General Biology Chapter 1: Cell History 1590-1673 PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY ❖ He observed living cells, blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, CHAPTER 1: CELL HISTORY and humans. 1590 - Hans and Zacharias Janssen ❖ He used a microscope to mag...

GENERAL BIOLOGY ❖ He observed living cells, blood cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs, CHAPTER 1: CELL HISTORY and humans. 1590 - Hans and Zacharias Janssen ❖ He used a microscope to magnify ❖ Father and son tandem spermatozoa (sperm). ❖ Known for inventing the compound optical microscope. * Micrographia - small drawings. ❖ Produced the first compound ❖ An introduction to the previously microscope by combining two unknown microscopic words. convex lenses with a tube. ❖ Large etchings of insects or plants. 1665 - Robert Hooke ❖ The first person to encounter Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) cells. ❖ First person to propose the ❖ * Cytology - the study of cells. theory of spontaneous ❖ Cytologist - a person who studies generation. cells. ❖ Spontaneous Generation ❖ Used microscope to examine - hypothetical process by cork (plant) which living organisms ❖ Hooke called what he saw “cells”. develop from non-living ❖ He described the cells as tiny matter. boxes or a honeycomb. - also known as ❖ He thought that cells only existed abiogenesis. in plants and fungi. - The idea of spontaneous ❖ He observed that the cork generation lasted for resembled the structure of the 2000 years. honeycomb consisting of many Examples: empty box-like cavities - cells. - Frogs developed from falling rain drops. 1673 - Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Dust creates fleas. ❖ Creates a microscope that can - Meats make maggots. make any cell 200x - 300x bigger than its original size. * Abiogenesis - old term for ❖ Used a handmade microscope to spontaneous generation observe pond scum and - The original evolution of life or discovered single-celled living organisms from inorganic to organisms. inanimate substances. ❖ * Animalcules - microscopic - Abio - non-living; genesis - organisms that included bacteria, creation. protozoans, and very small animals. PEOPLE WHO DISPROVED Lazzaro Spallanzani SPONTANEOUS GENERATION ❖ Italian scholar Francesco Redi ❖ Improved upon Needham’s ❖ He TRIED to disprove experiment. spontaneous generation for large ❖ Boiled flasks of gravy to kill life, organisms by showing that sealed one jar, and left the maggots arose from meat only other jar open. when flies laid eggs on the ❖ Open jar had living meat. microorganisms, sealed jar did ❖ Redi’s experiment: not. ❖ Concluded that the gravy did not produce life, organisms entered through air. John Needham ❖ English scientist ❖ Tried to prove spontaneous generation. ❖ Sealed a bottle of gravy, then John Needham Lazzaro heated it (to kill any life). Spallanzani ❖ Found life several days later, which he claimed came from the The “attack” on Spallanzani tests gravy. Redi & Needham. ❖ Flaw with his experiment: the Spontaneous Generation. flask was not sealed and was exposed to the air. The experiment: The experiment: ❖ Needham’s experiment: The Controversy Over Spontaneous Generation Problem: What causes tiny living things to appear in decaying broth? Spallanzani’s Hypothesis: Microbes opaque than the surrounding come from the air. Boiling will kill them. areas. Needham’s Hypothesis: Spontaneous ❖ He claimed that the structure was Generation. an integral part of the cell and called the nucleus. Louis Pasteur ❖ Father of Modern Microbiology. * Nucleus - also known as the brain of ❖ The FIRST scientist who the cell. SUCCESSFULLY disproves - Contains the chromosomes spontaneous generation. where inherited information is ❖ He devised a way to flask that formed. allowed oxygen in, but prevented dust from entering. The broth did Felix Dujardin (1835) not show signs of life until he ❖ A french biologist who viewed broke off the neck of the flask living cells with a microscope. allowing dust, and therefore, microbes to enter. MODERN CELL THEORY ❖ Pasteur’s experiment: - Consists of three statements based on a large body of scientific research. The original work was done by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow. Matthias Schleiden (1838) ❖ A botanist who concluded that all plants are made up of cells. ❖ The curve of the flask prevents Theodor Schwann (1839) outside air from entering the ❖ A zoologist who concluded that flask. No contamination occurs. all animals are made up of cells. ❖ When the neck of the flask is broken off, bacteria reach the Rudolph Virchow (1858) sterile broth and organism growth ❖ A viennese pathologist. occurs. ❖ After extensive study of cellular pathology, concluded that cells Robert Brown (1831) must arise from pre-existing cells. ❖ First person to encounter a nucleus. * Botanist - a person who studies ❖ In 1831, Robert Brown noticed a plants. near-circular spot slightly more * Zoologist - a person who studies * Multicellular organism - composed of animals. two or more cells. * Pathologist - a person who studies * Unicellular Organism - composed of organisms that causes diseases. one cell (single-celled organisms). The COMBINED work of Schleiden, * Sihay - short term for sisidlan ng Schwann, and Virchow make up the buhay. modern CELL THEORY. - Tagalog of cells THE 3 BASIC COMPONENTS OF CELL THEORY WERE NOW CHAPTER 2: CELL AND ITS COMPLETE: ORGANELLES 1. All organisms are composed of Cells one or more cells. ❖ Basic fundamental of life. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life. ❖ Are shaped according to its 3. All cells are produced by the function in the body. division of pre-existing cells. ❖ Has 70% of water. ❖ Composed of elements, like; PEOPLE WHO CONTRIBUTED TO carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and THE CELL THEORY nitrogen. ❖ Robert Hooke - credited with the ❖ 4 organic composition; discovery and naming of cells. carbohydrates, lipids, protein, ❖ Felix Dujardin - discovered the nucleic acid. living fluid in a cell called ❖ 1 inorganic composition; protoplasm. vitamins and minerals. ❖ Matthias Schleiden - German botanist who first proposed that Nerve Cell all plants and all plant parts are ❖ Has long thin extensions that made up of cells. Co-founder of reach out to the other nerve cells. cell theory. ❖ Theodor Schwann - German White blood cells zoologist who proposed that all ❖ Leukocytes animals and all animal parts are ❖ Immune system, fight against made up of cells. Co-founder of diseases/infections. cell theory. ❖ Rudolf Virchow - published an Red Blood Cells (RBC) influential theory that cells arose ❖ Carries oxygen. from each other in a continuous ❖ Circulates oxygen throughout our series of generations. body. Intestinal Epithelial Cells 3 MAIN REGIONS OF THE CELL: ❖ line the surface of intestinal Nucleus epithelium, where they play Cell/Plasma Membrane important roles in the digestion of Cytoplasm food, absorption of nutrients, and protection of the human body Cytoplasm from microbial infections, and ❖ Living substance of the cell. others. ❖ Cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma * Villi - tiny finger-like projections that membrane. line up the entire length of the small ❖ Site of most cellular activities - intestine. Absorbs nutrients from the “factory area” food eaten and then shuttle it to the ❖ Three major elements: bloodstream so it can travel where - Cytosol they’re needed. - Organelles - Inclusions Bacteria vs. Viruses Bacteria Viruses Cytosol ❖ Semi-transparent fluid that Ability to Not a living thing. suspends the other elements. reproduce. Needs a host. ❖ Composed largely water and nutrients and a variety of other Single-celled. Only infiltrates solutes (dissolved substances). cells ❖ Pigments, ions, cytoskeleton. ❖ 16.70 % of water * Bacteriophage - viruses that solely kill and selectively target bacteria. Cytosol Cytoplasm Protoplasm Cytosol is a fluid Cytoplasm is a ❖ Cytoplasm + Nucleus = present in the cell cell component Protoplasm membrane. present inside the ❖ The living part of the cell that is cell membrane. surrounded by the plasma membrane. Organelles ❖ a mixture of various organic and ❖ “Little organs” inorganic substances (as proteins ❖ The metabolic machinery of the and water) that makes up the cell. living nucleus, cytoplasm, ❖ Each type is specialized to carry plastids, and mitochondria of the out a specific function for the cell cell and is considered the as a whole. physical basis of life. Cell Membrane Other functions of Cell Membrane: ❖ Outermost covering of the cell. 1. Maintains the shape of the cell. ❖ Also known as Plasma 2. Contains cell content, and membrane. entrance and exit of materials. ❖ For support and protection. 3. Prevents the contents of one cell ❖ A fragile, transparent barrier from mixing with other cells. that contains the cell contents and separates them from the Nucleus surrounding environment. ❖ Control center of the cell. ❖ Controls the entrance and exit ❖ Usually located near the center of substances. of the cell. Most often oval or - Selectively permeable spherical, but its shape usually membrane. conforms with the shape of the ❖ Similar to the sodium cell. concentration in blood and tears. ❖ Contains the genetic material, ❖ Consist of two phospholipid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). layers (bilayer) arranged “tail to ❖ Has three recognizable tail” in which protein molecules regions: float. - Nuclear membrane ❖ Arrangement: - Nucleoli - Water soluble - Chromosomes (hydrophilic) “heads” containing phosphate Nuclear Membrane groups form the surface ❖ Double-layered membrane. of the membrane. ❖ Covering of the nucleus. - Water insoluble (hydrophobic) “tails” Nuclear Pores consisting of fatty acid ❖ Allow certain dissolved chains make up the substances to move between interior of the the nucleus and the cytoplasm. membrane. Nucleolus * Hydrophilic - Love of Water ❖ Small dark staining round bodies * Hydrophobic - Fear of Water in the nucleus. * Permeability - ability to pass ❖ Nucleolus produces ribosomes. through the membrane barrier. ❖ Center of the nucleus. * Semi-permeable - substances can Nucleoplasm enter and exit but selectively only to ❖ Semi-liquid portion of the carbon dioxide, water and oxygen. nucleus.  helping the cell divide up its DNA during Chromatin division (mitosis and meiosis). ❖ a mixture of DNA and proteins Specifically, it is the region where the that form the chromosomes found cell's spindle fibers attach. in the cells of humans and other * RNA - Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a higher organisms. molecule that is present in the majority ❖ Lowest order of the DNA of living organisms and viruses. It is organization. made up of nucleotides, which are ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous Chromatid bases and phosphate groups. ❖ each of the two threadlike strands * rRNA - Ribosomal ribonucleic acid into which a chromosome divides is a type of non-coding RNA which is the longitudinally during cell division. primary component of ribosomes, Each contains a double helix of essential to all cells. DNA. Mitochondria Chromosome ❖ Powerhouse of the cell. ❖ Chromosomes are thread-like ❖ Provides most of the ATP structures located inside the needed for all cellular work. nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of 5 Roles Mitochondria Play in Cells protein and a single molecule 1. Production of ATP. of deoxyribonucleic acid 2. Regulation of Innate Immunity. (DNA). Passed from parents to 3. Calcium Homeostasis. offspring, DNA contains the 4. Programmed Cell Death. specific instructions that make 5. Stem Cell Regulation each type of living creature unique. * Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - the ❖ Highest order of the DNA source of energy for use and storage at organization