Introduction To Developmental Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive processes. Scientific in nature relies heavily on scientific, systematic methods Any observable action or reaction of a living organism: a. OVERT BEHAVIOUR - directly observa...

INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive processes. Scientific in nature relies heavily on scientific, systematic methods Any observable action or reaction of a living organism: a. OVERT BEHAVIOUR - directly observable, such as talking, running, scratching or blinking b. COVERT BEHAVIOUR - those which go on internally such as thinking or imagining Every aspect of ment life and the mind – thoughts memories, mental images, reasoning, decision making TYPES OF STUDIES/RESEARCH IN GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. Describe behaviors and mental processes LONGITUDINAL STUDY 2. Explain why these processes occur A study of a person or the same group of people over 3. Predict future events an extended period of time. 4. Control behavior and mental processes CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY A study of different groups of people who differ in the (Infancy to Adolescence) variable of interest, but share other characteristics Seek to identify and explain the changes that such as age, socioeconomic status, educational individuals undergo from conception until death. background and ethnicity. Changes include physical, emotional, social, It differs from a longitudinal study as they are cognitive, personality, and moral designed to look at a variable at a particular point in time. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Changes in height, weight, motor abilities, brain ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT development, and health-related issues. Nature Genes and Hereditary Factors EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Physical appearance The way in which emotions change or remain stable Personality characteristics across the lifespan. Nurture SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Environmental Variables The continuous acquisition of attitudes,feelings, and Childhood experiences how we were raised social behaviors that enable individuals to relate to one relationships surrounding culture. another and function appropriately within their society across their life course. Continuity There is gradual and increasing changes happening. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Supported by Skinner’s operant conditioning. The mental abilities have to do with knowing and thinking – e.g.decision-making,language Discontinuity development. The change is distinct changes happening. Supported by Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory of PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT human development. The extent to which an individual’s essence, characteristic thought, and behavior change over the lifespan LIFESPAN AND STAGES  emotions in adulthood, including the development of a person. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erikson’s Psychosocial theory Freud is the most famous psychologist who studied the development of personality. Founder of Psychosexual development theory. Develops 5 distinct stages of Psychosexual Development. According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages, and along the way, there are needs to be met. Whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. Freud identified specific Erogenous zones for each stage of development. The erogenous zone or “ pleasure area” becomes a focal point for the particular stage. Fixation occurs when needs are not met along the area. Stability As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors First experience has made us. related to this erogenous zone. Change EROGENOUS ZONE First experience develops us into someone different Especially sensitive to sexual stimulation, as certain from who were at an earlier point in development. areas of the body: erogenous zones. -The key to the development is the INTERACTION of Arousing or tending to arouse sexual desire; sexually all the theories in the human development rather than stimulating. one factor alone. Pleasure Area -They operate together to produce person’s FIXATION intelligence, nature, height, weight etc. Is a concept in human psychology that was originated -Our development is not 50%-50%. It must cooperate by Sigmund Freud (1905) to denote the persistence of to each other. anachronistic sexual traits. The term subsequently came to denote object relationships with and THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT attachments to people or things, in general, persisting SIGMUND FREUD from childhood into adult life. Sigmund Freud is the father of psychoanalysis. FIVE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF The psychoanalytic theory DEVELOPMENT believes all humans have ORAL STAGE (First year) unconscious desires, feelings, Related to later mistrust and rejection issues and memories. By studying human development, Freud ANAL STAGE (Ages 2-4) believed childhood trauma and Related to later personal power issues experience form the basis of unwanted behavior and repressed PHALLIC STAGE (Ages 4-6) Related to later sexual attitudes Oedipus Complex LATENCY STAGE (Ages 5-11) According to Freud, in the Phallic Stage the desire or A time of socialization libido of children is centered upon the genitalia. While in this stage, children become aware of their genitals GENITAL STAGE (Ages 12-60) and gender differences as well as the difference Sexual energies are invested in life between males and females. Freud also alters the parent-child relationship. During the phallic stage, the ORAL STAGE (Birth to 18 months) male child begins to desire his mother sexually and The erogenous zone is the mouth. During this stage, treats the father as a rival. (Mama’s Boy) the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking) such as thumb sucking, breastfeeding, etc. Too much or too Electra Complex little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Receptive which Female child develops unconscious sexual attraction has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, towards their father. And treat their mother as a rival. overeat, or Oral Aggressive, a strong tendency to bite (Papa’s Girl) his/her nails or use curse words or even gossip. According to Freud, boys eventually identify with ANAL STAGE (18 months to 3 years old) their father develop masculine characteristics, and The child’s focus of pleasure is the anus. The child repress their sexual feelings towards finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. their mother. A fixation at this stage could result in Through society’s expectations, particularly the sexual deviancies and a weak or confused sexual parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. 1 identity. year and a half of three years child’s favorite word might be “No”. Therefore a struggle might exist in the LATENCY STAGE (Age 6 to Puberty) toilet training process when the child retains feces This stage remains sexually repressed. The child’s when asked to eliminate it or may choose to defecate focus is the acquisition (developing of skills, habit, when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of or quality) of physical and academic skills. Boys personality fixation during this stage Anal retentive is usually relate more with boys and girls with girls an obsession with cleanliness,perfection, and control, during this stage. and Anal Expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized. GENITAL STAGE (Puberty onwards) The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins PHALLIC STAGE (Age 3-6) at the start of puberty when sexual urges towards the The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the During preschool will sometimes become interested in genitals what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS studies led him to believe that at this stage,boys ID (INSTINCTS) develop an unconscious sexual desire for their mothers. Freud says that a child is born with the id. The id And see their father as a rival for her mother’s plays a vital role in one’s personality because affection. as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure needs. It Castration Anxiety Fear of punishment for focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its affectionate unconscious sexual feelings for needs. parents with opposite sex. EGO (REALITY) - Oedipus Complex A baby turns into a toddler and then into a - Electra Complex preschooler he/she relates more with the environment ERIK ERIKSON the ego slowly begins to emerge. Erik Erikson was an ego It refers to help id meet its needs. psychologist who developed The ego operates using the reality. one of the most popular and It is practical because it knows that being impulsive