters. Chapters 13 and 14 discuss microprocessors and microcontrollers – the two versatile devices that have revolutionized the application potential of digital devices and integrated circuits. The entire range of microprocessors and microcontrollers along with their salient features, operational aspects and application guidelines are covered in detail. As a natural follow-up to these, microcomputer fundamentals, with regard to their architecture, input/output devices and memory devices, are discussed in chapter 15. The last chapter covers digital troubleshooting techniques and digital instrumentation. Troubleshooting guidelines for various categories of digital electronics circuits are discussed. These will particularly benefit practising engineers and electronics enthusiasts. The concepts are illustrated with the help of a large number of troubleshooting case studies pertaining to combinational, sequential and memory devices. A wide range of digital instruments is covered after a discussion on troubleshooting guidelines. The instruments covered include digital multimeters, digital oscilloscopes, logic probes, Preface xxiii logic analysers, frequency synthesizers, and synthesized function generators. Computer-instrument interface standards and the concept of virtual instrumentation are also discussed at length towards the end of the chapter. As an extra resource, a companion website for my book contains lot of additional application relevant information on digital devices and integrated circuits. The information on this website includes numerical and functional indices of digital integrated circuits belonging to different logic families, pin connection diagrams and functional tables of different categories of general purpose digital integrated circuits and application relevant information on microprocessors, peripheral devices and microcontrollers. Please go to URL http://www.wiley.com/go/maini_digital. The motivation to write this book and the selection of topics to be covered were driven mainly by the absence a book, which, in one volume, covers all the important aspects of digital technology. A large number of books in print on the subject cover all the routine topics of digital electronics in a conventional way with total disregard to the needs of application engineers and professionals. As the author, I have made an honest attempt to cover the subject in entirety by including comprehensive treatment of newer topics that are either ignored or inadequately covered in the available books on the subject of digital electronics. This is done keeping in view the changed requirements of my intended audience, which includes undergraduate and graduate level students, R&D scientists, professionals and application engineers. Anil K. Maini 1 Number Systems The study of number systems is important from the viewpoint of understanding how data are represented before they can be processed by any digital system including a digital computer. It is one of the most basic topics in digital electronics. In this chapter we will discuss different number systems commonly used to represent data. We will begin the discussion with the decimal number system. Although it is not important from the viewpoint of digital electronics, a brief outline of this will be given to explain some of the underlying concepts used in other number systems. This will then be followed by the more commonly used number systems such as the binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems. 1.1 Analogue Versus Digital There are two basic ways of representing the numerical values of the various physical quantities with which we constantly deal in our day-to-day lives. One of the ways, referred to as analogue, is to express the numerical value of the quantity as a continuous range of values between the two expected extreme values. For example, the temperature of an oven settable anywhere from 0 to 100 °C may be measured to be 65 °C or 64.96 °C or 64.958 °C or even 64.9579 °C and so on, depending upon the accuracy of the measuring instrument. Similarly, voltage across a certain component in an electronic circuit may be measured as 6.5 V or 6.49 V or 6.487 V or 6.4869 V. The underlying concept in this mode of representation is that variation in the numerical value of the quantity is continuous and could have any of the infinite theoretically possible values between the two extremes. The other possible way, referred to as digital, represents the numerical value of the quantity in steps of discrete values. The numerical values are mostly represented using binary numbers. For example, the temperature of the oven may be represented in steps of 1 °C as 64 °C, 65 °C, 66 °C and