CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats PDF

CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA COURSE CODE : CSS 244 COURSE TITLE: TYPES AND ANALYSIS OF SECURITY THREATS 1 CSS 244 Types...

CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA COURSE CODE : CSS 244 COURSE TITLE: TYPES AND ANALYSIS OF SECURITY THREATS 1 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats COURSE GUIDE CSS 244 TYPES AND ANALYSIS OF SECURITY THREATS Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali Non-Violence and Intercultural Communication Advocacy Initiatives, Ibadan, Nigeria Course Editor Adewole Akinyemi Atere, Ph.D College of Management & Social Sciences Osun State University Course Coordinator Adeniyi Adegoke, Ph.D Criminology and Security Studies School of Arts and Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu Dean, School of Arts and Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA 2 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters University Village Plot 91, Cadastral Zone, Nnamdi Azikiwe Express way Jabi, Abuja Lagos Office 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island, Lagos e-mail: [email protected] website: www.nouedu.net Published by National Open University of Nigeria Printed ISBN: All Rights Reserved CONTENTS PAGE Introduction......................................................................i-ii What You Will Learn in this Course................................ ii-iii Course Aims................................................................. iii-iv Course Objectives......................................................... iv 3 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Working through this Course............................................. v Course Materials............................................................ v Study Units.....................................................................…v-vi Textbooks and References................................................. vi-vii Assignment File................................................................ viii Assessment........................................................................ viii Tutor-Marked Assignment....................................................viii Final Examination and Grading........................................ viii Course Marking Scheme.................................................... ix Course Overview............................................................... ix-x Presentation Schedule........................................................ x How to Get the Most from this Course............................... x Reading Section.............................................................. xi Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials......................................xii Summary........................................................................... xii-xiii Introduction CSS 244: Types and Analysis of Security Threats is a 3-credit unit course. It is a compulsory course for all post-graduate diploma students in the field of Criminology and Security Studies of the University. The course is also recommended to any other post-graduate students especially those in the School of Arts and Social Sciences, who may have interest in the study and analysis of security threats and the mitigation techniques that can be adopted to prevent the occurrence of various threats or/and reduce the losses that may accompany the occurrence of any threats. The course can also be taken as an elective or required course by other post-graduate students whose main field(s) of discipline is not Criminology and Security Studies. However, the Course shall consist of 20 units, which are divided into 4 modules, and each of these modules shall consist of 5 units whereby the study draws a link between one unit and the other. In the first 2 modules of this course, we focus on various areas of discourse that explain the subject- types of security threats while the last 2 modules illuminate on various threat mitigation measures and crime management approaches that can assist in no small measure to prevent, detect, and control all forms of security threats. On the whole, the units contained in the course deal with the meaning and types of security threats; basic human or manmade security threats, terrorism as a security threat; war as a security threat; information warfare as a security threat; analyses of geological, climatic and environmental threats; basic types of security; civil security approaches to threat mitigation; risk psychology and analysis; among others. More interestingly, the material largely draws its case studies from security conditions and major threats experienced in Nigeria and Africa with the aim of exposing the reader or student to security challenges confronting Nigeria in particular and Africa as a whole. Having known that our study on types and analysis of security threats cannot be complete if we fail to have the knowledge of the overall incidence of security 4 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats threats and mitigation techniques in some other places or continents, we shall also cite examples from other parts of the world including America, Europe and Asia. The course has no compulsory pre-requisites for it to be registered for. The course guide informs us on what this course is all about, what students will learn in each unit, what text materials we shall be using and how we can make the best use of these materials. This course guide also emphasises on the need for students to take tutor- marked assignments so seriously. However, necessary information on tutor-marked assignments shall be made known to students in a separate file, which will be sent to each of them at the appropriate time. This course is also supported with periodic tutorial classes. What You Will Learn in this Course CSS 645: Types and Analysis of Security Threats as a course in the field of Criminology and Security Studies at the National Open University of Nigeria focuses on a wide range of issues that bother on the meaning and types of security threats as well as identifying many threat mitigation measures and crime detection and control mechanisms in reducing the adverse effects of various security threats on people or communities. In this course, we carefully analyse and assess security threats, to assist the student not only to identify these threats but also to develop diagnostic framework through which they can proffer solutions towards hazard mitigation and effective security management. Also, the reader or student will be exposed to various measures that can safeguard the protection of life and property against the incidence of security threat and hazard. Nevertheless, the essence of these safety measures is at least to provide the student or reader with various ways through which he/she can reduce losses from any incidence on hazard or security attack, if you cannot prevent such threat or hazard from occurring. Knowing the impact that active involvement of civilians in security can have in complementing and increasing the capacity of the security personnel to carryout their duties effectively, the course also explores the strategic importance of civil security and how it can contribute to effective security management and threat mitigation. The issue of risk is germane to a discourse on security threats. This is because we take risks in our daily activities, and through risk psychology, we shall be explaining why some people take the issue of security risk so seriously while others do not take it seriously. In this analysis of risk, we examine how some individual or collective or governmental undertakings or actions can increase the possibility of risk, which may have either positive or adverse effects on our security or wellbeing. The material also focuses on other crime control and threat mitigation approaches including vulnerability and Capacity Assessment (VAC), Crime analysis as well as data mining and automated data analysis. Course Aims 5 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats The overall aim of CSS 244: Types and Analysis of Security Threats as a course is to explore the meaning