influential development or selfish can result in negative consequences. theories. Erikson's theory SUPEREGO (MORALITY) centered on psychosocial Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the development phallic stage, the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers, and other persons who exert Erikson's theory described the impact of influence impart to be good or moral. social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson The superego is likened to conscience because it was interested in how social interaction and exerts influence on what one considers right or wrong. relationships played a role in the development and contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and growth of human beings. wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can conflict that serves as a turning point in development. think and talk about rationally. If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Conscious Mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. Preconscious Mind Infancy Psychosocial Development consists of anything that could potentially be brought Psychosocial Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust into the conscious mind. Major Question: "Can I trust the people around me?" Basic Virtue: Hope Unconscious Mind Important Event: Feeding is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and At this point in development, the child is utterly memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they The unconscious contains contents that are need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate anxiety, or conflict. care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.  Young adults need to form intimate, loving Early Childhood Psychosocial Development relationships with other people. Success leads Psychosocial Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame to strong relationships, while failure results in and Doubt loneliness and isolation. This stage covers Children are just starting to gain a little independence. the period of early adulthood when people are They are starting to perform basic actions on their own exploring personal relationships. and make simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, Middle Adulthood Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation parents and caregivers can help children develop a Major Question "How can I contribute to the world? sense of autonomy. Basic Virtue: Care Important Event: Parenthood and work Preschool Psychosocial Development Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast Psychosocial Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt them, often by having children or creating a positive Basic Virtue: Purpose change that benefits other people. Success leads to Major Question: "Am I good or bad?" feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Important Event: Exploration, play Children begin to assert their power and control over Psychosocial Development in Maturity the world through directing play and other social Psychosocial Conflict: Integrity vs. Despair interactions. Basic Virtue: Wisdom Successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead Major Question "Did I live a meaningful? others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left Important Event: Reflecting back on life with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and a lack of initiative At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things School-Age Psychosocial Development Psychosocial they did or didn't do. Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority Major Question Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, "How can I be good or bad?" while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. Basic Virtue: Competence Important Event: School Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Adolescent Psychosocial Development Psychosocial Conflict: Identity vs Confusion Major Question: "Who am I? Basic Virtue: Fidelity Important Event: Social Relationships This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a IVAN PAVLOV person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal entity. Success leads to an ability to stay true CLASSICAL to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov, Russian Psychosocial Development in Young Adulthood physiologist Psychosocial Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation Classical conditioning is a Basic Virtue: Love type of unconscious Major Question: "Will I be loved or will I be alone?" or automatic learning. Important Event: Romantic relationships  This learning process creates a conditioned response B. F. SKINNER through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. OPERANT Also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian CONDITIONING conditioning—uses a few different terms to help Skinner is regarded as the explain the learning process. Knowing these basics father of Operant will help you understand classical conditioning. Conditioning. Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an According to this principle, behavior that is followed unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and response (the shivering). behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound of Neutral Operant: responses from the environment a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a behavior being repeated. neutral stimulus. Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that was once increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now leads to a Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every Punishment: Responses from the environment that time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. stimulus. Punishment weakens behavior. Unconditioned Response: An automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response. Conditioned Response: A learned response or a response that is created where no response existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a ALBERT BANDURA conditioned response. SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY Social Cognitive Theory is based upon the work of Albert Bandura. It is also referred to as Social learning theory. This theory attempts to understand the process that is involved in explaining how we learn from each other. learning. It focuses on learning that occurs by direct His theory focuses not only on understanding how experience by observing, imitating, and modeling children acquire knowledge but also on understanding It provides a framework for understanding, the nature of intelligence predicting, and potentially changing human Piaget's interest in the cognitive behavior. development of children was inspired by his observations. SCHEMA Piaget uses the term “Schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way of understanding or creating meaning about a thing or experience. Example: If a child sees a dog for the first time he creates Aspects of Bandura’s theory are that: his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs children learn by observing others, and a tail. It barks. It is furry. The child then “puts the same set of stimuli may provoke different this description of a dog “on file” in his mind. responses from different people, or from the same When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out people at different times the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the environment and a person’s behavior are the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, interlinked; fury…..That is a dog!” personality is an interaction between three factors: the environment, behavior, and a person’s psychological ASSIMILATION processes. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema. Example: If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog. JEAN PIAGET’S ACCOMMODATION This is the process of creating a new schema. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does COGNITIVE THEORY not work and needs to be changed to deal with a new Jean Piaget's theory of object or situation. Accommodation, the schema is cognitive development altered; a new schema may be developed. suggests that children move through four Example: different stages of If the same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog but is somehow different. He They also learn that an object’s properties stay the might try to fit into his schema of a dog and say, same, even if the appearance changes (e.g., modeling “Look, Mommy, what a funny-looking clay). dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then Mommy explains, “That’s not a funny looking dog. That is a goat!” With FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now Adolescents learn logical rules to understand abstract create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a concepts and solve problems. For example, they may new file in his filing cabinet understand the concept of justice. EQUILIBRATION LEV VYGOTSKY'S Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can deal SOCIOCULTURAL with most new information through assimilation. As a THEORY OF child progresses through the stage of cognitive COGNITIVE development, it is important to maintain or achieve a DEVELOPMENT proper balance between applying previous knowledge Vygotsky's sociocultural (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for theory of human learning new knowledge (accommodation). describes learning as a Equilibrium helps explain how children are social process and able to move from one stage through to the the origination of human next. intelligence in society or culture. Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition All learning is social - Knowledge is always socially constructed SENSORIMOTOR STAGE Culture shapes our learning & cognitive Babies start to build an understanding of the world development through their senses by touching, grasping, - Culture ensures each new generation learns from watching, and listening. the previous They also begin to develop a sense of object Challenge is important to learning permanence, which means they understand that objects - Learning happens best within our ZPD exist even when they cannot see them. -A more knowledgeable other knows what will challenge us PREOPERATIONAL STAGE Children develop language and abstract thought. This means they can think about concepts and ideas that are not physical. They also begin symbolic play (“playing pretend”), drawing pictures, and talking about things that happened in the past. CONCRETE STAGE Children learn logical, concrete (physical) rules about objects, such as height, weight, and volume.  Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” Conception (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding 23 pairs of chromosomes created at conception or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in ○ 22 pairs are similar in length. These are called regard to a specific task, concept, or process. autosomes. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an ○ The remaining pair (23rd), or sex chromosomes, may older adult. differ in length. XY the child will be genetically male. XX the child will be genetically female. Genotype and Phenotype Genotype: refers to the sum total of all the genes a person inherits. Phenotype: refers to the features that are actually expressed. Vygotsky's scaffolding is a theory that focuses on a Homozygous and Heterozygous student's ability to learn information through the help Homozygous: If we receive either the same version of a more informed individual. When used effectively, of a gene from our mother and father. scaffolding can help a student learn content they Heterozygous: If we receive a different version of the wouldn't have been able to process on their own. gene from each parent. Dominant and Recessive PIAGET VYGOTSKY Dominant Genes: Express themselves in the phenotype even when paired with a different version of More individual in More social in focus focus Did not propose stages the gene. Believed that there are but emphasized of Recessive Genes: Express themselves only when universal stages of cognitive development paired with a similar version gene. cognitive development Stressed the role of ○ Note: Sometimes the dominant gene does not Did not give much language in cognitive completely suppress the emphasis on language development recessive gene; this is called incomplete dominance. Chapter Three: Heredity, Prenatal Development, Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins and Birth Monozygotic (Identical Twins): Occur when a Heredity fertilized egg splits apart in the first two weeks of Genes- are specific sequence of nucleotides and are development. recipes for making proteins. Dizygotic (Fraternal Twins): Occur when two eggs or Chromosomes- Normal human cells contain 46 ova are released and fertilized by two separate sperm. chromosomes (or 23 pairs; one from each parent) in the Conjoined Twins: Occur when the zygote splits even nucleus of the cells. later, during the formation of the embryonic disc, the Mitosis- is defined as the cell’s nucleus making an twins remain physically connected. exact copy of all the chromosomes and splitting into two new cells. Meiosis- is when gamete’s chromosomes duplicate, and then divide twice resulting in four cells containing only half the genetic material of the original gamete. Genetic Disorders Genetic Counseling A service that assists individuals identify, test for, and explain potential genetic conditions that could adversely affect themselves or their offspring is referred to as genetic counseling (CDC, 2015b). The common reasons for genetic counseling include: ○ Family history of a genetic condition ○ Membership in a certain ethnic group with a higher risk of a genetic condition ○ Information regarding the results of genetic testing, including blood tests, amniocentesis, or ultrasounds ○ Learning about the chances of having a baby with a genetic condition if the parents are older, have had several miscarriages, have offspring with birth defects, experience infertility, or have a medical condition Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Genetics is the scientific study of the interplay between the genetic and environmental contributions to behavior. Often referred to as the nature/nurture debate. Genotype-Environment Correlations Refer to the processes by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment. There are three types of genotype-environment correlations: ○ Passive genotype-environment correlation occurs when children passively inherit the genes and the environments their family provides. ○ Evocative genotype-environment correlation refers to how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited characteristics. ○ Active genotype-environment correlation occurs when individuals seek out environments that support Chromosomal Disorders their genetic tendencies. Genotype-Environment Interactions Involve genetic susceptibility to the environment. Early Growth and Development Study ○ Followed 360 adopted children and their adopted and biological parents in a longitudinal study. ○ Objective: To examine the interaction between genetics and environment in adopted children and how it affects behavior. Finding 1: Biological Parents' Psychopathology and Child Behavior Children whose biological parents had a history of psychopathology (such as mental illness) had a genetic The Germinal Period predisposition to behavioral problems. - The germinal period (about 14 days in length) lasts Finding 2: Structured Parenting and Reduced from conception to implantation of the zygote Behavioral Problems (fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus. Children with genetic risk (from biological parents' psychopathology) showed fewer behavior problems if - It is typically fertilized in the top section of the their fallopian tube and continues its journey to the uterus. adoptive parents used structured parenting. As a result, a new cell is formed. This cell, containing Structured Parenting: Consistent rules, clear the combined genetic information from both parents, is expectations, and an organized home environment. referred to as a zygote. During this time, the organism Finding 3: Adoptive Parents' Psychopathology and begins cell division through mitosis. After five days Increased Risk of mitosis there are 100 cells, which is now called a When adoptive parents had psychopathology, the blastocyst. risk of behavior problems in the child increased, but only if the child’s biological parents also had - The inner group of cells, or embryonic disk will psychopathology. become the embryo, while the outer group of cells, or trophoblast, becomes the support system which Epigenetics nourishes the developing organism. This stage ends Studies modifications in DNA that affect gene when the blastocyst fully implants into the uterine expression and are passed on when the cells divide. wall. Environmental factors, such as nutrition, stress, and teratogens are thought to change gene expression by The Embryonic Period switching genes on and - Starting the third week the blastocyst has implanted off. in the uterine wall. Upon implantation this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now The Human Genome Project blood vessels grow forming the placenta. Goal: Map all human genes (estimated 25,000–30,000 genes on each chromosome). - The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus In 2005 the HGP amassed a large database called that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother HapMap that catalogs the genetic variations in 11 to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. global populations. Implications: - Growth during prenatal development occurs in two ○ Positive: Understanding genetic risks can help adopt major directions: from head to tail called preventive lifestyle cephalocaudal development and from the midline changes. outward referred to as proximodistal development. ○ Negative: Genetic information can lead to anxiety, discrimination, and - The embryo is approximately 1 inch in length and increased insurance costs. weighs about 4 grams at the end of this period. The embryo can move and respond Prenatal Development to touch at this time. Periods of Prenatal Development Germinal period The Fetal Period Embryonic period - By the 12th week, the fetus has all its body parts Fetal period including external genitalia. In the following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and the excretory and digestive systems will continue to develop. At the end of the 12th week, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 28 grams.  