so on. To summarize, while an analogue representation gives a continuous output, a digital representation produces a discrete output. Analogue systems contain devices that process or work on various physical quantities represented in analogue form. Digital systems contain devices that process the physical quantities represented in digital form. Digital Electronics: Principles, Devices and Applications Anil K. Maini © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-03214-5 2 Digital Electronics Digital techniques and systems have the advantages of being relatively much easier to design and having higher accuracy, programmability, noise immunity, easier storage of data and ease of fabrication in integrated circuit form, leading to availability of more complex functions in a smaller size. The real world, however, is analogue. Most physical quantities – position, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure, temperature and flowrate, for example – are analogue in nature. That is why analogue variables representing these quantities need to be digitized or discretized at the input if we want to benefit from the features and facilities that come with the use of digital techniques. In a typical system dealing with analogue inputs and outputs, analogue variables are digitized at the input with the help of an analogue-to-digital converter block and reconverted back to analogue form at the output using a digital-to-analogue converter block. Analogue-to-digital and digital-to-analogue converter circuits are discussed at length in the latter part of the book. In the following sections we will discuss various number systems commonly used for digital representation of data. 1.2 Introduction to Number Systems We will begin our discussion on various number systems by briefly describing the parameters that are common to all number systems. An understanding of these parameters and their relevance to number systems is fundamental to the understanding of how various systems operate. Different characteristics that define a number system include the number of independent digits used in the number system, the place values of the different digits constituting the number and the maximum numbers that can be written with the given number of digits. Among the three characteristic parameters, the most fundamental is the number of independent digits or symbols used in the number system. It is known as the radix or base of the number system. The decimal number system with which we are all so familiar can be said to have a radix of 10 as it has 10 independent digits, i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. Similarly, the binary number system with only two independent digits, 0 and 1, is a radix-2 number system. The octal and hexadecimal number systems have a radix (or base) of 8 and 16 respectively. We will see in the following sections that the radix of the number system also determines the other two characteristics. The place values of different digits in the integer part of the number are given by r 0 , r 1 , r 2 , r 3 and so on, starting with the digit adjacent to the radix point. For the fractional part, these are r −1 , r −2 , r −3 and so on, again starting with the digit next to the radix point. Here, r is the radix of the number system. Also, maximum numbers that can be written with n digits in a given number system are equal to r n. 1.3 Decimal Number System The decimal number system is a radix-10 number system and therefore has 10 different digits or symbols. These are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. All higher numbers after ‘9’ are represented in terms of these 10 digits only. The process of writing higher-order numbers after ‘9’ consists in writing the second digit (i.e. ‘1’) first, followed by the other digits, one by one, to obtain the next 10 numbers from ‘10’ to ‘19’. The next 10 numbers from ‘20’ to ‘29’ are obtained by writing the third digit (i.e. ‘2’) first, followed by digits ‘0’ to ‘9’, one by one. The process continues until we have exhausted all possible two-digit combinations and reached ‘99’. Then we begin with three-digit combinations. The first three-digit number consists of the lowest two-digit number followed by ‘0’ (i.e. 100), and the process goes on endlessly. The place values of different digits in a mixed decimal number, starting from the decimal point, are 100 , 101 , 102 and so on (for the integer part) and 10−1 , 10−2 , 10−3 and so on (for the fractional part). Number Systems 3 The value or magnitude of a given decimal number can be expressed as the sum of the various digits multiplied by their place values or weights. As an illustration, in the case of the decimal number 3586.265, the integer part (i.e. 3586) can be expressed as 3586 = 6 × 100 + 8 × 101 + 5 × 102 + 3 × 103 = 6 + 80 + 500 + 3000 = 3586 and the fractional part can be expressed as 265 = 2 × 10−1 + 6 × 10−2 + 5 × 10−3 = 02 + 006 + 0005 = 0265 We have seen that the place values are a function of the radix of the concerned number system and the position of the digits. We will also discover in subsequent sections that the concept of each digit having a place value depending upon the position of the digit and the radix of the number system is equally valid for the other more relevant number systems. 