and types of security threats. It aims to classify various types of threats according to their peculiar conditions and features. Basically, threats are often classified as natural and human forms of security threats but this course further delineates the classification of threats into geological, climatic, environmental and human or manmade security threats for conceptual clarity and better appreciation of the subject-types of security threats. The course also explains different approaches and techniques through which security threats can be mitigated or controlled. The material describes the meaning of various types of basic security and their different approaches to general security management. These include measures to safeguard the security of computer and information systems, physical structures, infrastructure, public health, food supply among others. The course also shows the importance of civil security approaches, risk psychology and analysis, simulation, crime analysis and data mining and automated data analysis to threat mitigation and crime control. The material draws its case studies from the local and international environments. The course aims to: Conceptualise the term security threat; Identify various security threats; Classify or categorise various security threats; Discuss the meaning and types of various human or man-made security threats; Examine various manmade security threats; Explain the meaning and types of geological security threats; Examine climatic security threats; Analyse environmental threats; Explore how the various types of security threats pose a danger to any people or community; Propose measures and approaches that aid in mitigating or reducing the occurrence of different security threats; Unravel the importance of civil security approaches to threat mitigation and crime control; Elaborate the relevance of the study of risk psychology and analysis in threat mitigation and crime reduction; Illuminate on how simulation exercise can contribute to threat reduction and law enforcement; Investigate the significance of crime analyse in threat mitigation and crime management; and Verify how data mining and automated data analyses can serve as important tools to crime detection, control and threat mitigation. Course Objectives With utmost desire to achieve the aims set out above, the course has some set of objectives as demonstrated in all the units of the course. Each unit has its own objectives. Objectives are always included at the beginning of every unit to assist the student in the appreciation of what he or she will come across in the study of each unit to facilitate his or her better understanding of the course-CSS 244: Types and 6 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Analyses of Security Threat. The Student is, therefore, advised to read these objectives before studying the entire unit(s). The reason is that it is helpful to do so. You should always look at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done what was required of you by the unit. Working through this Course In completing this course, the student is required to study the whole units, and try to read all (or substantial number of) the recommended textbooks, journals and other reading materials including electronic resources. Each unit contains self assessment exercise(s) and the student is required to submit his or her assignment for the purpose of assessment. At the end of the course, the student(s) shall be examined. The time of the final examination and venue shall be communicated to all the registered students in due course by relevant school authorities-study centre management. Below are the components of the course and what you are required to do. Course Materials Major components of the course include: 1. Course Guide 2. Study Units 3. Textbooks 4. Assignments File 5. Presentation Schedule It is incumbent upon every student to get his or her own copy of the course material. You are also advised to contact your tutorial facilitator, if you have any difficulty in getting any of the text materials recommended for your further reading. Study Units In this course there are twenty units, which include: Module 1- CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OF SECURITY THREATS AND TYPES OF SECURITY THREATS (MANMADE) Unit 1: Meaning & Types of Security Threat Unit 2: Basic Human or Manmade Threats Unit 3: Terrorism as a Security Threat and Individual Protective Measures Unit 4: War as a Security Threat Unit 5: Information Warfare as a Security Threat 7 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Module 2- ANALYSIS OF NON-HUMAN SECURITY THREATS Unit 1: Analysis of Geological Security Threat/Hazards I Unit 2: Analysis of Geological Security Threat/Hazards II Unit 3: Analysis of Climatic Security Threat/Hazards Unit 4: Analysis of Environmental Security Threat/Hazards I Unit 5: Analysis of Environmental Security Threat/Hazards II Module 3- TYPES OF SECURITY AND APPROACHES TO THREAT MITIGATION Unit 1: Basic Types of Security I Unit 2: Basic Types of Security II Unit 3: Basic Types of Security III Unit 4: Civil Security Approaches to Threat Mitigation I Unit 5: Civil Security Approaches to Threat Mitigation II Module 4- MEASURES FOR THREAT MANAGEMENT Unit 1: Risk: Meaning, Psychology & Analysis Unit 2: Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment Unit 3: Simulation in Law Enforcement Unit 4: Crime Analysis: Meaning and Importance to Crime Mitigation Unit 5: Applying Data Mining & Automated Data Analysis for Crime Management The first module consists of five units, which will expose the student or reader to the conceptual definition of security threats and various types of security threats Within the same module, we shall be exploring and explaining different types of human or manmade security threats including robbery, theft, assassination, hijacking, terrorism, war among others. In the second module, we shall be focusing on natural threats including geological and climatic forms of threats as well as environmental threats that are often caused more by anthropogenic factors than nature. In the third and fourth modules, we shall be explaining various measures and approaches that can help in the mitigation of security threats as well as detection and control of various crimes that can pose security risk to any people or communities. Text-Books and References The following textbooks are recommended to students taking the course. Berkowitz, B. J., Frost, M., Hajic, E. J. & Redisch, H. (1972). Superviolence: The Civil Threat of Mass Destruction Weapons. Report A72-034-10, 29 September. ADCON (Advanced Concepts Research) Corporation, Santa Barbara, CA. Boba, R. (2005). Crime Analysis and Crime Mapping. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 8 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Dannreuther, R. (2007). International Security: The Contemporary Agenda. West Sussex: John Willey & Sons. Kinkus, J.F. (2002). Science and Technology Resources on the Internet: Computer Security. Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship, No. 36. Available on ://www.istl.org/02-fall/index.html. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009. Jenkins, B. M. (1975). High Technology Terrorism and Surrogate War: The Impact of New Technology on Level Violence, (The RAND Paper Series, No. 5339) January. Gordon, J. (2000). Risk Assessment and Management in Local Government Emergency Planning, Part 1: Basic concepts. Canadian Journal of Emergency Management 2(2): 11-12. Wold, G.H. & Shriver, R.F. (1997). Risk Analysis Techniques. Disaster Recovery Journal. Available on ://www.drj.com/new2dr/w3_030.htm. Retrieved on 28 August, 2009. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC). (2006). An Introduction to Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment. Geneva. Molander, R. C., Riddile, A. S. & Wilson, P. (1996). Strategic Information Warfare: A New Face of War. Santa Monica, California: RAND, MR-661-OSD. Tickner, J.A. (1995) Re-visioning Security. In: Booth, K. & Smiths, S. (eds.). International Relations Theory Today. Cambridge: Polity Press. 175-198. Waever, Ole (1995). Securitization and Desecuritization. In: Lipschutz, R.D (ed.). On Security. New York: Columbia University Press. 