mothers may be more resistant to teratogenic effects - During the 4‐6th months the eyes become more than others. sensitive to light, and hearing develops. The Being male or female: Males are more likely to respiratory system continues to develop. Reflexes such experience damage due to teratogens than are females. as sucking, swallowing and hiccupping develop during It is believed that the Y chromosome, which the 5th month. Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are contains fewer genes than the X, may have an impact. present at that time as well. The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of 1. Alcohol- One of the most commonly used teratogens viability is reached at about 22 and 26 weeks (Moore is alcohol and because half of all pregnancies in the & Persaud, 1998). United States are unplanned, it is recommended that women of child‐bearing age take great caution against - Between the 7th and 9th months the fetus is primarily drinking alcohol when not using birth control or when preparing for birth. It is exercising its muscles, and its pregnant (Surgeon General’s Advisory on Alcohol Use lungs begin to expand and contract. It is developing fat During Pregnancy, 2005). layers under the skin. The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester of pregnancy The term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) which includes a layer of fat gained during the 8th refers to the wide range of physical, behavioral, and month. This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps cognitive impairments that occur due to alcohol the baby regulate body temperature after birth. exposure before birth (also known as prenatal alcohol exposure). These impairments may appear at any time Environmental Risks during Prenatal Development during childhood and last a lifetime. The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology. 2. Tobacco- is the second most widely used teratogen Teratogens are factors that can contribute to birth and the number of adolescent females who smoke is defects which include some maternal diseases, increasing. In fact, among adolescents, females are just pollutants, drugs and alcohol. as likely to smoke as are males. Tobacco use during pregnancy has been associated with low birth weight, Factors influencing prenatal risks: There are several placenta previa, preterm delivery, fetal growth considerations in determining the type and amount of restriction and sudden infant death syndrome (Center damage that might result from exposure to a particular for Disease Control, 2004). teratogen (Berger, 2004). These include: 3. Drugs- Prescription, over-the-counter, or The timing of the exposure: Structures in the body recreational drugs can have serious teratogenic effects. are vulnerable to the most severe damage when they In general, if medication is required, the lowest dose are forming. If a substance is introduced during a possible should be used. Combination drug therapies particular structure's critical period (time of and first trimester exposures should be avoided. development), the damage to that structure may be Almost three percent of pregnant women use illicit greater. drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, Ecstasy and other The amount of exposure: Some substances are not amphetamines, and heroin. harmful unless the amounts reach a certain level. The critical level depends in part on the size and These drugs can cause low birth-weight, withdrawal metabolism of the mother. symptoms, birth defects, or learning or behavioral Genetics: Genetic make‐up also plays a role on the problems impact a particular teratogen might have on the child. This is suggested by fraternal twin studies who are 4. Pollutants- Some environmental pollutants of major exposed to the same prenatal environment, yet do not concern include lead poisoning, which is connected experience the same teratogenic effects. The genetic with low birth weight and slowed neurological make‐up of the mother can also have an effect; some development. - The chemicals in certain pesticides are also - Minor complications during pregnancy are common potentially damaging and may lead to birth defects, and result from the numerous physical and hormonal learning problems, low birth weight, miscarriage, and changes that occur in the body. While they are premature birth (March of Dimes, 2014). usually not serious, these symptoms can be quite uncomfortable for many pregnant individuals. - Mercury, a heavy metal, can cause brain damage and affect the baby’s hearing and vision. Some Minor Complications include: Nausea and Vomiting (Morning Sickness) - Prenatal exposure to bisphenol A (BPA), a chemical - Often occurs during the first trimester due to commonly used in plastics and food and beverage increased levels of hormones like estrogen. containers, may disrupt the action of certain genes contributing to certain birth defects. Heartburn - Caused by the relaxation of the valve between the - If a mother is exposed to radiation, particularly stomach and esophagus due to pregnancy hormones during the first 3 months of pregnancy, the child may like progesterone. suffer some congenital deformities. There is also an increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth. Gas and Bloating - The increased levels of progesterone slow down 5. Sexually Transmitted Diseases- Gonorrhea, syphilis, digestion, causing gas buildup and bloating. and chlamydia are sexually transmitted infections that can be passed to the fetus by an infected mother. Hemorrhoids Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can cause - Due to increased pressure on the pelvic area and the premature birth, premature rupture of the amniotic sac, increased blood volume during pregnancy, veins an ectopic pregnancy, birth defects, miscarriage, and around the rectum can become swollen, leading to stillbirths. hemorrhoids. 6. Human Immunodeficiency Virus- One of the most Backache potentially devastating teratogens is HIV and Acquired - The growing belly shifts the center of gravity, ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) There are some straining the back muscles. measures that can be taken to lower the chance the child will contract the disease (such as the use of Leg Cramps antiretroviral drugs from 14 weeks after conception - Often experienced during the second and third until birth, avoiding breastfeeding, and delivering the trimesters, leg cramps may be caused by reduced child by c‐section), many women do not know they are circulation in the legs due to pressure from the growing HIV positive during pregnancy. uterus, or an imbalance of minerals like calcium and magnesium. 7. Maternal Diseases- German measles (or rubella) have been associated with a number of maladies. If the Insomnia mother contracts the disease during the first three - Difficulty sleeping can result from discomfort due to months of pregnancy, damage can occur in the eyes, back pain, frequent urination, leg cramps, or even ears, heart or brain of the unborn child. Deafness is anxiety about the upcoming birth. almost certain if the mother has German measles before the 11th week of prenatal development and can Constipation also cause brain damage. - Increased progesterone levels slow down bowel movements, and the growing uterus exerts pressure on Pregnancy and Childbirth the intestines, making constipation common during Minor Complications pregnancy. Shortness of Breath - As the uterus expands, it presses against the Maternal Mortality diaphragm, making it more difficult to breathe deeply. - The leading causes of maternal mortality include severe bleeding, infections, and heart-related problems. Major Complications - Major complications during pregnancy can pose The high rates of C-sections and obesity are considered serious health risks to both the mother and the child. contributing factors. These complications often require immediate medical - Globally, about 1,000 women die daily from attention and sometimes hospitalization. childbirth-related complications, with the highest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Some Major Complications include: Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) Ectopic Pregnancy - Miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy before the 20th - This occurs when the fertilized egg (zygote) becomes week. It is estimated that 20-40% of undiagnosed attached to the fallopian tube before reaching the pregnancies and about 10% of diagnosed pregnancies uterus. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, end in miscarriage, often due to chromosomal vaginal bleeding, nausea, and fainting. Ectopic abnormalities. Symptoms include cramping and pregnancies occur in about 1 in 50 pregnancies in the vaginal bleeding. U.S., with increasing rates due to factors such as pelvic inflammatory disease and sexually transmitted Problems of the Newborn infections like Chlamydia. Anoxia Preeclampsia (Toxemia) - Anoxia refers to a temporary lack of oxygen to the - Preeclampsia is a serious condition that usually brain, which can occur during a difficult delivery. If the occurs in the third trimester. It is characterized by a baby is deprived of oxygen for too long, it can lead to sharp rise in blood pressure, a leakage of protein into brain damage, learning disabilities, or even death. the urine (indicating kidney problems), and swelling of Babies who are both anoxic and have low birth weight the hands, feet, and face. are at a higher risk of developing learning difficulties - Preeclampsia is the most common complication of later in life. pregnancy. It is estimated to affect 5% to 10% of all pregnancies globally and accounts for 40% to 60% of Low Birth Weight maternal deaths in developing countries. - A baby is considered low birth weight if it weighs less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces (2,500 grams). Low birth Eclampsia weight babies struggle to regulate their body - Eclampsia is a progression of preeclampsia that leads temperature because they lack the fat that provides to seizures. This is a life-threatening condition for both insulation. They are also more susceptible to the mother and the baby. If not properly treated, infections, and many are preterm, making them more eclampsia can result in coma or even death. prone to respiratory problems like respiratory distress - Eclampsia is the second leading cause of maternal syndrome. death in the United States. - Studies have also shown a correlation between low birth weight and an increased risk of psychiatric Blood Poisoning disorders in adulthood, such as ADHD, autism, - This condition arises from kidney malfunction and depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. This affects 6% to 7% of women in the final months of may be due to compromised brain development during pregnancy. If untreated, it can lead to preeclampsia or critical periods of fetal growth. hypertension, and eventually to eclampsia, which can be fatal. It requires prompt medical intervention. Preterm/Premature Birth - A baby is considered preterm if born before 37 weeks of gestation. Preterm babies are often underweight and can face numerous health challenges, including can prepare a couple for this completely). Once a respiratory distress syndrome, which is caused by couple finds that they are to have a child, they begin to underdeveloped lungs. The earlier a baby is born, the conjure up images of what they think the experience higher the risk of complications, including will involve. Once the child is born, they must difficulty breathing, feeding problems, and reconcile those images with reality developmental delays. (Galinsky, 1987). Knowing more of what to expect - In extreme cases, such as that of Saybie, a baby born does help them in forming more realistic images thus at 23 weeks weighing just 8.6 ounces, survival is making the adjustment easier. possible but requires intensive care. Saybie, who survived after months of hospitalization, is a testament 1. The Dick-Read Method of Natural Childbirth to the advances in neonatal care. He believed that if mothers were educated, the fear and tension would be reduced and the need for medication Small-for-date Infants could frequently be eliminated. The Dick‐Read - Small-for-date infants are babies whose weight is method emphasized the use of relaxation and proper below expectations for their gestational age, whether breathing with contractions as well as family support they are full-term or preterm. Small-for-date infants and education. have a mortality rate more than four times higher than normal-weight infants, underscoring the seriousness of 2. The Lamaze Method this condition. This method originated in Russia and was brought to the United States in the 1950s by Fernand Lamaze. The Postpartum Maternal Concerns emphasis of this method is on teaching the woman to Postpartum Depression be in control in the process of delivery. It includes - Postpartum depression (PPD) is a serious mood learning muscle relaxation, breathing though disorder that can occur during pregnancy or within the contractions, having a focal point (usually a picture to first four weeks after birth. Unlike the "baby blues," look at) during contractions and having a support which are short-term feelings of sadness, PPD involves person who goes through the training process with deeper feelings of sadness, sleep disturbances, and the mother and serves as a coach during delivery. difficulty bonding with the baby. - In severe cases, postpartum psychosis can occur, 3. Birthing Centers/Birthing Rooms which is characterized by hallucinations, delusions, The trend now is to have birthing rooms that are and sometimes harmful thoughts toward the infant. hospital rooms that look more like a suite in a hotel equipped with a bed that can be converted for delivery. Postpartum Anxiety These rooms are also equipped with a bed and - Some new mothers experience postpartum anxiety, monitoring systems for the newborn. However, characterized by heightened worry and stress over the many hospitals have only one or two of these rooms baby's well-being. Anxiety can manifest as intrusive and availability can be a problem. thoughts about the baby’s safety and heightened physiological arousal. 4. The LeBoyer Method - It is important for new mothers experiencing Other birthing options include the use of birthing postpartum anxiety to seek medical help, as untreated chairs, which make use of gravity in assisting the anxiety can interfere with daily life and bonding with woman giving birth and the Leboyer Method of the baby. "Gentle Birthing". This method involves giving birth in a quiet, dimly lit room and allowing the newborn to Child Birth lie on the mother's stomach with the umbilical cord - Approaches to Childbirth intact for several minutes while being given a warm The more a couple can learn about childbirth and the bath. newborn, the better prepared they will be for the adjustment they must make to a new life. (Nothing  two to three minutes. The mother pushes and relaxes as directed by the medical staff. Normally the head is 5. Home Birth and Nurse-Midwives delivered first. The baby is then rotated so that one Nurse‐midwives continued to assist most rural women shoulder can come through and then the other shoulder. with delivery until the 1970s and 1980s when their The rest of the baby quickly passes through. At this growth is thought to have posed a threat to the medical stage, an episiotomy may be performed to avoid profession (Weitz, 2007). Since that time, tearing the tissue of the back of the vaginal opening. nurse‐midwives have found it more difficult to The baby's mouth and nose are suctioned out. The sustain practices with the high costs of malpractice umbilical cord is clamped and cut. insurance. (Many physicians have changed areas of specialization in response to these costs as well.) The Third Stage Women who are at low risk for birth complications can - The Third Stage is relatively painless. During this successfully deliver under the care of nurse‐midwives stage, the placenta or afterbirth is delivered. This but only 1 percent of births occur at home. Because typically within twenty minutes after delivery.If an one out of every 20 births involves a complication, episiotomy was performed it is stitched up during this most medical professionals recommend that delivery stage. take place in a hospital. However, some couples choose to have their baby at home. Assessing the Neonate Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) The Process of Delivery - There are several ways to assess the condition of the The First Stage newborn. The most widely used tool is the Neonatal - The First Stage of labor begins with uterine Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) developed by T. contractions that may initially last about thirty seconds