1.4 Binary Number System The binary number system is a radix-2 number system with ‘0’ and ‘1’ as the two independent digits. All larger binary numbers are represented in terms of ‘0’ and ‘1’. The procedure for writing higher- order binary numbers after ‘1’ is similar to the one explained in the case of the decimal number system. For example, the first 16 numbers in the binary number system would be 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110 and 1111. The next number after 1111 is 10000, which is the lowest binary number with five digits. This also proves the point made earlier that a maximum of only 16 (= 24  numbers could be written with four digits. Starting from the binary point, the place values of different digits in a mixed binary number are 20 , 21 , 22 and so on (for the integer part) and 2−1 , 2−2 , 2−3 and so on (for the fractional part). Example 1.1 Consider an arbitrary number system with the independent digits as 0, 1 and X. What is the radix of this number system? List the first 10 numbers in this number system. Solution The radix of the proposed number system is 3. The first 10 numbers in this number system would be 0, 1, X, 10, 11, 1X, X0, X1, XX and 100. 1.4.1 Advantages Logic operations are the backbone of any digital computer, although solving a problem on computer could involve an arithmetic operation too. The introduction of the mathematics of logic by George Boole laid the foundation for the modern digital computer. He reduced the mathematics of logic to a binary notation of ‘0’ and ‘1’. As the mathematics of logic was well established and had proved itself to be quite useful in solving all kinds of logical problem, and also as the mathematics of logic (also known as Boolean algebra) had been reduced to a binary notation, the binary number system had a clear edge over other number systems for use in computer systems. 4 Digital Electronics Yet another significant advantage of this number system was that all kinds of data could be conveniently represented in terms of 0s and 1s. Also, basic electronic devices used for hardware implementation could be conveniently and efficiently operated in two distinctly different modes. For example, a bipolar transistor could be operated either in cut-off or in saturation very efficiently. Lastly, the circuits required for performing arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc., become a simple affair when the data involved are represented in the form of 0s and 1s. 1.5 Octal Number System The octal number system has a radix of 8 and therefore has eight distinct digits. All higher-order numbers are expressed as a combination of these on the same pattern as the one followed in the case of the binary and decimal number systems described in Sections 1.3 and 1.4. The independent digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. The next 10 numbers that follow ‘7’, for example, would be 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20 and 21. In fact, if we omit all the numbers containing the digits 8 or 9, or both, from the decimal number system, we end up with an octal number system. The place values for the different digits in the octal number system are 80 , 81 , 82 and so on (for the integer part) and 8−1 , 8−2 , 8−3 and so on (for the fractional part). 1.6 Hexadecimal Number System The hexadecimal number system is a radix-16 number system and its 16 basic digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. The place values or weights of different digits in a mixed hexadecimal number are 160 , 161 , 162 and so on (for the integer part) and 16−1 , 16−2 , 16−3 and so on (for the fractional part). The decimal equivalent of A, B, C, D, E and F are 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 respectively, for obvious reasons. The hexadecimal number system provides a condensed way of representing large binary numbers stored and processed inside the computer. One such example is in representing addresses of different memory locations. Let us assume that a machine has 64K of memory. Such a memory has 64K (= 216 = 65 536) memory locations and needs 65 536 different addresses. These addresses can be designated as 0 to 65 535 in the decimal number system and 00000000 00000000 to 11111111 11111111 in the binary number system. The decimal number system is not used in computers and the binary notation here appears too cumbersome and inconvenient to handle. In the hexadecimal number system, 65 536 different addresses can be expressed with four digits from 0000 to FFFF. Similarly, the contents of the memory when represented in hexadecimal form are very convenient to handle. 