46-86. Wardlaw, G. (1989). Political Terrorism: Theory, Tactics and Counter Measures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2nd Edition). Garland, D. (2001). The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lipschutz, R. D. (ed.). (1995). On Security. New York: Columbia University Press. Dory, A.J. (2003). Civil Security: Americans and the Challenges of Homeland Security. Washington DC: Centre for Strategic and International Studies (September). Assignment File In this file, you will find the necessary details of the assignments you must submit to your tutor for assessment. The marks you get from these assignments will form part of your final assessment in this course. Assessment There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutor-marked assignments; secondly, there is a written examination. In tackling the assignments, 9 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats you are expected to apply information and knowledge acquired during this course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count for 70% of your total course mark. Tutor-Marked Assignment There are twenty tutor-marked assignments in this course. You need to submit four assignments out of which the best three will be used for your assessment. These three assignments shall make 30% of your total course mark. Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You should be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set textbooks, reading and study units. However, you are advised to use other references to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with TMA (tutor-marked assignment) file to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment gets to your tutor on or before the deadline. And in case you are unable to complete your work on time, contact your tutor or better-still your study centre manager (overseer) before the submission deadline of assignments lapses to discuss the possibility of an extension. Final Examination and Grading The final examination of CSS 244 shall be of three hours’ duration and have a value of 70% of the total course grade. The examination shall consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercises and tutor-marked problems you have come across. All areas of the course will be assessed. You are advised to revise the entire course after studying the last unit before you sit for the examination. You will find it useful to review your tutor-marked assignments and the comments of your tutor on them before the final examination. Course Marking Scheme This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down. Assessment Marks Assignment 1 – 4 Four Assignments are to be submitted, out of which the three best shall be considered at 10% each, making 30% of the overall scores Final Examination 70% of overall course marks Total 100% of course marks 10 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Table 1: Course Making Scheme Course Overview This table brings together the entire units contained in this course, the number of weeks it takes to complete them, and the assignments that follow them. Unit Title Week’s Assessment (end of Activity Unit) Course Guide 1 1 Meaning & Types of Security Threat 1 Assignment 1 2 Basic Human or Manmade Threats 2 Assignment 2 3 Terrorism as a Security Threat and 2 Assignment 3 Individual Protective Measures 4 War as a Security Threat 3 Assignment 4 5 Information Warfare as a Security 4 Assignment 5 Threat 6 Analysis of Geological Security 5 Assignment 6 Threat/Hazards I 7 Analysis of Geological Security 6 Assignment 7 Threat/Hazards II 8 Analysis of Climatic Security 6 Assignment 8 Threat/Hazards 9 Analysis of Environmental Security 7 Assignment 9 Threat/Hazards I 10 Analysis of Environmental Security 7 Assignment 10 Threat/Hazards II 11 Basic Types of Security I 8 Assignment 11 12 Basic Types of Security II 9 Assignment 12 13 Basic Types of Security III 10 Assignment 13 14 Civil Security Approaches to Threat 11 Assignment 14 Mitigation I 15 Civil Security Approaches to Threat 11 Assignment 15 Mitigation II 16 Risk: Meaning, Psychology & 12 Assignment 16 Analysis 17 Vulnerability and Capacity 13 Assignment 17 Assessment 18 Simulation in Law Enforcement 14 Assignment 18 19 Crime Analysis: Meaning and 15 Assignment 19 Importance to Crime Mitigation 20 Applying Data Mining & Automated 16 Assignment 20 Data Analysis for Crime Management 21 Revision 17 11 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats 22 Examination 18 Table 2: Course Overview Presentation Schedule The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attendance at tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in your work. How to Get the Best from this Course In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your set of books or other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives shall let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished, the units you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. Reading Section Remember that your tutor’s job is to assist you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it. 1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly. 2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the ‘Course overview’ for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments related to the units. Whatevermethod youchosetouse,youshould decideon and writeinyourowndatesforworkingoneachunit. 3. Onceyouhavecreatedyourownstudyschedule,doeverythingyoucantosticktoit.Themajorreasonthatstudents failis that they get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before itistoolateforhelp. 4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit. 12 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats 5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the ‘Overview’ at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are working on and one of your set books on your desk at the same time. 6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading. 7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor. 8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. 9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the Tutor-Marked Assignment form and also on what is written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions or problems. 10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide). Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials There are between eight and 12 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. The dates, time and venue of these tutorials shall be communicated to you. The name and phone number of your tutor will be made known to you immediately you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. You will definitely benefit a lot by doing that. Contact your tutor if: + you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings; + you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises; and + you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment. 13 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats You should make an effort to attend the tutorials. Thus, it is the only opportunity you have to enjoy face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussion activity. Summary CSS 244: Types and Analysis of Security Threats aims to expose the reader or student to the meaning and types and categories of security threats as well as how to explain different approaches and techniques through which threats can be mitigated or controlled. As you complete this course, you should be able to answer the following questions: Conceptualise the term security threat; Identify various security threats; Classify or categorise various security threats; Discuss the meaning and types of various human or man-made security threats; Examine various manmade security threats; Explain the meaning and types of geological security threats; Examine climatic security threats; Analyse environmental threats; Explore how the various types of security threats pose a danger to any people or community; Propose measures and approaches that aid in mitigating or reducing the occurrence of different security threats; Unravel the importance of civil security approaches to threat mitigation and crime control; Elaborate the relevance of the study of risk psychology and analysis in threat mitigation and crime reduction; Illuminate on how simulation exercise can contribute to threat reduction and law enforcement; Investigate the significance of crime analyse in threat mitigation and crime management; and Verify how data mining and automated data analyses can serve important tools to crime detection, control and threat mitigation. Good luck in your studies at the National Open University of Nigeria. 