the cellular level. Histones Endoplasmic Reticulum ❖ A protein that provides ❖ Provides a network for structural support for a channels/pathways for carrying chromosome. substance from one part of the ❖ A special protein used to help cell to another. pack DNA. ❖ 2 forms of Endoplasmic Reticulum: * Centromere - a constricted region of a - Smooth Endoplasmic chromosome and plays a key role in Reticulum (SER)  - Rough Endoplasmic Lysosome Reticulum (RER) ❖ “Suicide bags”. ❖ Are membranous “bags Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) containing powerful digestive ❖ Studded with Ribosomes enzymes. ❖ Abundant in cells that make and export protein products. Apoptosis ❖ A form of programmed cell Soft Endoplasmic reticulum (SER) death that occurs in ❖ Functions in lipid metabolism and multicellular organisms and in manufacture of steroid hormones. some eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. * Lipids - Lipids are fatty compounds that perform a variety of functions in Necrosis your body. (i.e. fats and oils). ❖ The death of body tissue. It occurs when too little blood Golgi Body flows to the tissue. ❖ Also known as dictyosome. ❖ A stack of flattened membranous Apoptosis vs. Necrosis sacs called cisternae, Apoptosis Necrosis ❖ “Packaging center of the cell”. Lumiliit Lumalaki Vesicles Nagiging blebs Occurs due to ❖ Vesicles form naturally during injuries, the processes of secretion, infections, or uptake, and the transport of diseases. materials within the plasma membrane. Occurs during Loss of plasma development and membrane ❖ 2 types of vesicles: aging of cells. integrity. Leakage - Transport Vesicle - help Also occurs as a of cellular move materials, such as defense contents. proteins and other mechanism when molecules, from one part cells are of a cell to another. damaged. - Secretory Vesicle - play an important role in Necrotizing Fasciitis (NecFas) moving molecules ❖ an acute disease in which outside of the cell, inflammation of the fasciae of through a process called muscles or other organs results exocytosis. in rapid destruction of overlying tissues.  ❖ Treated by antibiotics/ Chloroplast ❖ Site of photosynthesis. * Oncosis - swelling of cells. ❖ Occurs in the leaves. ❖ Form of plastid containing Vacuoles pigment ❖ Spherical empty sacs for storage of: Chromoplast - Food ❖ Are plastids, heterogeneous - Waste organelles responsible for - Waster pigment synthesis and storage in specific photosynthetic Ribosomes eukaryotes. ❖ “Site of Protein Synthesis”. ❖ Some are scattered in the * Chlorophyll - green pigment found in cytoplasm and some are chloroplast. attached to the organelles. * Carotenoids - orange pigment found in chromoplast. Cytoskeleton ❖ Cyto - cell; Skeleton - structure Cell Wall ❖ Internal framework that ❖ Outermost covering of Plant determines cell shape, Cell. supports other organelles, and ❖ ONLY present in plant cells. provides the machinery ❖ Made up of cellulose. needed for intracellular ❖ protects/serves as a barrier of the transport and other cellular cell. movements. ❖ Made up of Intermediate * Cellulose - complex carbohydrates. filament, Microtubules, Microfilament. CELL CLASSIFICATION ❖ Muscle and skeleton of the Prokaryotic Cells cell. ❖ Pro - before; karyo - nucleus. ❖ Undergo mitosis. * Microtubules - forms the spindle ❖ Have their nuclear material fibers. (nucleoid) mixed with the Centrioles protoplasm. ❖ Direct the formation of the ❖ Cells without a true nucleus. mitotic spindle during cell ❖ The cytoplasm only contains division. ribosomes, thylakoid, and ❖ Found ONLY in animal cells. enzymes.  ❖ Reproduced by Binary Fission (Duplication/Splitting). * Flagellum/Flagella - tail-like projection for locomotion. Eukaryotic Cells * Pilus/Pili - helps the bacteria to ❖ Eu - true; karyo - nucleus attach themselves in surface, DNA ❖ Undergo amitosis exchange. ❖ Has a variety of structure and * Cilia - hair-like projection for parts. locomotion. ❖ Cells with nucleus. * Plasmodesmata - cytoplasmic ❖ Can be either plant cells or bridges between adjacent cells. animal cells. - Regulates substance and passage. Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic - Prevents the loss of water. Cells * Peroxisome - contains enzymes that Eukaryotic Similarities Prokaryotic produce hydrogen peroxide/destruction cells Cells of hydrogen peroxide. Membrane Cytoplasm No bound membrane-b CHAPTER 3: MEMBRANE nucleus. ounded nucleus TRANSPORT Membrane Transport Membrane DNA No ❖ Refers to the mechanisms that bound membrane regulate the passage of solutes organelle bound organelle such as ions and small molecules through biological membranes, Cytoskeleto Plasma No which are lipid bilayers that n Membrane cytoskeleton contain protein embedded with Complex Simple them. Multicellular Unicellular * Epidermis - layer of skin that absorbs or water. Unicellular * Sebum - special oils that cover our Does not Intercellular body. contain pili links: pili for Homeostasis DNA ❖ The dynamic state of equilibrium. Undergo Undergo ❖ Everything should be balanced. amitosis mitosis Small Large Perspiration/Sweating ribosomes ribosomes ❖ To excrete waste  ❖ To lose fats Hyperthermia ❖ To regulate body temperature ❖ High body temperature. Anhidrosis Hypothermia ❖ Inability to sweat ❖ Low body temperature. ❖ Parang may lagnat pag hinahawakan yung taong may * Pyrexia - also known as fever anhidrosis. - Sudden rise of body temperature. Hypohidrosis ❖ Sweating, but not enough to PASSIVE TRANSPORT & ACTIVE regulate body temperature. TRANSPORT Passive Transport Hyperhidrosis ❖ Transport of substances that ❖ Too much sweating. don’t need energy. ❖ Comes in naturally. Eccrine Glands ❖ 3 types of Passive Transport ❖ Are the most common and are - Diffusion all found all over the surface of - Osmosis the body. - Facilitated Diffusion ❖ They are most numerous on the palms of the hands and soles of * Solvent - can dissolve the feet. * Solute - something that