Berry Brazelton. This tool has been used around the and be spaced fifteen to twenty minutes apart. These world to help parents get to know their infants and to increase in duration and frequency to more than a make comparisons of infants in different cultures minute in length and about three to four minutes apart. (Brazelton & Nugent, 1995). The baby's motor Typically, doctors advise that they be called when development, muscle tone, and stress response is contractions are coming about every five minutes. assessed Some women experience false labor or Braxton‐Hicks contractions, especially with the first child. Apgar - The Apgar is conducted one minute and five minutes -The first stage of labor is typically the longest. During after birth. This is a very quick way to assess the this stage the cervix or opening to the uterus dilates to newborn's overall condition. Five measures are ten centimeters or just under four inches. This may assessed: the heart rate, respiration, muscle tone take around twelve to sixteen hours for first children or (quickly assessed by a skilled nurse when the baby is about six to nine hours for women who have handed to them or by touching the baby's palm), reflex previously given birth. It takes one woman in nine response (the Babinski reflex is tested), and color. over twenty four hours to dilate completely. Labor may also begin with a discharge of blood or amniotic fluid. Chapter 4: Infancy and Toddlerhood If the amniotic sack breaks, labor will be induced if necessary to reduce the risk of infection. The Brain In the First Two Years Some of the most dramatic physical change that The Second Stage occurs during this period is in the brain. We are born - The Second Stage involves the passage of the baby with most of the brain cells that we will ever have; that through the birth canal. This stage takes about ten to is, about 85 billion neurons whose function is to store forty minutes. Contractions usually come about every and transmit information While most of the brain’s neurons are present at birth, they are not fully mature.  dendrites - or branching extensions that collect neuroplasticity - refers to the brain’s ability to information from other neurons, will undergo a period change, both physically and chemically, to enhance its of exuberance. adaptability to environmental change and compensate for injury. Synaptogenesis - or the formation of connections between neurons, continues from the prenatal period Infant Sleep forming thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. New born - 16.5 Hours per 24-hour period One Month old - 15 Hours per 24-hour period synaptic blooming - This period of rapid neural 6 Months Old - 14 Hours per 24-hour period growth Two Years old - 10 Hours per 24 Hours period synaptic pruning - where neural connections are Additionally, the average newborn will spend close to reduced thereby making those that are used much 50% of the sleep time in the Rapid Eye Movement stronger. (REM) phase, which decreases to 25% to 30% in childhood. myelin - a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron. Myelin helps insulate the nerve cell and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): SIDS is speed the rate of transmission of impulses from one identified when the death of a healthy infant occurs cell to another. suddenly and unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings (including an autopsy) are The infant brain grows very fast. At birth the brain is inconclusive. about 250 grams (half a pound) and by one year it is already 750 grams. Comparing to adult size, the Unknown Cause: The sudden death of an infant less newborn brain is approximately 33% of adult size at than one year of age that cannot be explained because a birth, and in just 90 days, it is already at 55% of adult thorough investigation was not conducted, and cause of size. death could not be determined. The Two Hemispheres Accidental Suffocation and Strangulation in Bed: Reasons for accidental suffocation include: Suffocation cortex - or the thin outer covering of the brain by soft bedding, another person rolling on top of or involved in voluntary activity and thinking. against the infant while sleeping, an infant being wedged between two objects such as a mattress and frontal lobe -(behind the forehead), which is wall, and strangulation such as when an infant’s head responsible primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and neck become caught between crib railings. and judgment. From Reflexes to Voluntary Movements parietal lobe - which extends from the middle to the Reflexes are involuntary movements in response to back of the skull and which is responsible primarily for stimulation. processing information about touch. Sucking - Suck on anything that touches the lips occipital lobe - at the very back of the skull, which processes visual information. Rooting - Turning the head when the cheek is touched Temporal Lobe, which is responsible hearing and language. Grasp - Fingers automatically grip anything that touches the palm of the hand Lateralization - is the process in which different functions become localized primarily on one side of Babinski - The toes will fan out and curl when the the brain. sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe  Moro - a sudden noise or loss of support to the head prefer their mother’s voices over another female when and neck will cause infants to spread out their arms and speaking the same material legs then quickly contract the limbs inward Touch and pain - Immediately after birth, a Tonic Neck - When lying on the back with the head newborn is sensitive to touch and temperature, and is to one side infants will extend the arm and leg on that also highly sensitive to pain, responding with crying side while flexing the limbs on the opposite side and cardiovascular responses Stepping - Legs move in stepping like motion when Taste and smell - Studies of taste and smell feet touch a smooth surface demonstrate that babies respond with different facial expressions, suggesting that certain preferences are Motor Development innate. Newborns can distinguish between sour, bitter, Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference for infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking sweet flavors. Newborns also prefer the smell of their and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. As mothers. mentioned during the prenatal section, development Nutrition occurs according to the Cephalocaudal (from head to tail) and Proximodistal (from the midline outward) Breast milk is considered the ideal diet for newborns. principles. Colostrum, the first breast milk produced during pregnancy and just after birth has been described as Motor Skills - refer to our ability to move our bodies “liquid gold” (United States Department of Health and and manipulate objects. Human Services (USDHHS), 2011). It is very rich in Fine motor skills - focus on the muscles in our nutrients and antibodies. fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of Children who are breastfed have lower rates of small actions childhood leukemia, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 Palmer Grasp - grasping an object involves the use of diabetes, and a lower risk of SIDS. the fingers and palm, but no thumbs. It is recommended that mothers breast feed their Pincer Grasp - The use of the thumb comes at about 9 infants until at least 6 months of age, and that breast months of age when the infant is able to grasp an milk be used in the diet throughout the first year or object using the forefinger and thumb. two. Gross motor skills - focus on large muscle groups that Children who are breastfed have lower rates of control our head, torso, arms and legs and involve childhood leukemia, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 larger movements diabetes, and a lower risk of SIDS. Sensory Capacities Benefits of breastfeeding. Visual - The fovea, which is the central field of - Breastfeeding stimulates contractions in the uterus to vision in the retina and allows us to see sharp detail, is help it regain its normal size, not fully developed at birth, and does not start to reach - Women who breastfeed are more likely to space their adult levels of development until 15 months. pregnancies further apart. - Mothers who breastfeed are at lower risk of Hearing - The infant’s sense of hearing is very keen developing breast cancer at birth, and the ability to hear is evidenced as soon as - Women who breastfeed have lower rates of ovarian the seventh month of prenatal development. Newborns cancer reduced risk for developing Type 2 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis - Besides the nutritional benefits of breastfeeding, Assimilation: fitting the new information into an breast milk is free. existing schema, such as calling all animals with four