1.7 Number Systems – Some Common Terms In this section we will describe some commonly used terms with reference to different number systems. 1.7.1 Binary Number System Bit is an abbreviation of the term ‘binary digit’ and is the smallest unit of information. It is either ‘0’ or ‘1’. A byte is a string of eight bits. The byte is the basic unit of data operated upon as a single unit in computers. A computer word is again a string of bits whose size, called the ‘word length’ or ‘word size’, is fixed for a specified computer, although it may vary from computer to computer. The word length may equal one byte, two bytes, four bytes or be even larger. Number Systems 5 The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by complementing all its bits, i.e. by replacing 0s with 1s and 1s with 0s. For example, the 1’s complement of (10010110)2 is (01101001)2. The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by adding ‘1’ to its 1’s complement. The 2’s complement of (10010110)2 is (01101010)2. 1.7.2 Decimal Number System Corresponding to the 1’s and 2’s complements in the binary system, in the decimal number system we have the 9’s and 10’s complements. The 9’s complement of a given decimal number is obtained by subtracting each digit from 9. For example, the 9’s complement of (2496)10 would be (7503)10. The 10’s complement is obtained by adding ‘1’ to the 9’s complement. The 10’s complement of (2496)10 is (7504)10. 1.7.3 Octal Number System In the octal number system, we have the 7’s and 8’s complements. The 7’s complement of a given octal number is obtained by subtracting each octal digit from 7. For example, the 7’s complement of (562)8 would be (215)8. The 8’s complement is obtained by adding ‘1’ to the 7’s complement. The 8’s complement of (562)8 would be (216)8. 1.7.4 Hexadecimal Number System The 15’s and 16’s complements are defined with respect to the hexadecimal number system. The 15’s complement is obtained by subtracting each hex digit from 15. For example, the 15’s complement of (3BF)16 would be (C40)16. The 16’s complement is obtained by adding ‘1’ to the 15’s complement. The 16’s complement of (2AE)16 would be (D52)16. 1.8 Number Representation in Binary Different formats used for binary representation of both positive and negative decimal numbers include the sign-bit magnitude method, the 1’s complement method and the 2’s complement method. 1.8.1 Sign-Bit Magnitude In the sign-bit magnitude representation of positive and negative decimal numbers, the MSB represents the ‘sign’, with a ‘0’ denoting a plus sign and a ‘1’ denoting a minus sign. The remaining bits represent the magnitude. In eight-bit representation, while MSB represents the sign, the remaining seven bits represent the magnitude. For example, the eight-bit representation of +9 would be 00001001, and that for −9 would be 10001001. An n−bit binary representation can be used to represent decimal numbers in the range of −(2n−1 − 1) to +(2n−1 − 1). That is, eight-bit representation can be used to represent decimal numbers in the range from −127 to +127 using the sign-bit magnitude format. 6 Digital Electronics 1.8.2 1’s Complement In the 1’s complement format, the positive numbers remain unchanged. The negative numbers are obtained by taking the 1’s complement of the positive counterparts. For example, +9 will be represented as 00001001 in eight-bit notation, and −9 will be represented as 11110110, which is the 1’s complement of 00001001. Again, n-bit notation can be used to represent numbers in the range from −(2n−1 − 1) to +(2n−1 − 1) using the 1’s complement format. The eight-bit representation of the 1’s complement format can be used to represent decimal numbers in the range from −127 to +127. 