Difficult Definitions PDF

Chapter 1 - Conceptual Skills: The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect - Human Skills: The ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behavior of other individuals and groups - Technical Skills: The job-specific knowle...

Chapter 1 - Conceptual Skills: The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect - Human Skills: The ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behavior of other individuals and groups - Technical Skills: The job-specific knowledge and techniques required to perform and organizational role Chapter 3 - Terminal Value: A lifelong goal or objective that an individual seeks to achieve - Instrumental Value: A mode of conduct that an individual seeks to follow - Extraversion: The tendency to experience positive emotions and moods and to feel good about oneself and the rest of the world - Negative Affectivity: The tendency to experience negative emotions and moods, to feel distressed, and to be critical of oneself and others - Agreeableness: The tendency to get along well with other people - Conscientiousness: The tendency to be careful, scrupulous, and persevering - Openness to Experience: The tendency to be original, have broad interests, be open to a wide range of stimuli, be daring, and take risks Chapter 4 - Utilitarian Rule: An ethical decision is a decision that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people - Moral Rights Rule: An ethical decision is one that best maintains and protects the fundamental or inalienable rights and privileges of the people affected by it - Justice Rule: An ethical decision distributes benefits and harms among people and groups in a fair, equitable, or impartial way - Practical Rule: An ethical decision is one that manger has no reluctance about communicating to people outside the company because the typical person in a society would think it is acceptable - Social Ethics: Standards that govern how members of a society should deal with one another in matters involving issues such as fairness, justice, and poverty, and the rights of the individual - Occupational Ethics: Standards that govern how member of a profession, grade, or craft should conduct themselves when performing work-related activities - Individual Ethics: Personal standards and values that determine how people view their responsibilities to others and how they should act in situations when their self-interests are at stake - Organizational Ethics: The guiding practices and beliefs through which a particular company and its managers view their responsibility toward their stakeholders - Obstructionist Approach(--): Companies and their managers choose not to have in a socially responsible way and instead behave unethically and illegally - Defensive Approach(-): Companies and their managers behave ethically to the degree that they stay within the law and strictly abide by legal requirements  - Accommodative Approach(+): Companies and their managers behave legally and ethically and try to balance the interest of different stakeholders as the need arises - Proactive Approach(++): Companies and their managers actively embrace socially responsible behavior, going out of their way to learn about the needs of different stakeholder groups and using organizational resources to promote the interests of all stakeholders Chapter 5 - Distributive Justice: A moral principle calling for fair distribution of pay, promotions, and other organizational resources based on meaningful contributions that individuals have made and not personal characteristics over which they have no control - Procedural Justice: A moral principle calling for the use of fair procedures to determine how to distribute outcomes to organizational members - Overt Discrimination: Knowingly and willingly denying diverse individuals access to opportunities and outcomes in an organization Chapter 10 - Functional Structure: An organizational structure composed of all the department that an organization requires to produce its goods or services - Divisional Structure: An organizational structure composed of separate business units, within which are the functions that work together to produce a specific kind of product for a specific kind of customer - Product Structure: An organizational structure in which each product line or business is handled by a self-contained division - Geographic Structure: An organizational structure in which each region of a country or area of the world is served by a self-contained division - Market Structure: An organizational structure in which each kind of customer is served by a self-contained division; also called customer structure - Matrix Structure: An organizational structure that simultaneously groups people and resources by function and by product - Product Team Structure: An organizational structure in which employees are permanently assigned to a cross-functional team and report only to the product team manager or to one of his or her direct employees - Organizational Culture: The shared set of beliefs, expectations, values, and norms that influence how members of an organization relate to another and cooperate to achieve the organization’s goals - Organizational Ethics: The moral values, beliefs, and rules that establish the appropriate way for an organization and its members to deal with each other and with people outside the organization Chapter 11 - Adaptive Cultures: Cultures whose values and norms help an organization to build momentum and to grow and change as needed to achieve its and be effective  - Inert Cultures: Cultures whose values and norms fail to motivate or inspire employees; they lead to stagnation and, often, failure over time - The Feedforward Control: allows managers to anticipate problems before they arise, so they do not occur later during the conversion process - The Concurrent Control: gives managers immediate feedback on how efficiently inputs are being transformed into outputs so managers can correct problems as they arise - The Feedback Control: gives managers information about customers’ reactions to foods and services, so corrective action can be taken if necessary Chapter 7 - The Administrative Model: is an approach to decision making that explains why decision making is inherently uncertain and risky and why managers usually make satisfactory rather than other optimum decisions - Bounded Rationality: is the cognitive limitations that constrain one’s ability to interpret, process, and act on information - Risk: refers to the degree of