legs "doggies" because he or she knows the word When to Introduce More Solid Foods: Solid foods doggie. Instead of assimilating the information, the should not be introduced until the infant is ready. child may demonstrate can sit up without needing support can hold its head up without wobbling Accommodation: which is expanding the framework shows interest in foods others are eating of knowledge to accommodate the new situation and is still hungry after being breastfed or formula fed thus learning a new word to more accurately name the is able to move foods from the front to the back of the animal. mouth is able to turn away when they have had enough According to the Piagetian perspective, infants learn about the world primarily through their senses and - For many infants who are 4 to 6 months of age, breast motor abilities (Harris, 2005). milk or formula can be supplemented with more solid foods. The first stage of cognitive development is referred to as the sensorimotor stage - Finger foods such as toast squares, cooked vegetable strips, or peeled soft fruit can be introduced by 10-12 Infant Ages for the Six Substages of the months. Sensorimotor Stage - Honey and corn syrup should be avoided as these 1. Substage 1: Reflexes. (0–1 month) Newborns learn often contain botulism spores. In children under 12 about their world through the use of their reflexes, such months, this can lead to death as when sucking, reaching, and grasping. Global Considerations and Malnutrition 2. Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions. (1–4 months) During these next 3 months, the infant begins - Infantile marasmus refers to starvation due to a lack to actively involve his or her own body in some form of calories and protein. of repeated activity. An infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting such as making a - After weaning, children who have diets deficient in vocalization. protein may experience kwashiorkor known as the “disease of the displaced child” often occurring after 3. Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions. (4–8 another child has been born and taken over months) The infant begins to interact with objects in breastfeeding. the environment. At first the infant interacts with objects (e.g., a crib mobile) accidentally, but then these Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood contacts with the objects are deliberate and become a repeated activity. Piaget and the Sensorimotor Stage Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive 4. Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular equilibrium, or a balance, in what we see and what we Reactions. (8–12 months) The infant combines these know (Piaget, 1954). Children have much more of a basic reflexes and simple behaviors and uses planning challenge in maintaining this balance because they are and coordination to achieve a specific goal. Now the constantly being confronted with new situations, new infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and words, new objects, etc. anticipate upcoming events. Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the Schema, Assimilation and Accommodation: infant become capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity. Schema.: framework for organizing information 5. Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions. (12–18 memory is rather fleeting and fragile. As a result, older months) The toddler is considered a “little scientist” children and adults experience infantile and begins exploring the world in a trial-and-error manner, using both motor skills and planning abilities. amnesia, the inability to recall memories from the first few years of life. 6. Substage 6: Beginning of Representational Thought. (18–24 months) The sensorimotor period infantile amnesia is due to the immaturity of the ends with the appearance of symbolic or infant brain, especially those areas that are crucial to representational thought. The toddler now has a basic the formation of autobiographical memory, such as the understanding that objects can be used as symbols. hippocampus. From the cognitive perspective, it has been suggested that the lack of linguistic skills of - This initial movement from a “hands-on” approach to babies and toddlers limit their ability to mentally knowing about the world to the more mental world of represent events; thereby, reducing their ability to substage six marks the transition to preoperational encode memory. thought. In a series of clever studies Carolyn Rovee-Collier Development of Object Permanence: A critical and her colleagues have demonstrated that infants can milestone during the sensorimotor period is the remember events from their life, even if these development of object permanence. memories are short-lived. Object permanence is the understanding that even if Infants older than 6 months of age can retain something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, information for longer periods of time; they also need Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). According to less reminding to retrieve information in memory. Piaget,young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from site. Studies of deferred imitation, that is, the imitation of actions after a time delay, can occur as early as Stranger anxiety, is a fear of unfamiliar people (Crain, six-months of age (Campanella & Rovee-Collier, 2005). Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable 2005), but only if infants are allowed to practice the to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; behavior they were shown. By 12 months of age, therefore, she cannot predict what her experience with infants no longer need to practice the behavior in order that stranger will be like, which results in a fear to retain the memory for four weeks (Klein & response. Meltzoff, 1999). Critique of Piaget:Piaget thought that children’s Language ability to understand objects, such as learning that a language, a system of communication that uses rattle makes a noise when shaken, was a cognitive skill symbols in a regular way to create meaning that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental Components of Language psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand Phoneme: A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound objects and how they work long before they have that makes a meaningful difference in a language. experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Morpheme: a morpheme is a string of one or more Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, & Wu, 2011). phonemes that makes up the smallest units of meaning Infant Memory in a language. Some morphemes are prefixes and suffixes used to modify other words. Memory requires a certain degree of brain maturation, so it should not be surprising that infant Semantics: Semantics refers to the set of rules we use to obtain meaning from morphemes. Syntax: Syntax is the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences. The syntax of the English language requires hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to that each sentence have a noun and a verb, each of repeat sounds that are entertaining. which may be modified by adjectives and adverbs. Some syntaxes make use of the order in which words ★ Babbling, engaging in intentional vocalizations that appear. lack specific meaning and comprise a consonant-vowel repeated sequence, such as ma-ma-ma, da-da- da. Pragmatics: The social side of language is expressed through pragmatics, or how we communicate ★ At about four to six months of age, infants begin effectively and appropriately with others. making even more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, Lastly, words do not possess fixed meanings, but clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to change their interpretation as a function of the context equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever in which they are spoken. We use contextual sounds are characteristic of the language heard. information, the information surrounding language, to help us interpret it. ★ At about 7 months, infants begin babbling,Children babble as practice in creating Language Developmental Progression specific sounds, and by the time they are a 1 year old, the babbling uses primarily the sounds of the language An important aspect of cognitive development is that they are learning. language acquisition. The order in which 2.Gesturing: Children communicate information children learn language structures is consistent across through gesturing long before they speak, and there is children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development. Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. ★ Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. At birth, babies recognize their mother’s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by 3. Understanding: At around ten months of age, the their mothers and foreign languages, and they show infant can understand more than he or she can say, preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony which is referred to as receptive language. with audible language. ★ One of the first words that children understand is Do newborns communicate? Of course, they do. their own name, usually by about 6 months, followed They do not, however, communicate with the use of by commonly used words like "bottle," "mama," and oral language. Instead, they communicate their "doggie" by 10 to 12 months thoughts and needs with body posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person ★ Infants shake their head "no" around 6-9 months, who spends adequate time with an infant can learn and they respond to verbal requests to do things like which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate "wave bye-bye" or "blow a kiss" around 9-12 hunger, discomfort, or frustration. months. 1. Intentional Vocalizations: In terms of producing ★ Children learn that people are usually referring to spoken language, babies begin to coo almost things that they are looking at when they are speaking immediately. and that the speaker's emotional expressions are related to the content of their speech. ★ Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g..cooorba). Cooing 4. Holophrasic Speech: Children begin using their serves as practice for vocalization, as well as the infant first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions are referred to as ★ Why is this done? Infants are frequently more holophrasic speech. attuned to the tone of voice of the person speaking than to the content of the words themselves and are aware ★ For example, the child may say "ju" for the word of the target of speech. "juice" and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the ★ Werker, Pegg, and McLeod (1994) found that holophrase, and when this is someone who has spent infants listened longer to a woman who was speaking time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. to a baby than to a woman who was speaking to another adult. 5. Language Errors: The early utterances of children contain many errors, for instance, confusing /b/ and /d/, ★ Adults may use this form of speech in order to or /c/ and /z/. The words children create are often clearly articulate the sounds of a word so that the child simplified, in part because they are not yet able to can hear the sounds involved. make the more complex sounds of the real language. Theories of Language Development ★ A child who learns that a word stands for an object 1. Nativism: the view was advocated by Noam may initially think that the word can be used for only Chomsky suggests that infants are equipped with a that particular object, which is referred to as neurological construct referred to as the language underextension. acquisition device or LAD that makes infants ready for language. Language develops as long as the infant is ★ A child may think that a label applies to all objects exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is that are similar to the original object, which is called required for language to develop. overextension. Deep structure of an idea; that is, how the idea is 6. First words and cultural influences: If the child is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that using English, first words tend to be nouns. The child is common to all languages, and the surface structure labels objects such as cup, ball, or other items that they of the idea or how it is expressed in any one language. regularly interact with. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more Example: At the end of a lecture, you will verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis remember a lot of ideas expressed by the instructor but given to objects based on culture. you cannot reproduce the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the ideas. 7. Two-word sentences and telegraphic (text message) speech: By the time they become toddlers, 2. Brain areas and critical periods: For the 90% of children have a vocabulary of about 50-200 words and people who are right-handed, language is stored and begin putting those words together in telegraphic controlled by the left cerebral cortex, although for speech, such as "baby bye-bye" or "doggie pretty". some left-handers this pattern is reversed. Words needed to convey messages are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for Broca’s area, an area in front of the left hemisphere grammatical correctness are not yet used. near the motor cortex, is responsible for language production.This area was first localized in the 1860s by ★ Telegraphic speech/text message speech occurs the French physician Paul Broca, who studied patients when unnecessary words are not used. "Give baby with lesions to various parts of the brain. ball" is used rather than "Give the baby the ball.” Wernicke’s area, an area of the brain next to the 8. Infant Directed Speech: It involves exaggerating auditory cortex, is responsible for language the vowel and consonant sounds, using a high-pitched comprehension. voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial expression. Is there a critical period for learning language? Psychologists believe there is a critical period, a time in which learning can easily occur, for language. This on parental interviews. Referred to as the New York critical period appears to be between infancy and Longitudinal Study, infants were assessed on 9 puberty but isolating the exact timeline has been dimensions of temperament including: Activity level, elusive. Children who are not exposed to language rhythmicity (regularity of biological functions), early in their lives will likely never grasp the approach/withdrawal (how children deal with new grammatical and communication nuances of language. things), adaptability to situations, intensity of reactions, threshold of responsiveness (how intense a 3. Learning Theory: stimulus has to be for the child to react), quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence. B. F. Skinner, suggests that language develops Based on the infants' behavioral profiles, they were through the use of reinforcement. Sounds, words, categorized into three general types of temperament: gestures and phrases are encouraged by following the behavior with words of praise or treats or anything that 1. Easy Child (40%) who is able to quickly adapt to Increases the likelihood that the behavior will be routine and new situations, remains calm, is easy to repeated. soothe, and usually is in a positive mood. Bandura, described the importance of observation 2. Difficult Child (10%) who reacts negatively to new and imitation of others in learning language. situations, has trouble adapting to routine, is usually negative in mood, and cries frequently. There must be at least some truth to the idea that language is learned through environmental interactions 3. Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%) has a low activity or nurture. Children learn the language that they hear level, adjusts slowly to new situations and is often spoken around them rather than some other language. negative in mood. It seems that children modify their language through imitation and reinforcement such as parental praise and A caregiver's ability to work well and accurately being understood. read the child will enjoy a goodness- of-fit, meaning their styles match and communication and interaction 4. Social pragmatics: Another view emphasizes the can follow. very social nature of human language. Language from this view is not only a cognitive skill, but also a social Parenting is bidirectional one. Language is a tool humans use to communicate, connect to, influence, and inform others. Most of all, - Not only do parents affect their children, children language comes out of a need to cooperate. influence their parents. Child characteristics, such as temperament, affect parenting behaviors and roles. The social nature of language has been demonstrated by a number of studies that have shown - For example, an infant with an easy temperament that children use several pre-linguistic skills (such as may enable parents to feel more effective, as they are pointing and other gestures) to communicate not only easily able to soothe the child and elicit smiling and their own needs, but what others may need. cooing. On the other hand, a cranky or fussy infant elicits fewer positive reactions from his or her parents and may result in parents feeling less effective in the parenting role. Temperament Temperament does not change dramatically as we is the innate characteristics of the infant, including grow up, but we may learn how to work around and mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity, manage our temperamental qu