1.8.3 2’s Complement In the 2’s complement representation of binary numbers, the MSB represents the sign, with a ‘0’ used for a plus sign and a ‘1’ used for a minus sign. The remaining bits are used for representing magnitude. Positive magnitudes are represented in the same way as in the case of sign-bit or 1’s complement representation. Negative magnitudes are represented by the 2’s complement of their positive counterparts. For example, +9 would be represented as 00001001, and −9 would be written as 11110111. Please note that, if the 2’s complement of the magnitude of +9 gives a magnitude of −9, then the reverse process will also be true, i.e. the 2’s complement of the magnitude of −9 will give a magnitude of +9. The n-bit notation of the 2’s complement format can be used to represent all decimal numbers in the range from +(2n−1 − 1) to −(2n−1 . The 2’s complement format is very popular as it is very easy to generate the 2’s complement of a binary number and also because arithmetic operations are relatively easier to perform when the numbers are represented in the 2’s complement format. 1.9 Finding the Decimal Equivalent The decimal equivalent of a given number in another number system is given by the sum of all the digits multiplied by their respective place values. The integer and fractional parts of the given number should be treated separately. Binary-to-decimal, octal-to-decimal and hexadecimal-to-decimal conversions are illustrated below with the help of examples. 1.9.1 Binary-to-Decimal Conversion The decimal equivalent of the binary number (1001.0101)2 is determined as follows: The integer part = 1001 The decimal equivalent = 1 × 20 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 23 = 1 + 0 + 0 + 8 = 9 The fractional part =.0101 Therefore, the decimal equivalent = 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 0 × 2−3 + 1 × 2−4 = 0 + 0.25 + 0 + 0.0625 = 0.3125 Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1001.0101)2 = 9.3125 1.9.2 Octal-to-Decimal Conversion The decimal equivalent of the octal number (137.21)8 is determined as follows: The integer part = 137 The decimal equivalent = 7 × 80 + 3 × 81 + 1 × 82 = 7 + 24 + 64 = 95 Number Systems 7 The fractional part =.21 The decimal equivalent = 2 × 8−1 + 1 × 8−2 = 0.265 Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (137.21)8 = (95.265)10 1.9.3 Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion The decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number (1E0.2A)16 is determined as follows: The integer part = 1E0 The decimal equivalent = 0 × 160 + 14 × 161 + 1 × 162 = 0 + 224 + 256 = 480 The fractional part = 2A The decimal equivalent = 2 × 16−1 + 10 × 16−2 = 0.164 Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1E0.2A)16 = (480.164)10 Example 1.2 Find the decimal equivalent of the following binary numbers expressed in the 2’s complement format: (a) 00001110; (b) 10001110. Solution (a) The MSB bit is ‘0’, which indicates a plus sign. The magnitude bits are 0001110. The decimal equivalent = 0 × 20 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 24 + 0 × 25 + 0 × 26 = 0 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 14 Therefore, 00001110 represents +14 (b) The MSB bit is ‘1’, which indicates a minus sign The magnitude bits are therefore given by the 2’s complement of 0001110, i.e. 1110010 The decimal equivalent = 0 × 20 + 1 × 21 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 24 + 1 × 25 +1 × 26 = 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 32 + 64 = 114 Therefore, 10001110 represents −114 1.10 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion As outlined earlier, the integer and fractional parts are worked on separately. For the integer part, the binary equivalent can be found by successively dividing the integer part of the number by 2 and recording the remainders until the quotient becomes ‘0’. The remainders written in reverse order constitute the binary equivalent. For the fractional part, it is found by successively multiplying the fractional part of the decimal number by 2 and recording the carry until the result of multiplication is ‘0’. The carry sequence written in forward order constitutes the binary equivalent of the fractional 8 Digital Electronics part of the decimal number. If the result of multiplication does not seem to be heading towards zero in the case of the fractional part, the process may be continued only until the requisite number of equivalent bits has been obtained. This method of decimal–binary conversion is popularly known as the double-dabble method. The process can be best illustrated with the help of an example. Example 1.3 We will find the binary equivalent of (13.375)10. Solution The integer part = 13 Divisor Dividend Remainder 2 13 — 2 6 1 2 3 0 2 1 1 — 0 1 The binary equivalent of (13)10 is therefore (1101)2 The fractional part =.375 0.375 × 2 = 0.75 with a carry of 0 0.75 × 2 = 0.5 with a carry of 1 0.5 × 2 = 0 with a carry of 1 The binary equivalent of (0.375)10 = (.011)2 Therefore, the binary equivalent of (13.375)10 = (1101.011)2 1.11 Decimal-to-Octal Conversion The process of