could be dissolve Apocrine Glands * Solution - solvent + solute ❖ Are common in armpits and groin areas. Diffusion ❖ Sweat from the apocrine glands ❖ Movement of molecules from an does not evaporate as quickly area of high concentration to and could lead to foul body the area of low concentration. odor. ❖ Apocrine sweat is often a result * High Concentration - focuses on the of emotional stress or anxiety. direction of solute. * Low Concentration - kung saan * Pereanal - between the private area possible kumalat yung solute. and anus. Rate of Diffusion Normothermia ❖ Depends on the size of the ❖ Normal body temperature. substance. ❖ Higher Temp.; Diffuse faster  ❖ Larger surface; diffuse faster ❖ Channel P. - facilitates the ❖ Higher gradient; diffuse faster transport of substances across ❖ Smaller particles; diffuse faster a cell membrane. ❖ Solid; slowest ❖ Carrier P. - transport proteins ❖ Liquid; faster that bind to molecules and ❖ Gas; fastest change shape to shuttle them across the membrane. *DIFFUSION STOPS WHEN EQUILIBRIUM* Osmosis ❖ Movement of water molecules Equilibrium in a semi-permeable towards the ❖ “Net movement” = overall region of higher solute. movement. ❖ The membrane allows solvent to enter but not the solute. Importance of Diffusion 1. Respiration - the process of Water Potential breathing in oxygen and ❖ Amount of water in a particular breathing out carbon dioxide. location inside and outside of the membrane. * Alveoli/ Alveolus - tiny air sacs ❖ The tendency of water to move where gas exchange occurs. from one area to another. Facilitated Diffusion Tonicity ❖ A type of passive transport that ❖ Determines the direction of relies on carrier proteins in movement of water molecules order for the substances to move across the membrane. down their concentration ❖ 3 types of tonicity: gradient. - Hypertonic - solute concentration is higher Concentration Gradient outside the cell, the cell ❖ Is present when a membrane would shrink. separates two different - Isotonic - equal amount of concentrations of molecules. solute inside and outside ❖ Difference within a given area the cell, nothing would between the highest and lowest happen to the cell. concentration of a substance. - Hypotonic - solute concentration is lower 2 types of Membrane Proteins outside the cell, the cell would swell/expand. Tonicity in Plants Sodium-Potassium Pump Cycle ❖ Plasmolysis/Plasmolyzed - - Uses ATP to transport sodium shrinking of plant cells. and potassium ions across the ❖ Flaccid/Flaccidity - normal cell membrane. plant cells. - Moves sodium and potassium ❖ Turgid/Turgidity - expanding of ions against large plant cells but not exploding. concentration gradients. It moves two potassium ions into * Cytolysis/Osmotic lysis - bursting the cell where potassium levels of cells. are high, and pumps three * Crenation - shrinking of cells. sodium ions out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid. Diffusion vs. Osmosis Diffusion Osmosis Vesicular Transport - Endocytosis Spread solute. Spread solvent. - Exocytosis Transport Transport water in Endocytosis materials in the the membrane. membrane. ❖ Type of active transport that moves particles toward the cell. Movement of Movement of ❖ 2 Types of Endocytosis: molecules from molecules from - Phagocytosis high to low low to high - Pinocytosis concentration. concentration. Phagocytosis Active Transport ❖ Type of endocytosis where large - Transport of substances that particles are taken in by the cell. NEED energy. ❖ Also known as the “cell eating - Substances move from an area process”. of low to high concentration. ❖ When the vesicles enter the cell, Passive Active Transport it will merge to the lysosomes. Transport 5 Stages of Phagocytosis High to low Low to high 1. Chemotaxis concentration. concentration. 2. Adhesion 3. Ingestion 3 Types of Active Transport 4. Phagosome Formation 1. Membrane Pump 5. Digestion/Degradation 2. Endocytosis 3. Exocytosis * Chemoattractants - chemical signals. * Pseudopods - cytoplasmic extensions Cell Cycle ❖ Ordered sequence of events that 3 Different White Blood Phagocytes occur in a cell in preparation for ❖ Monocyte cell division. ❖ Neutrophil ❖ Macrophage Cell Division - Fixed Macrophage - ❖ “All cells came from preexisting tissue resident cells.” - Rudolf Virchow macrophage, ❖ “Omnis cellula e cellula.” matatagpuan sa isang ❖ Reproduction of cells. lugar. ❖ 3 Rs in Cell Division: - Wandering Macrophage - - Replace also known as circulating - Repair macrophage, - Reproduce matatagpuan kahit saan. ❖ 2 types of Cell Division Pinocytosis - Meiosis ❖ Cells’ purposeful intake of - Mitosis extracellular fluid. ❖ Also known as the “cell drinking Cell Cycle process” ❖ The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that Exocytosis take place in a cell that causes it ❖ Reverse process of removing to divide into two daughter cells. waste into cells. ❖ 3 Stages of Cell Cycle: - Interphase - Cell Division CHAPTER 4: CELL DIVISION, - Cytokinesis MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS. * Platelets - traps the blood from Cell Division coming out. ❖ Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into Cancer two daughter cells. Cell division ❖ A disease caused by an usually occurs as part of a larger uncontrollable division of cell cycle in which the cell grows abnormal cells in a part of the and replicates its chromosome(s) body. before dividing. Cancer Cells ❖ Abnormality of Cells.  - People who suffer from this Cyst syndrome look identical. ❖ Benign - not cancerous. ❖ Malignant - easily spreads. G2 Phase (Growth Gap 2) - Organelles of the cell duplicates. Interphase - DNA complete replication and ❖ Preparatory stage before Cell Integrity. division. ❖ Also known as the “resting CELL CHECKPOINTS stage”. G1 Checkpoint ❖ Check for; * Hair Follicle - keeps on growing, does - Nutrients cell division frequently. - Growth factors * Chemotherapy/Cancer Radiation - - DNA damage targets cells that divide frequently. * Scalp Cooling Caps - restrict/narrow G2 Checkpoint blood vessels and limit cancer cells ❖ Check for; from going into the skull. - Cell size - Made up of silicone or cold liquid. - DNA replication G1 Phase (Growth Gap 1) Metaphase or M Checkpoint ❖ Protein reproduction. ❖ Check for; ❖ Rapid growth of newly produced - Chromosome spindle cells. attachment. ❖ Centrioles replicate. ❖ Apoptosis (programmed cell * Cell Limbo - when the cells stay in death) their phase. - Happens when a cell is still active S Phase (DNA Replication) but unable to divide again. - DNA replicates, producing 2 - Cells have to stay in a certain identical chromatin. place until they fix the issue. * Apoptosis - ensures that irreplaceable * There are 46 chromosomes in a normal cells will not divide. human body, 23 pairs of chromosomes, and 92 chromatids. If the chromosomes Regulators are unattached, 92 chromosomes.* ❖ Regulates the cell cycle. ❖ 2 Types of Regulators; * Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) - 47 - Positive Regulator chromosomes. - Negative Regulator  ❖ Occurs during the mitosis phase Positive Regulators (M). ❖ Allows something to move ❖ Check whether the mitosis is forward to the next step. complete. ❖ CDK & Cyclin. ❖ If so, the cell divides, and the cycle repeats. Negative Regulators ❖ Make some thing to stop. Mitosis ❖ P53/TP53 (Tumor Protein 53). ❖ Production of 2 daughter cells that have the same number of G0 chromosomes. ❖ Cells that are not ready to divide ❖ The 2 daughter cells are stay here. genetically identical ❖ They never get to divide any further, but perform function Mutation properly. ❖ Changes in the production of ❖ Brain cells, neurons, and spinal cells. cells stay in this stage. Progeria Cell Growth Checkpoint ❖ An extremely rare and fatal ❖ Occurs towards the end of disease that causes the body to growth phase 1 (G1). age rapidly. ❖ Checks whether the cell is big ❖ Sam Berns, American activist that enough and has made proper has progeria. proteins for the synthesis phase. ❖ If not, the cell goes through a resting period (G0) until it is Ectrodactyly ready to divide. ❖ Caused by a mutation in chromosomes 10, 7, 3, or 2, this DNA Synthesis Checkpoint x-linked condition results in ❖ Occurs during the synthesis “split” hands and feet. phase (S). ❖ Checks whether DNA has been Albinism replicated correctly. ❖ A genetic condition characterized ❖ If so, the cell continues on to by the absence or reduction of mitosis (M). melanin, the pigment responsible for the coloration of the skin, hair, Mitosis Checkpoint and eyes. It is primarily caused by  mutations in specific genes ❖ It is presented when a baby is involved in melanin production. born with a single lower limb. Diprosopus Sickled Red Blood Cells ❖ The condition is thought to be ❖ Abnormal hemoglobin molecules. caused by a protein with the ❖ Moon-shaped RBC. unusual name sonic hedgehog homolog, which has a STAGES OF MITOSIS corresponding gene. Sonic 1. Prophase hedgehog proteins are 2. Metaphase responsible for signaling cells 3. Anaphase about the proper formation of 4. Telophase limbs and organs during embryonic development; the one Prophase that causes diprosopus is said to ❖ Supercoiling of chromosomes. be linked with brace and brain ❖ Chromosomes become visible to patterning. the microscope. ❖ A person who had this mutation ❖ Nuclear membrane disappears. was Edward Mordrake. ❖ Formation of Spindle fiber. Janus cats Metaphase ❖ Felines with diprosopus ❖ Alignment of chromosomes in condition. the metaphase plate or equatorial ❖ Earned the name “janus cats” plate. after a Roman God who had two faces. Anaphase ❖ Spindle fibers shorten and pull Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis the sister chromatids in opposite ❖ Sometimes called the “tree man poles. disease”. ❖ A very rare and autosomal recessive skin disorder, meaning that both parents must be Centrioles vs. Centrosome carriers for the condition to Centrioles Centrosome appear. Microtubule unit Made up of two Sirenomelia which makes the centrioles. ❖ Also known as mermaid centrosome. syndrome. Microtubules like Contains two * Spermatogenesis - creation of sperm centrin, cenexin, centrioles cells. and tektin are arranged in an * Oogenesis - creation of egg cells. arranged in a orthogonal * Gametogenesis - creation of cylindrical manner. gametes. structure. Mother centriole Forms spindle Spermatogenesis forms flagella and apparatus during 1.) Spermatogonia cilia in the cell division. 2.) 1st Spermatocyte non-dividing cells. 3.) 2nd Spermatocyte 4.) Spermatid Telophase 5.) Sperm ❖ Spindle fibers break down. Oogenesis ❖ Nuclear envelope starts to form. 1.) Oogonium ❖ Chromosomes start to uncoil. ❖ Nucleolus forms. 2.) Primary oocyte 3.) Secondary oocyte & Primary Cytokinesis polar body ❖ Division of the cytoplasm. 4.) Ovum ❖ Formation of cleavage furrows. ❖ In plants; * Spermarche - first ejaculation of a - Cell plates are formed male. instead of cleavage * Nocturnal Emissions - wet furrows. dreams. * Menarche - first menstrual period. Meiosis * Menopause - marks the end of ❖ Type of cell division involved in menstrual period. the production of gametes. * Diploid - reductional. * Haploid - equational. Gametes ❖ Reproductive cells that contain STAGES OF MEIOSIS half the number of chromosomes * Interphase happens before the as the normal body cells. process starts.