14 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats CSS 244 TYPES AND ANALYSIS OF SECURITY THREATS Course Developer/Writer Monsuru Adegboyega Kasali Non-Violence and Intercultural Communication Advocacy Initiatives, Ibadan, Nigeria Course Editor Adewole Akinyemi Atere, Ph.D College of Management & Social Sciences Osun State University Course Coordinator Adeniyi Adegoke, Ph.D Criminology and Security Studies School of Arts and Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria Programme Leader Prof. Abdul-Rasheed Yesufu Dean, School of Arts and Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria 15 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office No. 5 Dar es Salam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.nou.edu.ng Published by National Open University of Nigeria Printed ISBN: All Rights Reserved 16 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats CONTENT PAGE Module 1 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OF SECURITY THREATS AND TYPES OF SECURITY THREATS (MANMADE)............................ 1 Unit 1: Meaning & Types of Security Threat....................................................... 1 Unit 2: Basic Human or Manmade Threats.......................................................... 8 Unit 3: Terrorism as a Security Threat and Individual Protective Measures....... 23 Unit 4: War as a Security Threat....................................................................... 36 Unit 5: Information Warfare as a Security Threat.............................................. 46 Module 2 ANALYSIS OF NON-HUMAN SECURITY THREATS................... 54 Unit 1: Analysis of Geological Security Threat/Hazards I................................. 54 Unit 2: Analysis of Geological Security Threat/Hazards II................................ 68 Unit 3: Analysis of Climatic Security Threat/Hazards....................................... 79 Unit 4: Analysis of Environmental Security Threat/Hazards I........................... 95 Unit 5: Analysis of Environmental Security Threat/Hazards II....................... 107 Module 3 TYPES OF SECURITY AND APPROACHES TO THREAT MITIGATION................................................................................... 118 Unit 1: Basic Types of Security I.................................................................... 118 Unit 2: Basic Types of Security II.................................................................. 128 Unit 3: Basic Types of Security III................................................................. 138 Unit 4: Civil Security Approaches to Threat Mitigation I............................... 149 Unit 5: Civil Security Approaches to Threat Mitigation II.............................. 161 Module 4 MEASURES FOR THREAT MANAGEMENT............................... 172 Unit 1: Risk: Meaning, Psychology & Analysis.............................................. 172 Unit 2: Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment.............................................. 185 Unit 3: Simulation in Law Enforcement......................................................... 196 Unit 4: Crime Analysis: Meaning and Importance to Crime Mitigation........... 206 Unit 5: Applying Data Mining and Automated Data Analysis for Crime Management........................................................................................ 217 17 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats MODULE 1: CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OF SECURITY THREATS AND TYPES OF SECURITY THREATS (MANMADE) Unit 1: Meaning & Types of Security Threats Unit 2: Basic Human or Manmade Threats Unit 3: Terrorism as a Security Threat and Individual Protective Measures Unit 4: War as a Security Threat Unit 5: Information Warfare as a Security Threat UNIT 1 MEANING & TYPES OF SECURITY THREATS CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Body 3.1 Meaning of Security Threat 3.2 Types of Security Threats 3.2.1 Geological Threat/Hazards 3.2.2 Climatic Threats/Hazards 3.3.3 Environmental Hazard 3.3.4 Human Threats 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References / Further Reading 1.0. INTRODUCTION The meaning of security has been generating a great debate among scholars in recent time. The experience of the world in recent time emphasises a paradigm shift in security discourse. Traditionally, the State is the custodian and ultimate beneficiary of the monopoly use of violence as advocated by Max Weber. Any internal or external threat to challenging the authority of the State in monopolising violence was considered as a security threat. During the Westphalia period, the major threat to the political sovereignty of any State usually emanated from another State. During that period, the threat to security usually involved state to state aggression, as there was little or no presence of intra-state violence. But, since the emergence of the Cold War in 1945, the main challenge against state has been internal threat to security where most countries became plagued with insurgency and civil wars as experienced all over the world. The end of the Cold 18 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats War in 1989 has widened the scope of security studies due to the emergence of states without any defined political boundaries. However, this is evident in the enormous political sovereignty enjoyed by international terrorist networks, which have created their own governments, standing armies and other features of a modern state except defined geographical boundaries. The authority of these non-state actors is not limited by geographical boundary as their influence extends to several continents and they have become a major source of threat not only to national security but also to world security. The recent experience shows that major threats often come from other sources other than the state actors. The role of resource scarcity in undermining the general security and challenging the political sovereignty of any nation draws our attention to the amount of threat that poverty and deprivation can pose to security in any community or state. In this unit, we shall define the term security threat and briefly explain various types of threat. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Explain the meaning of security threat; Identify types of threat; and Explain forms of natural and human threats. 3.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 Meaning of Security Threat Waever (1995) associates the concept of security threat to security problems that undermine the security of any nation or community, and relates it to:...developments that threaten the sovereignty or independence of a state in a particularly rapid or dramatic fashion, and deprive it of the capacity to manage by itself. This, in turn, undercuts the political order. Such a threat must therefore be met with the mobilization of the maximum effort (Waever, 1995: 54). Similarly, security threat can be described as capacity of any human and non-human elements to destroy the vital interests of other considered as targets. We can also describe security threat as:...a party with the intent and capability to exploit a vulnerability in an asset. This could be a malicious hacker or a disgruntled employee :/ /proxy.11a.nu/2006 /02/ 11/definition-of-risk-vulnerability-and-threat). 