decimal-to-octal conversion is similar to that of decimal-to-binary conversion. The progressive division in the case of the integer part and the progressive multiplication while working on the fractional part here are by ‘8’ which is the radix of the octal number system. Again, the integer and fractional parts of the decimal number are treated separately. The process can be best illustrated with the help of an example. Example 1.4 We will find the octal equivalent of (73.75)10  Solution The integer part = 73 Divisor Dividend Remainder 8 73 — 8 9 1 8 1 1 — 0 1 Number Systems 9 The octal equivalent of (73)10 = (111)8 The fractional part = 0.75 0.75 × 8 = 0 with a carry of 6 The octal equivalent of (0.75)10 = (.6)8 Therefore, the octal equivalent of (73.75)10 = (111.6)8 1.12 Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion The process of decimal-to-hexadecimal conversion is also similar. Since the hexadecimal number system has a base of 16, the progressive division and multiplication factor in this case is 16. The process is illustrated further with the help of an example. Example 1.5 Let us determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10  Solution The integer part = 82 Divisor Dividend Remainder 16 82 — 16 5 2 — 0 5 The hexadecimal equivalent of (82)10 = (52)16 The fractional part = 0.25 0.25 × 16 = 0 with a carry of 4 Therefore, the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10 = (52.4)16 1.13 Binary–Octal and Octal–Binary Conversions An octal number can be converted into its binary equivalent by replacing each octal digit with its three-bit binary equivalent. We take the three-bit equivalent because the base of the octal number system is 8 and it is the third power of the base of the binary number system, i.e. 2. All we have then to remember is the three-bit binary equivalents of the basic digits of the octal number system. A binary number can be converted into an equivalent octal number by splitting the integer and fractional parts into groups of three bits, starting from the binary point on both sides. The 0s can be added to complete the outside groups if needed. Example 1.6 Let us find the binary equivalent of (374.26)8 and the octal equivalent of (1110100.0100111)2  Solution The given octal number = (374.26)8 The binary equivalent = (011 111 100.010 110)2 = (011111100.010110)2 10 Digital Electronics Any 0s on the extreme left of the integer part and extreme right of the fractional part of the equivalent binary number should be omitted. Therefore, (011111100.010110)2 = (11111100.01011)2 The given binary number = (1110100.0100111)2 (1110100.0100111)2 = (1 110 100.010 011 1)2 = (001 110 100.010 011 100)2 = (164.234)8 1.14 Hex–Binary and Binary–Hex Conversions A hexadecimal number can be converted into its binary equivalent by replacing each hex digit with its four-bit binary equivalent. We take the four-bit equivalent because the base of the hexadecimal number system is 16 and it is the fourth power of the base of the binary number system. All we have then to remember is the four-bit binary equivalents of the basic digits of the hexadecimal number system. A given binary number can be converted into an equivalent hexadecimal number by splitting the integer and fractional parts into groups of four bits, starting from the binary point on both sides. The 0s can be added to complete the outside groups if needed. Example 1.7 Let us find the binary equivalent of (17E.F6)16 and the hex equivalent of (1011001110.011011101)2. Solution The given hex number = (17E.F6)16 The binary equivalent = (0001 0111 1110.1111 0110)2 = (000101111110.11110110)2 = (101111110.1111011)2 The 0s on the extreme left of the integer part and on the extreme right of the fractional part have been omitted. The given binary number = (1011001110.011011101)2 = (10 1100 1110.0110 1110 1)2 The hex equivalent = (0010 1100 1110.0110 1110 1000)2 = (2CE.6E8)16 1.15 Hex–Octal and Octal–Hex Conversions For hexadecimal–octal conversion, the given hex number is firstly converted into its binary equivalent which is further converted into its octal equivalent. An alternative approach is firstly to convert the given hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent and then convert the decimal number into an equivalent octal number. The former method is definitely more convenient and straightforward. For octal–hexadecimal conversion, the octal number may first be converted into an equivalent binary number and then the binary number transformed into its hex equivalent. The other option is firstly to convert the given octal number into its decimal equivalent and then convert the decimal number into its hex equivalent. The former approach is definitely the preferred one. Two types of conversion are illustrated in the following example. Example 1.8 Let us find the octal equivalent of (2F.C4)16 and the hex equivalent of (762.013)8  Number Systems 11 Solution The given hex number = (2F.C4)16. The binary equivalent = (0010 1111.1100 0100)2 = (00101111.11000100)2 = (101111.110001)2 = (101 111.110 001)2 = (57.61)8. The given octal number = (762.013)8. The octal number = (762.013)8 = (111 110 010.000 001 011)2 = (111110010.000001011)2 = (0001 1111 0010.0000 0101 1000)2 = (1F2.058)16. 