* ❖ 23 chromosomes in sperm cell, 23 chromosomes in egg cell. Gametes ❖ 2 stages; - Meiosis I (Reductional) * Human Egg - ovum - Meiosis II (Equational) * Human Sperm - spermatozoa Meiosis ❖ The paired homologous ❖ Produces four unidentical chromosomes align to the daughter cells. metaphase plate. ❖ Spindle fibers attaches to the Meiosis I Meiosis II homologous chromosomes. Prophase I Prophase II Anaphase I Metaphase I Metaphase II ❖ Homologous chromosomes separate and moves toward the Anaphase I Anaphase II opposite poles. Telophase I Telophase II Telophase I MEIOTIC MITOTIC ❖ Chromosomes reach the opposite poles followed by Prophase I cytokinesis. ❖ Leptotene - Condensation of chromosomes. ❖ Zygotene - Homologous chromosomes pair with each other. - Formation of synaptonemal complex. ❖ Pachytene Interkinesis - Crossing over of ❖ The period between 2 set of homologous meiotic division. chromosomes/Exchange * Homologous Chromosomes - of genetic materials. chromosomes that carry the same gene. ❖ Diplotene * Homozygous Chromosomes - - Chiasma visible within having 2 identical alleles of a particular bivalent. gene. ❖ Diakinesis - Occurs when the alleles are - Nuclear membrane identical. disintegrates. * Synapsis - finding the partner of the chromosomes, forming tetrads. * Alleles - variants of genes. * Locus/Loci - genetic address or biomarker. Metaphase I Meiosis II PRACTICAL RESEARCH ❖ Same with the process of mitosis. Research ❖ Produce 4 genetically is a process of executing various unidentical haploid mental acts for you discovering chromosomes. and examining facts and ❖ No more crossing over because information to prove the accuracy it already happened. or truthfulness of your claims or conclusions about the topic of your research. Importance of Research It promotes people’s independence or interpersonal relationships that the world needs for solving its societal problems. Research studies happen in any Genetic Recombination field of knowledge. Anthropology, ❖ Crossing over Business, Communication, ❖ Independent assortment Education, Engineering, Law and ❖ Random fertilization. Nursing, among others. * Sperm cell and Egg cell Haploid - 23 Process and Approaches * Zygote Diploid - 46 1. Scientific and Positive Approach Karyotype - You discover and measure ❖ An organized picture of the information as well as chromosomes of a human observe and control arranged in pairs by size from variables in an impersonal largest to smallest. manner. - It allows control of * Autosomes - pairs 1-22. variables * Sex Chromosomes - last pair of chromosomes. 2. Naturalistic Approach - Uses words Fertilization - It directs you to deal with ❖ The fusion of a sperm and egg qualitative data that speak to form a zygote. of how people behave toward their surrounding. * Zygote - fertilized egg. - These are non-numerical * Male - XY chromosomes data that express truth * Female - XX chromosomes  about the way people work and the work of your perceive or understand the peer. world. 5. Openness 3. Triangulation Approach - Share data, results, ideas, - Allowing you to combine or tools, resources. Be open mix up research to criticism and new ideas. approaches, research 6. Respect intellectual Properties types, data gathering, and - Honor patents, copyrights, data analysis techniques. and other forms of - Gives you the opportunity intellectual property. Do to view every angle of the not use unpublished data, research from different methods w/o permission. perspective. 7. Confidentiality - Protect confidential Ethics of Research communications, such as 1. Honesty papers or grant submitted - Strive for honesty in all for publication, personnel scientific communications records, patient records - Do not fabricate, falsity, or 8. Social Responsibility misrepresent data - Strive to promote social 2. Objectivity good and prevent or - Strive to avoid bis in mitigate social harms experimental design, data through research, public analysis, data education, and advocacy. interpretation, peer review, 9. Non-discrimination personnel decision, grant - Avoid discrimination writing, expert testimony, against colleagues or etc. students on the basis of 3. Integrity sex, race, ethnicity, or - Keep your promises or other factors that are not agreement; act with related to the scientific sincerity; strive competence and integrity consistency of thought and 10. Legality actions. - Know the obey relevant 4. Carefulness laws and institution - Avoid careless errors and policies. negligence; carefully and 11. Human Subject Protection critically examine your Voluntary participation Informed consent  Anonymity Proper utilization of statistical tools to check the reliability of tools and data. Scientific approaches in Research 7. Conclusion Conducting a research study involves Ruling out opinions; It should be a systematic way of collecting data. objective and based from the analyzed This usually involves the utilization of data. SCIENTIFIC METHODS 8. Replication 1. Empirical Approach Doing the same study to different Data and knowledge is obtained through participants. direct observation and experimentation. Opinions and personal beliefs are a. Establishment of reliability of findings disregarded. b. Discovery of new knowledge c. Ascertainment of the generalizability 2. Observation of results. Awareness of the surroundings plays a vital role in obtaining data. In addition, tools can be used to verify what is being Characteristics of quantitative observed. research 3. Inquiry 1. More structured research Looking for answers by thoroughly instruments. asking questions. 2. Bigger sample size Scientific investigation is necessary to 3. Study can be replicated due to its generate tangible proof. high reliability 4. Clearly defined research question 4. Hypothesis 5. Study is carefully designed Educated guess; Researchers will 6. Numerical data predict the result of a study. 7. Uses questionnaires Findings will aide in the interpretation and analysis of data. Strengths of Quantitative Research 1. Enables broader study. 5. Experimentation 2. Results are more accurate Assure the testability in a crafted 3. Study can be replicated condition for the accuracy and reliability 4. Comparisons can be made over time of results. Findings are considered 5. Biases can be avoided correct. LImitations of Quantitative Research 6. Analyses 1. Data can be limited. 