probability that the possible outcomes of a particular course of action will occur. - Uncertainty: refers to the unpredictability of events. - Ambiguous Information: refers to information that can be interpreted in multiple and often conflicting ways - Satisficing: refers to searching for and choosing an acceptable, or satisfactory, response to problems and opportunities, rather than trying to make the best decision - Systematic Errors: are errors that people make over and over and that result in oor decision making - Heuristics: rules of thumb that simplify the process of making decisions - Confirmation Bias: A cognitive bias resulting from the tendency to base decisions on one’s existing beliefs even if evidence shows that those beliefs are wrong - Representative Bias: A cognitive bias resulting from the tendency to generalize inappropriately from a small sample or from a single vivid event or episode - Illusion of Control: A source of cognitive bias resulting from the tendency to overestimate one’s own ability to control activities and events - Escalating Commitment: A source of cognitive bias resulting from the tendency to commit additional resources to a project even if evidence shows that the project is failing - Groupthink: A pattern of faulty and biased decision making that occurs in groups whose members strive for agreement among themselves at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to a decision - Devil’s Advocacy: Critical analysis of a preferred alternative, made in response to challenges raised by a group member who, playing the role of devil’s advocate, defends unpopular or opposing alternatives for the sake of argument - Dialectical Inquiry: Critical analysis of two preferred alternatives in order to find an even better alternative for the organization to adopt Chapter 12 - Performance Appraisal: The evaluation of employees’ job performance and contributions to their organization - Performance Feedback: The process through which managers share performance appraisal information with employees, give them an opportunity to reflect on their own performance, and develop, with employees, plans for the future - Objective Appraisal: An appraisal that is based on facts and is likely to be numerical - Subjective Appraisal: An appraisal that is based on perceptions of traits, behaviors, or results Chapter 13 - Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: An arrangement of five basic needs that, according to Maslow proposed that the lowest level of unmet needs is the prime motivator and that only one level of needs is motivational at a time - Alderfer’s ERG Theory: The theory that three universal needs – for existence, relatedness, and growth – constitute a hierarchy of needs and motivate behavior. Alderfer proposed that needs at more than one level can be motivational at the same time - Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory: A need theory that distinguishes between motivator needs (related to the nature of the work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed) and proposes that motivation and job satisfaction to be high - Need of Achievement: The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence - Need for Affiliation: The extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations, being liked, and having the people around him or her get along with each other - Need for Power: The extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others - Equity Theory: A theory of motivation that focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs - Distributive Justice: A moral principle calling for the use of fair procedures to determine how to distribute outcomes to organizational members - Procedural Justice: A moral principle calling for the use of fair procedures to determine how to distribute outcomes to organizational members - Interpersonal Justice: A person’s perception of the fairness of interpersonal treatment he or she receives from whoever distributes outcomes to him or her - Informational Justice: A person’s perception of the extent to which his or her manager provides explanation for decisions and the procedures used to arrive at them - Positive Reinforcement: Giving people outcomes they desire when they perform organizationally functional behaviors  - Negative Reinforcement: Eliminating or removing undesired outcomes when people perform organizationally functional behaviors - Extinction: Curtailing the performance of dysfunctional behaviors by eliminating whatever is reinforcing them - Punishment: Administering an undesired or negative consequence when dysfunctional behavior occurs Chapter 14 - Legitimate Power: The authority that a manager has by virtue of his or he position in an organization’s hierarchy - Reward Power: The ability of a manager to give or withhold tangible and intangible rewards - Coercive Power: The ability of a manager to punish others - Expert Power: Power that is based on the special knowledge, skills, and expertise that a leader possesses - Referent Power: Power that comes from employee’s and coworker’s respect, admiration, and loyalty - Transformational Leadership: Leadership that makes employees aware of the importance of their jobs and performance to the organization and ware of their own needs for personal growth and that motivates employees to work for the good of the organization - Charismatic Leader: An enthusiastic, self-confident leader who is able to clearly communicate his or her vision of how good things could be - Intellectual Stimulation: Behavior a leader engages in to make followers aware of problems and view these problems in new ways, consistent with the leader’s vision - Developmental Consideration: Behavior a leader engages in to support and encourage followers and help them develop and grow on the job - Transactional Leadership: Leadership that motivates employees by rewarding them for high performance and reprimanding them for low performance - Directive Behavior: similar to initiating structure and includes setting goals, assigning tasks, showing subordinates how to complete tasks, and taking concrete steps to improve performance - Supportive Behavior: consideration and includes expressing concern for subordinates and looking out for their best interests - Participating Behavior: gives subordinates a say in matters and decisions that affect them - Achievement-oriented Behavior: motivate subordinates to perform at the highest level possible by setting challenging goals, expecting that they be met, and believing in subordinates’ capabilities