1.16 The Four Axioms Conversion of a given number in one number system to its equivalent in another system has been discussed at length in the preceding sections. The methodology has been illustrated with solved examples. The complete methodology can be summarized as four axioms or principles, which, if understood properly, would make it possible to solve any problem related to conversion of a given number in one number system to its equivalent in another number system. These principles are as follows: 1. Whenever it is desired to find the decimal equivalent of a given number in another number system, it is given by the sum of all the digits multiplied by their weights or place values. The integer and fractional parts should be handled separately. Starting from the radix point, the weights of different digits are r 0 , r 1 , r 2 for the integer part and r −1 , r −2 , r −3 for the fractional part, where r is the radix of the number system whose decimal equivalent needs to be determined. 2. To convert a given mixed decimal number into an equivalent in another number system, the integer part is progressively divided by r and the remainders noted until the result of division yields a zero quotient. The remainders written in reverse order constitute the equivalent. r is the radix of the transformed number system. The fractional part is progressively multiplied by r and the carry recorded until the result of multiplication yields a zero or when the desired number of bits has been obtained. The carrys written in forward order constitute the equivalent of the fractional part. 3. The octal–binary conversion and the reverse process are straightforward. For octal–binary conversion, replace each digit in the octal number with its three-bit binary equivalent. For hexadecimal–binary conversion, replace each hex digit with its four-bit binary equivalent. For binary–octal conversion, split the binary number into groups of three bits, starting from the binary point, and, if needed, complete the outside groups by adding 0s, and then write the octal equivalent of these three-bit groups. For binary–hex conversion, split the binary number into groups of four bits, starting from the binary point, and, if needed, complete the outside groups by adding 0s, and then write the hex equivalent of the four-bit groups. 4. For octal–hexadecimal conversion, we can go from the given octal number to its binary equivalent and then from the binary equivalent to its hex counterpart. For hexadecimal–octal conversion, we can go from the hex to its binary equivalent and then from the binary number to its octal equivalent. Example 1.9 Assume an arbitrary number system having a radix of 5 and 0, 1, 2, L and M as its independent digits. Determine: (a) the decimal equivalent of (12LM.L1); (b) the total number of possible four-digit combinations in this arbitrary number system. 12 Digital Electronics Solution (a) The decimal equivalent of (12LM) is given by M × 50 + L × 51 + 2 × 52 + 1 × 53 = 4 × 50 + 3 × 51 + 2 × 52 + 1 × 53 L = 3 M = 4 = 4 + 15 + 50 + 125 = 194 The decimal equivalent of (L1) is given by L × 5−1 + 1 × 5−2 = 3 × 5−1 + 5−2 = 064 Combining the results, (12LM.L1)5 = (194.64)10. (b) The total number of possible four-digit combinations = 54 = 625. Example 1.10 The 7’s complement of a certain octal number is 5264. Determine the binary and hexadecimal equivalents of that octal number. Solution The 7’s complement = 5264. Therefore, the octal number = (2513)8. The binary equivalent = (010 101 001 011)2 = (10101001011)2. Also, (10101001011)2 = (101 0100 1011)2 = (0101 0100 1011)2 = (54B)16. Therefore, the hex equivalent of (2513)8 = (54B)16 and the binary equivalent of (2513)8 = (10101001011)2. 