2. Results may not reflect a real-life situation 3. Questionnaire is based on researchers’ POV Philippine Pre practical kind of science they knew back then Colonial Literature AKA Myths and Legends Epics Proverbs Long-winded poems about a Practical observations and hero and his adventures and philosophy of everyday life misadventures that is written usually in Usually tells of a male hero rhyming scheme who is born with all pleasing It is meant to entertain while qualities teaching basic skills in The hero also has surviving local life superhuman capabilities AKA Salawikain Riddles Used in battle of wits Spanish Colonial Flippant nature Refers to something Philippine Literature laughable but in reality, the answer is more serious than 1521 - When Ferdinand Magellan expected explore claimed the island as AKA Bugtong colony for the Spanish Empire Folk Songs Christianity - The belief system and Beautiful songs that are practices of the religion founded on informal expressions of our the life and teachings of Jesus of ancestors’ experiences in life Nazareth Ranges from courtship to lullabies, harvest and funerals Doctrina Christiana en lengua Espanola y tagala Tales By the Dominican Order at the San Stories of origin for certain Gabriel Church places,their names and their creation Corrido Used to explain certain A legendary religious events or Phenomena in our narrative form usually details ancestors’ lives that cannot be explained by the limited  the lives of saints or the Usually about battles to the history of a tradition death and the proofs of faith Long verse narrative on chivalric-heroic and folklore Carillo themes A play that uses shadows as its main spectacle Octosyllabic - Measures of eight Created by animating figures syllables and recited to a martial made from cardboard that beat are projected onto a white Dodecasyllabic - Measures of screen twelve syllables and slowly sang Tibag Awit Legendary religious narrative A chivalric poem about hero, form that usually details the or usually about a saint lives of saints or the history of Usually sung and used in a tradition religious processions A dramatic reenactment of St. Helena’s search for Holy Passion cross The narrative poem about the Usually performed in May life of Jesus Christ, beginning from his birth and up to his Duplo or Karagatan death Narrative dramas that are connected to Catholic Cenaculo mourning rituals and harvest The dramatization of the celebrations passion of Christ. It highlights the sufferings and death of Zarzuela Jesus Christ Musical comedies or melodramas that deal with Moro-Moro the elemental passions of AKA Comedia de Capo y human beings Espada Blood-and thunder melodrama depicting the conflict of Christians and Muslims  Used by the writer to describe their impressions of their topic or object of writing The writer uses carefully chosen words to create an imagery that the reader can see through his or her senses Types of Imagery 1. Visual Imagery - What the writer wants you to see 2. Olfactory Imagery - What the writer wants you to smell Poetry of the 3. Gustatory Imagery - What Archipelago the writer wants you to taste 4. Tactile Imagery - What the Philippine Poetry writer wants you to feel Early 1900s, Filipino poetry 5. Auditory Imagery - What the celebrated romanticism and several writer wants you to hear poems about love flourished Carlos Angeles What is Poetry? Born on May 25, 1921 in Literary work in which special Tacloban, Leyte intensity is given to the University of the Philippines expression of feelings and Won the Republic Cultural ideas by the use of distinctive Heritage in Literature in 1964 style and rhythm with his poetry collection Poems collectively or as a Stun Jewels genre of literature Language of imagination expressed in verse A poem follows a particular flow or rhythm and meter Diction Elements in Poetry The denotative and connotative meaning of the Senses and Images words in a sentence, phrase, paragraph or poem  Refers to the Refers as “‘I” or “me” or speaking/writing style or the sometimes in third person choice of words that a writer uses Form - A poem’s form is its appearance Types of Diction 1. Formal Diction - Uses Line complicated structures, Includes all the words in one perfect grammatical form row and a wide range of Couplet - contains two lines vocabulary words Quatrain - contains four lines 2. Informal Diction - More conversational and often Rhyme Scheme used in narrative literature The ordered pattern of 3. Colloquial Diction - Informal rhyming words at the end of in nature and generally each line of a poem represents a certain region or This pattern in labeled using time capital letters 4. Slang Diction - Originated within a specific culture or subgroup but gained traction. Can be a new word, Alternate Rhyme (ABAB) a shortened word or modified The first and third lines rhyme word/words that take on a at the end and the second new meaning and fourth lines rhyme at the 5. Concrete Diction - Use of end following pattern words for their literal meanings and often refer to Coupled Rhyme (AABB) things that appeal to the Two-line stanza that senses rhymes-following a rhyme 6. Abstract Diction - When a scheme AABB writer uses words to describe A similar dual rhyming something intangible scheme Speaker Limerick Rhyme (AABBA) The voice that talks to the A five-line poem with the reader rhyme scheme AABBA Simple Four-line Rhyme (ABCB) terms of a person or living Follow a rhyme scheme of thing ABCB throughout the entire poem Meter/Rhythm - Meter describes Close Reading of the rhythm or pattern of beats in a Filipino Poetry line of poetry Figurative Language - Refers to The way to analyze the poem by language which differs from carefully reading and rereading a everyday “‘nonliterary” usage text until you have found its interpretation Figures were seen as stylistic ornaments which writers dressed Organic Unity up their language to make it more Relies internally on narration entertaining, and to clarify the and drama to be cohesive, meaning