19 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats...an explicit or implicit message from a person to another that the first will cause something bad to happen to the other, often except when certain demands are met. Often a weapon is used. Examples are a robbery, kidnapping, hijacking, extortion, blackmail (://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Threat)....anything that threatens the residents of a community or the things they value (Gordon, 2000)....persons, things, events, or ideas, which pose accidentally or deliberately some degree or danger to an asset. (US National Institute of Standards and Technology cited in Kuban & MacKenzie-Carey, 2001). Dissecting the foregoing definitions of the term security threat, you will conclude that security threat covers all aspects of any malicious intention or action or occurrence geared towards making a party vulnerable and exposed to security risk. Security threat can be simply divided into two, namely natural and manmade threats. The former are usually generated by nature while the latter involve cruel attacks arising from human actions and behaviour. The manmade threats involve malicious activities of man, which may include armed robbery, assassination, computer intrusion, information hacking and corruption, violent behaviour, ethnocentrism, religious bigotry, terrorism, to mention a few. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE How do you describe the term security threat? 3.2 Types of Security Threats As explained earlier, security threats can be classified into two namely natural and manmade threats. Natural threats can further be divided into two: minor and major. Examples of major natural threats may include hurricane (cyclone), earthquake, drought and flood. And those natural threats or hazards considered to be minor may include cold wave, storm, mudslide, thunderstorms, to mention a few. In this study for the sake of conceptual and analytic clarity, we shall be explaining the natural threats by dividing them into two due to different conditions, and they shall be classified as geological security threats and climatic security threats. On the other hand, manmade threats usually involve those threats or hazards that are brought into bear resulting from human actions (deliberately or accidentally). These threats may include terrorism, different forms of crime, mob action, kidnapping, among others. The third type of security threat may include all forms of environmental threat or hazard. At this point, let us present these various types of security threats one after the other. 20 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats 3.2.1 Geological Threat/Hazards Geological threats or hazards are basically natural geologic phenomena, which can potentially pose a huge security risk to human lives, as they are not only capable of causing various degrees of bodily harms to people but can also cause (mass) deaths. They can also bring on any communities or people large-scale destruction of physical structures and infrastructure. Thus, geological threats or hazards can be simply defined as:...extreme natural events in the crust of the earth that pose a threat to life and property, for example, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis (tidal waves) and landslides (://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1112). As highlighted in the foregoing, the hazardous processes any communities that can pose a danger to people and their environments may include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding, mudflows, tsunamis to mention a few. It is also important to note that the set of threats cannot be easily detected as they largely remain unpredictable. Though, through hazard mapping and monitoring, we can determine the locations or areas that are susceptible to the various kinds of natural threats that exist in this class of threats but, we may not have accurate prediction of the time that these hazards may occur in any place. For this reason, it is usually advisable to identify the kinds of natural hazards that may exist in our communities. For instance, those areas or settlements that lie along the seismic lines, there is possibility that they will experience earthquake at one time or the other. It is paramount for the people found in such locations to erect their physical structures in a way that they will be resistant to the vibration that is usually produced by the quake. 3.2.2 Climatic Threats/Hazards Climatic threats or Hazards are simply those types of threat that involve a rapid change in the climatic conditions, capable of posing a danger to the wellbeing and survival of any people or communities. They are natural threats that are usually created by:...a severe variation from average climatic conditions which cause problems for the people living in the area affected (://www.geography-help.co.uk/powerpoints /human_activities_ctwm_monsoon.ppt). Climatic hazards are actually created by one or a combination of factors which may include heavy rainfall, droughts, wildfires, among others. Climatic hazards basically include hurricane, flood and drought. It is important to avoid mistaking climatic problem for climate hazard. For instance, drought can be regarded as a climatic hazard where there is usually regular experience of rainfall because rapid reduction in the volume of rainfall in such a settlement or place can be considered as hazardous. And in desert area or arid settlement, the incidence of drought is usually viewed as climatic 21 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats problem rather than hazard because people found in such an area or settlement are used to dry weather with very little prospect for rainfall. Meanwhile, human activities such as deforestation among other anthropogenic factors can also contribute to the occurrence of these climatic hazards. For instance, continued emission of greenhouse gases notably carbon dioxide into the atmosphere has been a leading factor to the problem of climate change with devastating consequences on man and his/her environment. 3.3.3 Environmental Hazard Environmental Hazards are types of threat, which usually involve entrapment of the environment with various forms of pollution like bush burning, reckless removal of trees, use of chemicals among others. There is no doubt that environmental hazards constitute a huge security risk to any people or community. These hazards can generate such devastating situations as air pollution, water pollution as well as soil contamination. Anthropogenic factors are chiefly responsible for various environmental pollutions that generate different environmental hazards. The consequences of these hazards can be very severe and unpleasant to any people because apart from the adverse effects that it may have on people’s health and wellbeing, it can also bring the economy of affected communities to its knees, creating an atmosphere of economic underdevelopment. 3.3.4 Human Threats Human threats are basically any intentional criminal actions like terrorism, kidnapping robbery, theft, etc. They also include any other unintentional actions that may pose security risk to any people or communities such as careless handling of information files, among others. When we talk about information technology (IT) one of the issues that come to our minds is the growing risk emanating from the activities of hackers and other people that engage in malicious entry into information systems. In view of this, several human activities can pose a threat not only to the wellbeing of the people but can also propel physical, infrastructural and information damages or destructions. Undoubtedly, the activities of disloyal employees can rapidly effect the collapse of any corporations if adequate mitigation measures are not put in place to check the mischief of such workers. Apart from the normal criminal actions, human beings have also been accused of being responsible for the invocation of most of the natural threats. For instance, variability in climate conditions is normal but human emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere has rapidly led to drastic and significant change in the world climate, putting biodiversity into quandary. The challenges confronting mankind resulting from climate change are enormous leading to growing reduction in the volume of rainfall and resource scarcity, to 22 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats mention a few. There are some other forms of security threat that we may not be covering in this course. It is, therefore, important to engage in further reading to identify other types of threat not discussed in the material. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Discuss various types of threat. 4.0 CONCLUSION It is a truism that the capacity of any community to respond to hazardous situations depends largely on its resilience and preparedness towards risk reduction and hazard mitigation. The recovery capacity of any community, wishing to mitigate the effect that the occurrence of any hazard may have on her and its people, must be substantial enough to withstand the threat or hazard. If no efforts are made to mitigate or reduce the impact of hazard or attack, there is the possibility that such hazard will result in disaster. It is therefore necessary for stakeholders to adopt strategies through which they can improve their capacity to respond to hazardous situations timely and effectively. A fact that comes out of this intellectual standpoint is that disaster does not usually occur where vulnerability is low or absent. 5. 0 S U M MA RY In this unit, we began our journey into the course (Types and Analysis of Security Threats) by examining the meaning of security threats. Thereafter, our focus was shifted to various classes of security threats such as geological threats/hazards, climatic threats/hazards, environmental threats as well as human or manmade threats. We also observed that there are other classes of security threats that we may not able to cover in this material, as the reader or student is admonished to source for other relevant materials that can help them identify some other types of threat not discussed in this course. In the next four units, we shall be beaming our searchlight on some of the threats that can be considered as manmade while other classes of security threats will be discussed in the next module. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Explain the meaning and any four types of security threats. 7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Gordon, J. (2000). Risk Assessment and Management in Local Government Emergency Planning, Part 1: Basic concepts. Canadian Journal of Emergency Management 2(2): 11-12. 23 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats US National Institute of Standards and Technology cited in Kuban, R. & MacKenzie- Carey, H. (2001). Community-Wide Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment. Office of Critical Infrastructure Protection and Emergency Preparedness, Canada. Waever, Ole (1995). Securitization and Desecuritization. In: Lipschutz, R.D (ed.). On Security. New York: Columbia University Press. 46-86. ://proxy.11a.nu/2006 /02/ 11/definition-of-risk-vulnerability-and-threat). Retrieved on 30 August, 2009. ://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=1112. Retrieved on 14 November, 2009. ://www.geography-help.co.uk/powerpoints/human_activities_ctwm_monsoon.ppt. Retrieved on 20 November, 2009. ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Threat. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009. UNIT 2 24 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats BASIC HUMAN OR MANMADE SECURITY THREATS CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Body 3.1 Robbery 3.2 Theft 3.3 Arson 3.4 Kidnapping 3.5 Badger Game 3.6 Extortion 3.7 Insurgency 3.8 Strike Action 3.9 Assassination 3.10 Demonstration 3.11 Mob Action 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 S u mm ar y 6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment 7.0 References / Further Reading 1.0. INTRODUCTION In the last unit, our study centred on the meaning of security threat, and we also explained various forms of threats including geological threats, climatic threats, environmental threats and human or man-made threats. In furtherance of our study on these different classes of threats, we shall beam our search light on various types of threats contained in each class of security threats by exploring their meaning and how they can constitute a danger to any people or communities. In this unit, we shall be focusing on human or man-made threats by exploring some of the basic types of man- made threats and showing how they can pose security risk. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Identify major manmade types of security threat, Discuss the meaning of the various manmade security threats; and Explain the characteristics of these threats and how they constitute security risk to any community. 3.0 MAIN BODY 25 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats 3.1 Robbery One of the manmade threats is robbery, and robbery often involves the use of instruments of intimidation and coercion by a party(ies) against another party(ies) with the aim of compelling the victim party to concede his/her property in question to the offender party. Such violent instruments like gun, knife, sword, cutlass, grenade, or any other dangerous objects as the case may be, are often used by robbers to force the victims to yield to their (robbers’) demand. There are many definitions of robbery, some of which include the following: Robbery is the crime of seizing property through violence or intimidation. This is different from embezzlement, larceny, and theft. Piracy is a type of robbery. Armed robbery involves the use of a weapon. Highway robbery takes place outside and in a public place. Robbery is generally an urban crime. Carjacking is the act of robbing a car from a victim, usually at gunpoint (://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/ encyclopedia/Robbery). Robbery is the crime of seizing property through violence or intimidation (://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbery). Robbery is taking or attempting to take something of value from another by violence or the threat of violence. Robbery can be committed against individuals, businesses, and institutions like banks. It is a felony in all states. Threatening people on the streets with a baseball bat and demanding all their money and jewellery is robbery, even if the person is not injured. Pushing an elderly woman down on the sidewalk to steal her purse is also robbery (://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_crimes/offenses _ robbery.htm). Robbery is a regular feature of every human society, even among the animals, robbery takes place. For instance, in some wildlife clips, we may see some hyenas hunting some preys and eventually they may succeed in catching some of these preys like antelopes. But, shortly after the catch, we may see a group of lions larger in number emerging from nowhere chasing away the poor hyenas and rob them of their catches (animals killed by the hyenas for feeding). This example nevertheless shows that the incidence of robbery is not limited to human beings but it also exists in animal kingdom. Types of robbery a) Piracy: This is one of the types of robbery. But, we need to exercise some caution in the conceptualisation of the concept of piracy. This is because in intellectual property and copyrights law, the term piracy is also used to describe the nefarious activities of offenders who steal the works of other people especially for money-making motives. However, the piracy we are discussing in this study or lesson is essentially maritime. The term piracy is 26 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats described in the relevant provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982 as: (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: (i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act of inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in subparagraph (a) or (b) (UNCLOS, 1982: Article 101). Piracy usually involves a very violent act perpetrated by private parties of no government affiliation. Piracy is a violent crime and robbery which takes place on the seas. A good example includes the nefarious activities of Somalian criminals or pirates who rob and seize ships on the sea, a situation which has attracted so much public attention in recent time. Piracy is a form of robbery that involves all violent acts perpetrated on the seas but it does not include those criminal activities being perpetrated by some passengers against some other passengers on the same vessel. The phenomenon of piracy is new but has been an agelong security threat, which in the 17th and 18th centuries attracted death penalty against the offenders. During these periods in Europe, pirates caught and arrested were paraded before the public and later subjected to public execution; b) Car-snatching or Carjacking: This is another type of robbery that has been phenomenal in a number of countries including South Africa, the US, Sweden, Nigeria, among others. It can be described as the act of forcefully seizing and taking possession of the victim’s car by the crime offender through the use of dangerous weapons especially gun. We can also define this form of robbery as:...an armed auto theft, or auto theft by threat or force from a person (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.)