CVE203 Lecture 2 PDF

EARTH SCIENCES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING LECTURE 2 DR. MOHELDEEN A. HEJAZI Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI [email protected] 1 Earth Sciences: The study of the Earth and its systems You are...

EARTH SCIENCES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING LECTURE 2 DR. MOHELDEEN A. HEJAZI Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI [email protected] 1 Earth Sciences: The study of the Earth and its systems You are here! Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Earth Sciences = Geology Earth Sciences Branches General geology Ore deposits-Geochemistry Structural geology Mineral deposits Geochemistry Sedimantology-Sedimentary petrography Petroleum Geology Stratigraphy Applied Geology Mineralogy-Petrography Engineering Geology Mineralogy Hidrogeology Petrography Mathematical Geology Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Earth Sciences: Processes, Potentials, and Hazards Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] How old is the world and theories on its creation? Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Layers of the earth Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] How continents are formed? Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] How the mountains are formed and eroded? Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Geology and Civil Engineering Relationship Civil engineering works are carried out either on site or within the site. For this reason, erosional and geological process which cause the stability of the rocks and ground and their changes are important for civil engineering Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Layers of EARTH Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Atmosphere Blanket of gases surrounding the Earth Protection from Sun’s heat & UV rays Weather: due to exchange of energy between Earth’s surface & atmospher between atmosph. & outer space Strongly interacts water/ surface Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Hydrosphere Water portion of Earth Oceans (most prominent) 71% of surface of Earth Streams, lakes, glaciers, underground water Atmosphere Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Cryosphere Icy portion of Earth’s crust Glaciers Permafrost and ground ice Polar ice caps Frozen polar seas Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Biosphere Earth’s Ecosystems Earth’s surface and subsurface to depths of a few kilometers Life occupies an extreme range of environments Life strongly interacts with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the solid earth (these interactions are called ecology!) Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Earth’s internal structure 3 distinct divisions: crust Oceanic 0-6 km (“young”, < 180 m.y.) Continental 0-34 km (older, up to 3.8 b.y. ) mantle Upper 34-670 km Lower 670-2900 km Outer – Liquid core Inner – Solid Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Earth’s internal structure Continental crust – Underlies the continents. Avg. rock density about 2.7 g/cm3. Avg. thickness 35-40 km. Felsic composition. Avg. rock type = Granite Oceanic crust – Underlies the ocean basins. Density about 3.0 g/cm3. Avg. thickness 7-10 km. Mafic composition Avg. rock type =Basalt/Gabbro Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Crust ve Earth’s internal structure Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Plate tectonics Plate tectonics, theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, that revolutionized Earth sciences by providing a uniform context for understanding mountain-building processes, volcanoes, and earthquakes, as well as understanding the evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing its past continental and oceanic configurations. Describing in detail the processes that make up the Earth's fundamental surface features, «The definition of lithospheric separation of rigid plates moving on the asthenosphere» (Alfred Wegener 1915) forms the basis of the plate tectonics theory. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Earth's Structure and Tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate Tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate Tectonics Movements and Subduction Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Theories of continental drift and plate tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics Data indicates that Plates seperate from each other Coastal forms and continents match each other Similarity of sediment deposits; The continuation of the vegetation and geological structure of Africa, India, Australia, Madagascar, South America which make up Gondwana, Similarity of mountain ranges; When the continents are brought side by side, the mountain lines form a single continuous mountain line in the same age and deformation style. The glaciation that began in Gondwana was also experienced at the same time (carboniferous) by parts seperated from Gondwana The remains of the reptile family which is impossible to swim the ocean were found only in South West Africa and Brazil Palaeomagnetism Propagation of the sea floor Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics : when converging Convergent plate boundaries Subduction event occurs Colliding with Oceanic/oceanic or oceanic/continental plate generated a deep ocean trenches Crust melting and magma genaration occur Volcanism and volcanic island arcs occur, volcanic island arcs arranged like a barrier can form inner seas between continents and the oceans Events of metamorphism occur Two continental or continental and an oceanic plate collides to form a curved mountain line Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics: when diverging Events happening in places where plates are moving away from each other : Mid-ocean ridge (2500 m high ridge in the Atlantic Ocean) Volcanic islands New crust formation Basaltic lavas are solidified and added to the continental margins, The ocean floor expands and the continents move away from each other Magma is emerged from the fractures genarated by divergent event and volcanic events ocur Best example of that is Atlas Ocean Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics: when sliding/transforming Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates slide past one another. The fracture zone that forms a transform plate boundary is known as a transform fault. Most transform faults are found in the ocean basin and connect offsets in the mid-ocean ridges. A smaller number connect mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones. The most famous example of this is the San Andreas Fault Zone of western North America. Another example of a transform boundary on land is the Alpine Fault of New Zealand. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Plate tectonics The most common areas of tectonic earthquakes in the world are: Great Oceanic boulders (Pacific waters): Kamchatka in the east of Asia, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Aleut Islands in the west of America, California, Mexico, Chile, Peru. Mediterranean Himalayan Belts: Spain, Italy, North Africa, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, Iran, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, East Indian islands. Central part of Atlantic Ocean: Asor Islands and Iceland Island Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Plate tectonics The least common areas of tectonic earthquakes in the world are: The Western of Australian, The Eastern of USA and Canada Iceland of N.West European-Grönland, İskandinav peninsula, Eastern Europe Northern of Asia Sourthern and Middlest of Africa Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Geologic Time… Millions years A few seconds. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Geologic Time… Washington May 17, 1980 September 10, 1980 Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] MINERALS AND ROCKS GROUPS WHICH GENERATES EARTH CRUST Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] EARTH CRUST Average depth of the earth crust thickness is 8-10 km. There are two different rocks which have different chemical and biological content. ▪ Sial; average density: 2.7 gr/cm2 (granite, sandstone and limestone) ▪ Sima; 2,8-3 gr/cm3 (bazalt type rocks) The sial layer in the ocean floor is almost absent. Sima reaches 8-10 km thickness. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  MATERIALS WHICH GENERATES THE CRUST Eight of the 108 elements found on the Earth's Oxygen %46.6 surface are very common. Silisium %27.72 The 8 most common elements in the crust form 98.59% by weight of the ground shell. Aluminum %8.13 The remaining 98 elements constitute 1.4% by Iron %5 weight of the earth's crust. Calcium %3.63 Sodium %2.83 Potassium %2.59 Magnesium %2.09 Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] MINERALS More than 2000 minerals on Earth generates rocks, rocks constitutes the crust. It is found naturally Has chemical composition(element or compound form). It can be expressed by a specific crystal system. It is mostly solid, liquid (mercury and water) Generally inorganic, at least organic compounds. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  The Importance of Minerals Minerals and mines are part of the legacy that remains to us from the geological past. These are the basic building blocks of the solid part of the earth and are very important for construction geology; The minerals and rocks are the main sources for the production of automobiles, computers and many other things we use, Minerals and rocks play an important role in many earth processes such as landslides, coastal erosion and volcanic activity, Studies on minerals and rocks provide important information on earth history, Knowing process properties of the minerals and rocks provides to how the mechanisms in the earth and to understand how we can best manage the our earth resources Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] CRYSTAL SHAPES OF MINERALS Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] CRYSTAL SHAPES OF MINERALS Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS The main physical properties of minerals; ▪ Tenacity, ▪ Hardness, ▪ Fracture, ▪ Cleavage, ▪ Streak, ▪ Luster, ▪ Density Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Tenacity The property of tenacity describes the behavior of a mineral under deformation. It describes the physical reaction of a mineral to externally applied stresses such as crushing, cutting, bending, and striking forces. Adjectives used to characterize various types of mineral tenacity include 'brittle,' 'flexible,' 'elastic,' 'malleable,' 'ductile,' and 'sectile' Mica (turns back to its original state when twisted), Chlorite (remains twisted) When the hammer hit some minerals can become extended or plate. Gold, silver, copper. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Tenacity Brittle - Breaks or powders easily. Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets. Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife. Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its original shape. Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape. Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Tenacity Most mineral species are brittle, and will crumble or fracture under pressure or upon the application of a blow. Such materials break or powder easily. Antimony and quartz etc. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Hardness Hardness has traditionally been defined as the level of difficulty with which a smooth surface of a mineral specimen may be scratched. The hardness of a mineral species is dependent upon the strength of the bonds which compose its crystal structure. Hardness is a property characteristic to each mineral species and can be very useful in identification. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Hardness Hardness minerals are resistance to scratching. It is the result of the cohesion between these molecules. It is determined with the aid Mohs hardness scale formed by mineral hardness. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Hardness Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Cleavage A cleavage plane is a plane of structural weakness along which a mineral is likely to split smoothly. Cleavage thus refers to the splitting of a crystal between two parallel atomic planes. Despite the fact that every mineral belongs to a specified crystal system, not every mineral exhibits cleavage. Cleavage planes, if they exist, are always parallel to a potential crystal face. However, such planes are not necessarily parallel to the faces which the crystal actually displays. Fluorite, for example, has octahedral cleavage yet forms cubic crystals. Nonetheless, the property of cleavage, if it is present, can offer important information about the symmetry and inner structure of a crystal. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Fracture If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions called fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed. Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces. Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood breaks. Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges. Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Colour Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine and epidote are almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic because minerals can take on a variety of colors. These minerals are said to be allochromatic. For example quartz can be clear, white, black, pink, blue, or purple. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Streak Streak is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when scratched on a streak plate. Often it is different than the color of the mineral in non- powdered form Hematite: red; Limonite: brown; Magnetite: dark gray; Chromite: brown; Magnetite: dark gray; Chromite: brown Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Luster Luster refers to the general appearance of a mineral surface to reflected light. Two general types of luster are designated as follows: Metallic - looks shiny like a metal. Usually opaque and gives black or dark colored streak. Non-metallic - Non metallic lusters are referred to as vitreous - looks glassy - examples: clear quartz, tourmaline resinous - looks resinous - examples: sphalerite, sulfur. pearly - iridescent pearl-like - example: apophyllite. greasy - appears to be covered with a thin layer of oil - example: nepheline. silky - looks fibrous. - examples - some gypsum, serpentine, malachite. adamantine - brilliant luster like diamond. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Structure Kidney, chordal, chordal radial, concussion, lump and concentric. Kidney : Chalcedon, hematite Chordal: Asbestos, gypsum, calcite, Radial: Antimuan, Chordal radial: Pyrite, barite Concussion: Calcite, agate, pyrite, agate, Lump: Flintstone Concentric: Agat, Calcedon Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Specific Gravity Density refers to the mass per unit volume. Specific Gravity is the relative density, (weight of substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of water). In cgs units density is grams per cm3, and since water has a density of 1 g/cm3, specific gravity would have the same numerical value has density, but no units (units would cancel). Specific gravity is often a very diagnostic property for those minerals that have high specific gravities. In general, if a mineral has higher atomic number cations it has a higher specific gravity. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Specific Gravity Atomic # of Cation Mineral Composition Specific Gravity Aragonite CaCO3 40.08 2.94 Strontianite SrCO3 87.82 3.78 Witherite BaCO3 137.34 4.31 Cerussite PbCO3 207.19 6.58 Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Specific Gravity Mineral Composition Specific Gravity Graphite C 2.23 Specific gravity can usually be Quartz SiO2 2.65 qualitatively measured by the heft of a Feldspars (K,Na)AlSi3O8 2.6 - 2.75 mineral, in other words those with high Fluorite CaF2 3.18 specific gravities usually feel heavier. Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2 3.53 Corundum Al2O3 4.02 Most common silicate minerals have a Barite BaSO4 4.45 specific gravity between about 2.5 and Pyrite FeS2 5.02 3.0. These would feel light compared to Galena PbS 7.5 minerals with high specific gravities Cinnabar HgS 8.1 Copper Cu 8.9 Silver Ag 10.5 Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Radioactivity The radioactivity in the minerals comes from the uranium (U) and thorium (Th) found in them. Some elements such as potassium (K) and rubidium (Rb) also have a small amount of radioactivity. It is aimed to determine the geological age by making use of the radioactivity feature in minerals. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] Chemical properties of the minerals Minerals have a special composition It is determined by qualitative and quantitative analyzes and indicated by related formulas. The same chemical composition, a different crystal system polymorphism (multidimensionality) is used. Calcite with aragonite and diamond with graphite are polymorph minerals. If minerals have the same shape but they have different chemical composition, isomorphism (coordination) is used. Calcite (CaCO3) dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3) and siderite (FeCO3) are isomorphic minerals Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Optical properties of the minerals The light-related properties of the minerals make up the optical properties of minerals. Optical propeties of the minerals provides colours, fracture properties, single and double breaking properties, and the shapes they show under a polarizing microscope. Apart from these properties of minerals, some minerals have their own unique characteristics. Some minerals are magnetic, some minerals are radioactive, some minerals are good conductors, and some minerals are poor conductors. Some minerals have piozoelectric properteis. Industy benefits from these properties of the minerals. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING Many minerals are used as building materials in the construction industry. The concrete is generally obtained with a mixture of gravel, sand, cement and water Aggregate (aggregate): sand, gravel, crushed stone (blasted rock), slag (slag) as concrete (concrete) course used for the construction or artificial or both types often broken in various sizes up to 10cm or broken granular material stack (sand + gravel + natural rock material consisting of crushed stone). Gypsum (gypsum); (CaSO4.2H2O-Mohs hardness 2); colorless or white color is converted into plaster losing some of the water at 120 ° C. Plaster is used in indoor and outdoor applications. Various clay minerals have been used in mud bricks, bricks, tiles since ancient times. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected] THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING Pale limestone which is white or black without include silisium and clay is used for making lime Lime is used as a binder in mortar and also in stabilization of roads. Limes which are found various colour and pattern and well polished are used as coating materials in the buildings Apart from this, the mechanical behavior of the clays directly reflects on the structures and causes the forces to deform the structures. Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING The concrete is generally obtained with a mixture of gravel, sand, cement and water depending on the importance and size of the engineering structure to be built, the chemistry of each of these components forming concrete may be primary importance. Especially aggregate (sand-gravel) which is added to concrete and constitutes 75-85% by weight of concrete is either naturally extracted from the earth's crust or artificially broken by rock masses. If quartz sand and pebbles are to be used as aggregates in a dam body concrete, they must be well studied. The high alkaline cement in the concrete is affected by the hydration caused by the hardening of the concrete and the alkali such as sodium-potassium in the cement are released. Quartz, opal, chalcedony, agate, tridimite sand and gravel composed of siliceous minerals and silicates interact with the alkalis released in the concrete, cause expansion, cracking and fracturing of the concrete. This results in concrete can be easily damaged by being non-resistant against external influences. The volume percentages of the silica minerals constituting the aggregate component in the concrete are as follows; Opal 0,20%; Calcinedon 5%; Acid volcanic mass% 3 Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]  Any Questions? Dr. Moheldeen HEJAZI 10/24/2024 [email protected] [email protected]