Bios 1108 - Module 2 PDF

Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 1. Constraints of struggle with nutrient intake and waste removal (slower diffusion rates) large cell size Surface area to volume ration decreases as size increases...

Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 1. Constraints of struggle with nutrient intake and waste removal (slower diffusion rates) large cell size Surface area to volume ration decreases as size increases (less efficient transport) Internal transport is slower Plasma membrane limits exchange of materials with environment 2. Adaptations for Changes in cell geometry Large Cells - Cells may be long/thin/have protrusions to increase SA Reproduction - Cells may divide to maintain manageable sizes Internal Complexity - Organelles (compartmentalize functions) - Cytoskeleton (aids in intracellular transport) Multicellularity - Specialized cells perform specific tasks (improves efficiency) 3. Process of Mul- 1: Cell Proliferation ticellular Devel- 2: Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis) opment (Compo- 3: Cell Movement nents) 4: Cell Differenation 5: Cell-Cell Interactions (Induction) 4. Cell Proliferation New cells produced via mitosis (inc. organism size) 5. Apoptosis Certain cells die to shape body structures (removal of webbing between fingers) 6. Cell Cell Movement: Animal cells move to new locations Movement/Differ- ential Expansion 1 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg Differential Expansion: Plant cells expand in specific directions since they have rigid cell walls 7. Induction Cells communicate to determine their position and function 8. Cell Differentia- the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function. tion 9. Major Reproduc- Mitosis: produces 2 genetically identical cells tive Strategies of Eukaryotes (Asex- Multiple Fission: Splitting into more than 2 cells ual) Budding: Growth of new organism from existing one Fragmentation: Organism split into parts that grow into new individuals Spores: Haploid cells capable of growing into new organisms Parthenogenesis: Unfertilized eggs develop into new organisms Polyembryony: Single fertilized egg splits into clones Vegetative Growth: Growth from specialized plant cell without gametes 10. Multiple fission a form of cell division that produces more than two cells 11. Budding A form of asexual reproduction of yeast in which a new cell grows out of the body of a parent. 12. Fragmentation A means of asexual reproduction whereby a single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into whole new individuals. 13. Spores Haploid cells capable of growing into new organisms. 14. Parthenogenesis Asexual reproduction in which females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs. 2 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 15. Polyembryony The condition where a single egg splits into many embryos, producing that many clones of the original egg. 16. Vegetative Growth from specialized plant cells without gametes. Growth 17. Major Reproduc- Gametes: Haploid cells from 2 individuals combine to form diploid offspring tive Strategies of Eukaryotes (Sex- - Increases genetic diversity, beneficial in changing environments ual) 18. Asexual Repro- Pro: duction Pros and - Faster and more energy efficient (no mate needed) Cons - Rapid population growth Con: - Non genetic variation (except mutation) - Vulnerable to environmental changes 19. Sexual Reproduc- Pro: tion Pros and - Increased genetic diversity --> enhanced survival in changing environments Cons Con: - Slower & Requires more energy to find mates - Only half of the population (Females) contribute to reproduction 20. Environment In- Stable Environment: Favors asexual reproduction (efficient cloning) fluence on Repro- duction Unstable Environment: Favors sexual reproduction (genetic variation for adapta- tion) Ex: Daphnia (water flea): reproduces asexually in good conditions and sexually when conditions worsen 3 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 21. Eukaryotic life cy- Haploid: cles - Fungus - Diploid stage occurs briefly during sexual reproduction Diploid: - Animals - Gametes are only haploid stage Alteration of Generations: - Plans - Includes both multicellular haploid stage (gametophyte) and multicellular diploid stage (sporophyte) 22. Internal Fertiliza- Process in which eggs are fertilized inside the female's body tion - Common in males, reptiles, birds 23. External Fertiliza- The process by which the female lays eggs and the male fertilizes them once they tion are outside of the female - Common with aquatic organisms 24. External Fertiliza- Pros: tion Pros and - Tons of Gametes --> Many offspring Cons Cons: - Male who dominates territory will release sperm (no control) - Requires synchronous gamete release 25. Internal Fertiliza- Pros: tion Pros and - More likely to be fertilized by specific male Cons - Higher offspring survival rate Cons: - Fewer offspring 4 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 26. Biological Fitness a measure of the ability to survive and reproduce relative to other members of the population 27. Sexual Selection A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates. 28. sexual dimor- Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same phism species. - Secondary Sex Characteristics (exaggerated/showy traits) 29. Why are females - Invest more energy in producing eggs & caring for