1.17 Floating-Point Numbers Floating-point notation can be used conveniently to represent both large as well as small fractional or mixed numbers. This makes the process of arithmetic operations on these numbers relatively much easier. Floating-point representation greatly increases the range of numbers, from the smallest to the largest, that can be represented using a given number of digits. Floating-point numbers are in general expressed in the form N = m × be (1.1) where m is the fractional part, called the significand or mantissa, e is the integer part, called the exponent, and b is the base of the number system or numeration. Fractional part m is a p-digit number of the form (±d.dddd    dd), with each digit d being an integer between 0 and b – 1 inclusive. If the leading digit of m is nonzero, then the number is said to be normalized. Equation (1.1) in the case of decimal, hexadecimal and binary number systems will be written as follows: Decimal system N = m × 10e (1.2) Number Systems 13 Hexadecimal system N = m × 16e (1.3) Binary system N = m × 2e (1.4) For example, decimal numbers 0.0003754 and 3754 will be represented in floating-point notation as 3.754 × 10−4 and 3.754 × 103 respectively. A hex number 257.ABF will be represented as 2.57ABF × 162. In the case of normalized binary numbers, the leading digit, which is the most significant bit, is always ‘1’ and thus does not need to be stored explicitly. Also, while expressing a given mixed binary number as a floating-point number, the radix point is so shifted as to have the most significant bit immediately to the right of the radix point as a ‘1’. Both the mantissa and the exponent can have a positive or a negative value. The mixed binary number (110.1011)2 will be represented in floating-point notation as.1101011 × 23 =.1101011e + 0011. Here,.1101011 is the mantissa and e + 0011 implies that the exponent is +3. As another example, (0.000111)2 will be written as.111e − 0011, with.111 being the mantissa and e − 0011 implying an exponent of −3. Also, (−0.00000101)2 may be written as −.101 × 2−5 = −.101e − 0101, where −.101 is the mantissa and e − 0101 indicates an exponent of −5. If we wanted to represent the mantissas using eight bits, then.1101011 and.111 would be represented as.11010110 and.11100000. 1.17.1 Range of Numbers and Precision The range of numbers that can be represented in any machine depends upon the number of bits in the exponent, while the fractional accuracy or precision is ultimately determined by the number of bits in the mantissa. The higher the number of bits in the exponent, the larger is the range of numbers that can be represented. For example, the range of numbers possible in a floating-point binary number format using six bits to represent the magnitude of the exponent would be from 2−64 to 2+64 , which is equivalent to a range of 10−19 to 10+19. The precision is determined by the number of bits used to represent the mantissa. It is usually represented as decimal digits of precision. The concept of precision as defined with respect to floating-point notation can be explained in simple terms as follows. If the mantissa is stored in n number of bits, it can represent a decimal number between 0 and 2n − 1 as the mantissa is stored as an unsigned integer. If M is the largest number such that 10M − 1 is less than or equal to 2n − 1, then M is the precision expressed as decimal digits of precision. For example, if the mantissa is expressed in 20 bits, then decimal digits of precision can be found to be about 6, as 220 − 1 equals 1 048 575, which is a little over 106 − 1. We will briefly describe the commonly used formats for binary floating-point number representation. 1.17.2 Floating-Point Number Formats The most commonly used format for representing floating-point numbers is the IEEE-754 standard. The full title of the standard is IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE STD 754-1985). It is also known as Binary Floating-point Arithmetic for Microprocessor Systems, IEC 14 Digital Electronics 60559:1989. An ongoing revision to IEEE-754 is IEEE-754r. Another related standard IEEE 854- 1987 generalizes IEEE-754 to cover both binary and decimal arithmetic. A brief description of salient features of the IEEE-754 standard, along with an introduction to other related standards, is given below. ANSI/IEEE-754 Format The IEEE-754 floating point is the most commonly used representation for real numbers on computers including Intel-based personal computers, Macintoshes and most of the UNIX platforms. It specifies four formats for representing floating-point numbers. These include single-precision, double-precision, single-extended precision and double-extended precision formats. Table 1.1 lists characteristic parameters of the four formats contained in the IEEE-754 standard. Of the four formats mentioned, the single-precision and double-precision formats are the most commonly used ones. The single-extended and double-extended precision formats are not common. Figure 1.1 shows the basic constituent parts of the single- and double-precision formats. As shown in the figure, the floatin