they wanted to convey but without balance between the two sides, the work Simile suffers The comparison of two Its main theme relies on a elements where each free-spirited style of writing maintains its own identity and by following guidelines in genre-based habits Metaphor The merging of two elements Close Reading or ideas where one is used to The context modify the meaning of the When it was written other The settings The reason why it was written Metonym/Metonymy The elements The use of part to represent a whole Marjorie Evasco Born in Bohol in September Personification 1935 The description of a Writes bilingually in English nonhuman force or object in and Cebuano-Visayan  Country’s earliest feminist The person that opposes or poets fights against another Asian Write Award in 2010 character Professor in DLSU Manila AKA the villain of the story She wrote “Is it the Kingfisher?” Symbolism The representation of one thing using another Could be done via an object, Fiction setting, character, or color Fiction Literature created from the Plot Structure of imagination, not presented Fiction as fact May be based on a true story The Landscape of Philippine or situation Fiction Narratives based in the imagination of the author Plot Not in literal, reportorial facts Describes the events and their significance as the story unfolds Character Someone in a story either a Exposition human, a fantastical or The beginning of the story mythical creature or talking The writer sets the scene by animal introducing the character, Have character traits that describing the settings, and define them and influence sometimes will give a brief how they act in the story background of the story Protagonist Inciting Incident The main character in a story The event that sets the main The person that the story is character or characters on written about the journey that will occupy them throughout the Antagonist narrative  Typically will upset the Where the story reaches its balance within the main final conclusion character’s world The writer starts to get ready to tell the ending Also includes an explanation of what had happened and how the characters feel Rising Action When the complication Paz Marquez Benitez begins to show itself on the Born in March 3, 1894 characters, setting, and Quezon City events in the story Studied at the University of When the story starts to the Philippines become more exciting Editor of the Women’s Journal from 1919-1924, the Climax first feminine magazine in The event with the greatest English published in the tension in the story Philippines When the characters know Married to Francisco Benitez, the truth, act on their a noted educator impulses and make rash decisions or decide to do somethin Usually signals how the story will end Falling Action The result of the climax The part when things start falling into place for the characters Reaching the conclusion of the story Denouement/Resolution Denouement is a French term that means “ending”  4.) Dialogue - Speech that is written down as a part of a piece of narrative text Technical Elements 1.) Scenery - Setting for a theatrical production. Immovable elements 2.) Costumes - Clothing and accessories worn by the dramatists Philippine Literature 3.) Props (Properties) - Movable objects used as a part of a Drama dramatic production Portrayal of fiction on stage, on film, on radio A written work that tells a The History of story through action and Philippine Theater speech and is meant to be acted on stage Philippine Theater Playwrights Began in Pre Colonial Writers of a drama and/or a indigenous drama play Rituals, verbal oust or games, and songs and dances Dramatists praising their respective gods Actors of a drama and/or a These dramas were used to play capture the imaginations and hearts of the Filipino, whom Elements of Drama the Spaniards have ust 1.) Plot - A sequence of events colonized within a play that tells a story In Spanish Colonial period, 2.) Role/Character - Performs the indigenous drama was action and speaks the discarded and were changed dialogue into mainly two categories: 3.) Theme - Meaning of the play Comedy/Komedya and Zarzuela/Sarswela Zarzuela/Sarswela/Sarsuela Oraciones or Orations Type of theater that is Formal address (speech) musical in nature designed to inspire listeners Spoken and sung and incite action Play with songs and dances Usually written in prose Declamation containing from one to five Recitation of a speech from acts memory with studied Depicting the vagaries of gestures and intonation as an romantic love among exercise in elocution or idealized Filipino characters theoretical Presented in a one-act and a Laos three-act presentation Lao literature and the Each may consist of four to conventions by which they five songs were told owed much to oral traditions of storytelling History of Zarzuela 1800’s - Originated in Spain Comedy or Komedya and was made popular in the Derived from the Spanish Philippines comedia 1878 or 1879 - The first An art form of lyric theater zarzuela in the Philippines drama was staged Comical in nature 1855 - Francisco Asojo Singing, dancing, dialogue Barbeiri wrote “Jugat Con Developed into different Fuego” (Playing with fire) kinds 1893 - The Teatro Zorilla was One of the most popular ones inaugurated as home of is the Moro-moro Zarsuelas History of Komedya 1880 - "Junto Al Pasig” was In 1598, the local komedya written by Jose Rizal and was first appeared in Latitn and staged Spanish in Cebu In 1673, a famous komedya Examples of Sarsuela depicted the defeat of Walang Sugat Corralat at the hands of Ang Karayom Kung Iduro  Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera Two types of Komedya 1.) Secular Komedya - Performed at local fiesta 2.) Religious Komedya - Usually seen during church celebrations and it focuses on the life of Christ or any saint Recap Moro-moro Plays that depicts the lives, loves, and wars of Moors and Christians