offspring more likely to be - Limited gametes choosy? - Greater cost of poor mate choice - Preference for traits signaling good genes (exaggerated traits that indicate health and reproductive success) 30. Types of Male Direct Male Competition: Males compete physically for access to females Competition & (fights/displays) Female Choice Indirect Male Competition: Males compete after mating has occurred, trying to ensure their sperm fertilizes egg Female Choice: Females select mates based on desirable traits 31. direct male com- occurs when females mate only with a single male, typically the "winner" of the petition competition Advantage: Stronger male reproduces more, passing on advantageous trait 32. Indirect Male First Male Advantage: Mate guarding, copulatory plugs Competition Second Male Advantage: Large Testes, elaborate genital structures to remove rival sperm 5 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg Advantages: Traits that increase sperm success are passed on 33. Female Choice females actively select their desired mates Advantage: Leads to offspring with high survival and reproductive success 34. Parental Invest- the time and energy parents expend for their offspring's benefit ment Ex: Male midwife toad carrying fertilized eggs, hummingbirds feeding young Impact: Species with high parental investment tend to have few offspring but have high survival rates 35. Mating Systems Monogamy: One male, one female Polygyny: One male, multiple females Polyandry: One female, multiple males Promiscuity: Multiple males, multiple females 36. Monogamy One male, one female Effect: Lower sexual dimorphism, less intense sperm competition 37. polygny One male, multiple females Effect: High sexual dimorphism, strong male competition Ex: Elephant Seal 38. Polyandry One female, multiple males Effect: Males invest in offspring more than females (rare) - Females become competitive sex Ex: Pipefish 6 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 39. Promiscuity Multiple males, multiple females Effect: Large testes, low sexual dimorphism, no infanticide 40. Spermatheca In many insects, a sac in the female reproductive system where sperm are stored. - Allows females to control when fertilization occurs 41. Cloaca Common in amphibians, reptiles, birds and some fish (non mammal vertebrates) - Single opening for excretion, reproductive and sometimes urinary systems - In many species, both sperm and egg released through cloaca during reproduc- tion 42. Female Repro- Ovaries: Produce and develop eggs ductive Struc- Fallopian tubes (oviducts): Transport egg to uterus, acts as site of fertilization tures Uterus: Supports developing embryo Cervix: Allows passage between uterus and vagina Vagina: Receives penis during intercourse, acts as birth canal, passes mensural flow Breasts: Produce and deliver milk 43. Male Reproduc- External: tive Structures - Scrotum: Carry & Support testes - Penis: Deliver urine, copulating organ - Testes: Produce sperm and male hormone Internal: - Seminal vesicle: Semen production, nutrients, stimulates smooth muscle contrac- tions of uterus - Prostate Gland: Semen production: Nutrients, ejaculatory force 7 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg - Bulbourethral glands: Neutralizes acidic environment of urethra and vagina; may contain sperm from previous ejaculation 44. seminiferous Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes. tubules 45. Epididymis A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature. 46. Vas Deferens tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra 47. Leydig cells produce testosterone 48. Male Gametoge- Spermatogenesis nesis Location: Seminiferous Tubules of Testes Process: - Spermatogonia (Stem cells) undergo mitosis then meiosis I & II to form sperma- tocyte which becomes haploid spermatid - Spermatids differentiate into mature Sperm Products: 4 sperm cells per spermatogonium Timing: Begins at puberty and continues throughout lifetime 49. Female Gameto- Oogenesis genesis Location: Ovaries Process: - Oocytes begin meiosis during embryonic development but pause in Prophase I & resume at puberty completing meiosis I and pausing in metaphase II until fertilization - At each menstrual cycle, one oocyte completes meiosis and is released during 8 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg ovulation Products: One egg (ovum) from each oocyte, The other 3 cells form polar bodies and degenerate 50. Sperm vs Egg Sperm: - Small, low cost, mobile at 2C lower than body temp, produce many throughout lifetime Eggs: - Large, high cost, not mobile, few in lifetime 51. Medical Interven- 1: Egg & Sperm Production tions that Affect - Birth control pills/patches/shot/ring/implants Reproductive Cy- - IUD that contain progesterone, fertility drugs cles & Fertiliza- tion 2: Egg & Sperm Union (Fertilization) - Tubal ligation, vasectomy, condom, spermacides 3: Fertilized Egg Implantation: - Copper IUD, Plan B, IVF 52. in vitro fertiliza- egg and sperm cells are combined outside the body in a laboratory dish (in vitro) tion (IVF) to facilitate fertilization 53. Copper IUD - causes low grade inflammation - reduces sperm transport - toxic to oocyte and zygote - impairs implantation 54. IUD (intrauterine birth control method, a small device inserted inside of the uterus device) 55. 9 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg Hormones in- FSH, LH, testosterone, inhibin volved in Sper- matogenesis FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates Sertoli cells in Seminiferous tubules to nourish & support sperm production LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone, which supports spermatogenesis Testosterone: Promotes maturation of sperm cells and the development of male secondary sexual characteristics Inhibin: Released by Sertoli cells when sperm count is high to inhibit FSH and slow spermatogenesis 56. Hormones in- FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone volved in Oogen- esis FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates follicular development in ovaries and production of estrogen ("MAKE EGG") LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Triggers ovulation by causing mature follicle to release egg ("RELEASE EGG") Estrogen: Produced by developing follicle, estrogen regulates menstrual cycle, thickens uterine lining, and prepares body for potential pregnancy - In presence of progesterone: "DON'T MAKE EGGS, DON'T MENSTRUATE" - In absence of progesterone: " MAKE MORE FSH AND LH" Progesterone: Secreted by Corpus lutem after ovulation, suppresses FSH release (therefore egg production) Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): Produced by developing placenta after im- plantation, maintains corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone during early pregnancy 10 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 57. Follicular Phase The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surrounding cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period. 58. Ovarian Cycle The 28 days of the menstrual cycle as they apply to events in the ovary. The ovarian cycle has three subphases: the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase. Stages: - Follicular Phase - Luteal Phase 59. Luteal Phase The third phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a corpus luteum is formed from the remnants of the follicle that has ovulated its oocyte. The corpus luteum secretes progestrone and estrogen during this time period, which typically lasts from day 15 to day 28 of the menstrual cycle. Formation of the corpul luteum is triggered by the same LH surge that triggers ovulation, however in the absence of LH (levels quickly decline after the surge) the corpus luteum begins to degenerate. 60. Ovulation The process of releasing a mature ovum into the fallopian tube each month 61. Menstrual Cycle Cycle during which an egg develops and is released from an ovary and the uterus is prepared to receive a fertilized egg. 62. Plant Life Cycles Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) - Alteration of Generations with dominant sporophyte stage - seeds develop within fruits - double fertilization - pollination via wind, water, animals Gymnosperms (Conifers) - Alteration of generations with dominant sporophyte stage - seeds exposed 11 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg - wind pollinated Lycophytes (NonSeed Vascular) - Ferns - Dominant sporophyte stage - Require water for fertilization - produce spores instead of seeds Bryophytes (NonVascular Plants) - Mosses - Dominant gametophyte stage - Requires water for sperm motility - Produce spores instead of seeds 63. Important Struc- Flowers, Seeds, Fruit tures in An- giosperms 64. Importance of Flower: Reproductive organ Different Parts of Angiosperm - Sepals: protect developing bud (Flowers) - Petals: Attract pollinators with color & scent - Stamens (Male organs): Composed of anther (produces pollen), and filament (supports anther) - Carpels/Pistil (Female Organs): Include stigma (Receives pollen) style (connects stigma to ovary) and ovary (houses ovules, which develop into seeds after fertiliza- tion) 65. Importance of Components: Different Parts - Embryo: Develops from fertilized zygote and will grow to new plant 12 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg of Angiosperm - Endosperm: Triploid tissue that provides nutrients for developing embryo (Seeds) - Seed Coat: Protective outer layer that shields seed from environmental damage and prevents premature germination 66. Importance of Develops from ovary post fertilization Different Parts of Angiosperm Function primarily in seed protection and dispersal (Fruit) Types of fruit vary based on dispersal methods: - Dry (ex: nuts) - Fleshy (ex: berries) 67. microspore vs Microspores are spores that are specifically male and give rise to male gameto- megaspore phytes; megaspores, on the other hand, are specifically female and give rise to female gametophytes. 68. Male gameto- Microsporocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores phyte in an- giosperms (male Each microspore undergoes mitosis to form pollen grain that contains generative gametogenesis) cell and tube cell Mature pollen grain serves as male gametophyte (Contains 2 cells; multicellular) 69. Female Gameto- Megasporoctyte (2n) in ovule undergoes meiosis & produces 4 megaspores (3 phyte in an- degenerate) giosperms (fe- male gametoge- Remaining megaspore undergoes mitosis and develops into mature embryo sac nesis) with 7 cells (egg, synergid, antipodal, polar nuclei) Egg fuses with sperm to form zygote Polar nuclei contributes for formation of endosperm 13 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg 70. Fertilizing Egg in 1: Pollen grain adheres to stigma Angiosperms 2: Pollen tube cell grows into style & generative cell travels into pollen tube. Divides to form 2 sperm 3: Pollen tube penetrates opening in ovule (microphyl) 4: One sperm fertilizes egg and other fertilizes polar nuclei to form triploid en- dosperm 71. Pollination Mech- Wind pollinated anisms Animal pollinated 72. Wind Pollination pollination of plants by means of pollen carried on the wind - small, inconspicuous flowers; produce large amounts of lightweight pollen 73. Animal Pollina- occurs when pollen is carried from plant to plant by insects, birds, or mammals, tion characterized by attractive petals, nectar, sugar water - May use bright colors, nectar, and scent to attract pollinators Bird pollinated: Use nectar, bright red or orange Insect Pollinated: Fragrant, UV marked petals Bat pollinated: large, night blooming flowers with strong scent and pale colors 74. Seed Maturation the seed dehydrates and goes dormant until germination - Starch, lipids, proteins accumulate in endosperm - Water necessary to break dormancy 75. Seed Dormancy ensures that the seed will germinate only in optimal conditions - can last years to centuries 14 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg - loses large amounts of water - Prevents germination until conditions are favorable 76. Seed Germina- a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling tion Triggered by water, light, fire, periods of cold, etc. 77. Seed Dispersal Propulsion: Fruits explode Mechanisms Wind: Lightweight seeds carried by wind Water: Buoyant seeds float and travel via water Animals: - Clinging seeds: contain hooks that attach to fur - Edible fruits: consumed by animals and deposited in feces - Bird dispersed: Brightly colored, high sugar content - Mammal dispersed: Fragrant often fatty or protein rich 78. Cotyledons Contain stored food for the growing plant - Monocots have 1 - Dicots have 2 79. Monocots angiosperms that have only one seed leaf 80. Dicots angiosperms that have two seed leaves 81. Plant Embryoge- the process that produces a plant embryo from a fertilized ovule by asymmetric cell nesis division and the differentiation of undifferentiated cells into tissues and organs - Fertilized Egg - First Division forms Apical(top)-basal(bottom) axis - Later parts of early development establish radial axis (inner-outer) and 3 embry- 15 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg onic tissue along this axis (ground, vascular, dermal) - Development arrests as mature seed; reinitiates during germination 82. 3 Basic organs of roots, stems, leaves Plants 83. Apical Meristem Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length. Shoot Apical Meristem: Develops into stem, leaves and flowers Root Apical Meristem: Develops into root system 84. Root System All of a plant's roots, which anchor it in the soil, absorb and transport minerals and water, and store food. Monocots: Fibrous root system (shallow, spreads widely) Dicots: Taproot system (deep, within main central root) 85. Types of Tissue in Dermal (Protection & Gas Exchange) Plants Vascular (Transport) Ground (Storage & Structure) 86. Dermal Tissue The protective covering of plants; generally a single layer of tightly packed epider- mal cells - Epidermis: protective outer layer (minimize water loss) - Guard Cells: regulate stomata for gas exchange - Root hairs: add surface to roots, enhance absorption of water from soil 87. Vascular Tissue Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body. 16 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg Xylem: Water & Mineral from roots to shoot Phloem: Sugars, hormones, amino acids to roots/sites of growth/fruit 88. Ground Tissue Parenchyma: Photosynthesis (leaves), storage (roots) Collenchyma: Shoot support (in areas of growth) Sclerenchyma: Shoot support (after growth ceased) Totipotent: Can divide & differentiate into complete plant if necessary 89. Xylem Vascular Tracheids and Vessel Elements Tissue Tracheids: Found in vascular plants ; A water-conducting and supportive element of xylem composed of long, thin cells with tapered ends and walls hardened with lignin. Vessel Element: A short, wide, water conducting cell found in the xylem of most angiosperms and a few nonflowering vascular plants. Dead at maturity, vessel elements are aligned end to form micropipes called vessels. 90. Phloem Vascular sugar conducting tubes and supporting cells; movement from the leaf to the rest Tissue of the plant Consist of Sieve Cells (Conduct Sugars) and Companion cells (assist sieve tubes) 91. Vessel elements A short, wide, water conducting cell found in the xylem of most angiosperms and a few nonflowering vascular plants. Dead at maturity, vessel elements are aligned end to form micropipes called vessels. 92. Monocots vs. Di- Monocots: cots - 1 Cotyledon - Veins on leaf usually parallel - vascular tissue scattered 17 / 18  Bios 1108 - Module 2 Study online at https://quizlet.com/_gncldg - Root System usually fibrous - Pollen grain with one opening - Floral organs usually in multiples of 3 Dicots: - 2 Cotyledon - Veins usually netlike - Vascular tissue usually arranged in ring - Taproot (main root) usually present - Pollen grain with 3 openings - Floral organ usually in multiples of 4 or 5 93. Angiosperm the stele is a vascular cylinder that consists of pericycle (1+ layers of undifferenti- roots ated cells), xylem and phloem - Eudicots: Xylem is star shaped and between points are bundles of phloem - Monocots: pith lies at center and often stores carb reserves 18 / 18