....the crime of motor vehicle theft from a person who is present. Typically the carjacker is armed, and the driver of the car is forced out of the car at gun point (://ww.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Carjacking). In some situations, the car-snatcher may use toy gun to force the victim (carry owner or driver) out of the car. If the offender is arrested, he/she will still be liable to be charged for armed robbery because he/she, by using gun either toy or real, intends to cause fear or intimidation on the victim with the aim of criminally seizing and/ or stealing the car from the victim. In South Africa, the 27 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats incidence of car snatching is very high, and in the process of stealing cars from victims, many victims have not only lost their cars but also their lives or lives of co-occupants (or loved ones) or sustained various degrees of injury in the hands of car-snatchers. Car-snatching often generates trauma among the victims. For instance, some years ago, a popular reggae artist, Lucky Dube was killed by a gang of car- snatchers in South Africa in the presence of his children. Can you imagine the amount of trauma suffered by the children, seeing their father and breadwinner being hunted down by some criminals in the name of car-snatching? The Shina- Rambo episode in Nigeria is still very fresh in the memories of many of us who knew the amount of security threat the car-snatching syndicate posed to our national security. The leader of the syndicate, Amani Tijani has been arrested and currently facing trial in Nigeria. More importantly, one is expected to know that there is a difference between ordinary car theft and car-snatching. The truth of the matter is that not all incidents of car theft can be regarded as car-snatching or carjacking. This is because there may be occasions whereby cars will be stolen from where they are parked. In this case, cars are stolen without forcefully taking them from the drivers. Here, the car thieves carefully remove and steal the cars from where they are parked or by deceiving the car drivers or owners. This kind of crime can only be regarded to as car theft not car-snatching or carjacking; c) Streaming: This is another of robbery that usually involves organised criminal activities being perpetrated on underground trains. The term is made popular by the United Kingdom, used to describe the violent crimes perpetrated on train or bus passengers by criminal gangs (see ://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/698 3476.stm; & ://www.btp.presscentre.com/Content/Detail.asp?Release ID=6 75&NewsAreaID=2). The crime ranges from mild application of intimidation and violence to the use of serious violence like rape, assault and murder; d) Highway robbery: Highway robbery can also be regarded as a great threat to security. It can be simply described as a kind of robbery that takes place on the roads, streets, or even bridges. This threat is often experienced by many commuters using Nigerian roads. Meanwhile, there are some hotspots where the incidence of highway robbery frequently takes place. One of such spots is Abuja-Lokoja road where several passengers and travellers have been robbed or/and injured or/and killed by suspected highway robbers. A pathetic case was the incident of highway robbery that happened recently where many victim passengers were crushed to death by on-coming trailer, which was on top speed while trying to avoid being pinned-down by the robbers. The ugly incident happened when the victim passengers were asked by the robbers to lie face down, and many of the victims never suspected that the trailer approaching would crush them. 28 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats e) Armed robbery: This is another type of robbery, which involves the use of weapons. The weapons used by the robbers may not necessarily be deadly. Take for instance, a robber may be armed with table knife to dispossess his/her victims. Some robbers may use big sticks to force their victims to surrender their valuables. In armed robbery, the weapons used by robbers may not be actually deadly. Some robbers may use their physical strength to dispossess their victims (especially the female) of their valuables. Such action may still be regarded as armed robbery; and f) Aggravated robbery: Aggravated robbery actually means a form of robbery where the offenders use deadly or dangerous weapons in the course of carrying- out their dastardly act. Aggravated robbery can also be defined as:....the use of a deadly weapon or what appears to be a deadly weapon. If someone robs a store with a toy pistol, that will still be aggravated robbery, because the weapon appeared to be deadly. It is also aggravated robbery in some states to cause or threaten serious bodily injury or death during the commission of the robbery (://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_ crimes/offenses_ robbery. htm). The experience in recent time has shown the high level lethality in the weapons being used by some robbers in carrying out their dastardly acts. The incidents of bank robbery have taken very aggravated dimension where robbers do not only use sophisticated riffles but also use grenades. The warlike situation that characterises bank robbery in Nigeria in contemporary time underscores the need to appreciate security reengineering and reformulation of security strategies. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Explain the meaning of robbery. Discuss any five types of robbery. 3.2 Theft Theft can be said to be a form of manmade security threat. It actually involves act of making unlawful claims over someone else’s property or “illegal taking of another person’s property without the person’s freely-given consent” ( ://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Theft). Ordinarily, the term theft is used to describe some other criminal acts that relate to illegal acquisition of another person’s property or acts of stealing like burglary, larceny, looting, fraud and embezzlement, to mention a few. Theft can be perpetrated in various ways. One of the ways may involve illegal access or intrusion into information systems belonging to another person or organisation. The acts of theft are not exclusively undertaken by individuals, organisation(s) also can be found culpable. For instance, several organisations have been accused of 29 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats stealing information belonging to some other organisations, may be through the use of an insider or through direct intrusion for the actualisation of specific objectives. Theft may also involve the unintentional stealing of another person’s property. For instance, someone may accidentally find another person’s unused (phone) recharge card, and rather than returning it, he/she may decide to sell or use the recharge card. In the situation whereby the person in question decides to sell or use the recharge card, he/she has committed theft, showing it is not always necessary for the act of theft to be intentional. By and large, theft does not in any way involve the application of direct force against the victim, and in a situation this happens, the act can no longer be regarded as theft but it will be considered a robbery. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Explain the meaning of theft as a threat to security. 3.3 Arson Arson can be described to mean a deliberate act of destructively setting another person’s or oneself’s property on fire for specific motives. For instance, someone can decide to set his/her property on fire with criminal intention of illegally getting claims from an insurance company. Meanwhile, most times this crime is perpetrated by a party against another party. The antagonistic and destructive activities that dominate our national politics has paved the way for the growing anarchy that the country experience. From one democratic dispensation to another, the incidence of arson has featured not only in inter-party relations but also in intra-party wranglings. The use of thugs to set fire on the houses of opponents is still experienced in Nigerian politics. For instance, in the last re-run governorship election in Ekiti State of Nigeria saw the burning down of the Independent National Electoral Commission’s (INEC) office in Ido Ekiti by irate youths over the alleged manipulation of election results by the election body and few powerful people in the state. There is no doubt that, in the country, arson constitutes a great security threat especially if we consider the financial and material losses that usually occasion such incident(s). SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE What is arson? 3.4 Kidnapping The incidence of kidnapping has become a grave security threat both locally and internationally. Many families have lost their loved ones through the dastardly acts of kidnapping. Apart from loss of lives, kidnapping also has implications on the economy of the state as well as that of individuals. For instance, in countries like Mexico and Nigeria where most kidnappings lack political motives, the kidnappers 30 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats seize their victims for ransoms, and many families pay through their noses to settle the kidnappers’ money requests with the aim of securing the release of their loved ones. At this point, let us quickly look at some of the definition of the term kidnapping. Kidnapping can be described as a form security threat that involves:...the taking away or asportation of a person against the person's will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment, a confinement without legal authority. This may be done for ransom or in furtherance of another crime, or in connection with a child dispute (://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping)....the taking away of a person against the person's will, usually to hold the person for ransom or in furtherance of another crime. In the terminology of the common law in many jurisdictions, the crime of kidnapping is labelled abduction when the victim is a woman (://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Kidnapping). The nefarious activities of some of the militants in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria has actually made popular kidnapping as a source of making quick money. The problem is spreading fast to other regions of the country. There is increasing tension in south-eastern Nigeria where the business of kidnapping is becoming widely accepted among the youth in the area. It is most pathetic that in some circumstances, some of the victims of kidnapping were part of the plot right from the outset. They planned the kidnapping episode with some other criminals to get money from their family members or/and relatives or/and friends. Many drivers have also been accused of masterminding the kidnapping of their bosses or members of their bosses’ families. There is no doubt that the rising incidence of kidnapping has been a major source of worry to the security sector, especially as security personnel are not left out by kidnappers. For instance, some practitioners have one time or the other become preys in the hands of kidnappers. Many of these security men and officers were not lucky as they were killed by the kidnappers. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE What is kidnapping? 3.5 Badger Game Badger Game is a form of security threat that can undermine the capacity of an individual to perform his/her duties effectively. The risk created by this threat is to deepen the vulnerability of the affected individuals by setting him/her up. Here, the individual like a security officer is coerced to compromise his position by tricking him/her into a social action or activity that people will not expect persons in such position to engage in. For instance, a very principled security chief may be trapped with a woman, and his conversations and sexual relations with the woman are recorded by his enemies who set him up in the first instance. 31 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Consequently, the enemies will approach him and ask him to compromise his position or he will be blackmailed. This scenario reemphasises the need for security practitioners to always be very careful in their relation with other people and avoid engaging in any action that can tarnish their image and that of the offices they hold or which can make them compromise their position. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE How do you describe badger game? 3.6 Extortion Extortion is another form of manmade security threat. It simply involves coercing a person to part with either certain money or property or services to the offender. On daily basis, Nigerians complain of extortion being suffered in the hands of security operatives especially the Police. Conceptually, extortion can be described as:...a criminal offence, which occurs when a person unlawfully obtains either money, property or services from a person, entity, or institution, through coercion (Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.)....a criminal offence, which occurs when a person obtains money or other goods from another by threatening or inflicting harm to his person, reputation, or property (://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Extortion). Extortion occurs not only in public places but also in private establishments. Many people in the course of seeking for job are mandated to pay money or render some services against their will before they can secure employment. The commuters always accuse the police of extortion on our roads and even in their stations despite the prevailing anti-corruption campaign in the country. Many customs officials have failed to do their jobs effectively well because of their culture of extortion. They are basically preoccupied with extorting the public, and in the process they often fail to perform their responsibilities. And one of the consequences of this failure is circulation of proliferated weapons in the country, which came in through the borders. The culture of extortion has continued to paint the security sector in Nigeria in bad light, as the most needed cooperation from the public in the effective management of security is visibly lacking. One of the reasons is the fear of being extorted by security operatives, even when they (the civilians) wish to offer or provide important information to the security personnel for crime prevention and mitigation. There are several allegations that some individuals, after offering vital security information to the police, were arrested and threatened with violence and prosecution, until the affected innocent civilians were forced to settle the extortionist security men/officers with varying amount of money. It is most disturbing to hear cases where some security personnel demand for sex from their female victims before they could be released from unlawful detention. 32 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats The writer can remember when in company of a friend, being intercepted by an anti- robbery patrol team before 8pm when there was no case of curfew, and subsequently arrest was effected without any genuine reason. At the station, the patrol team had arrested, in similar circumstances, scores of innocent civilians and ordered everybody into the cell without any investigation. The next thing we heard was that we should beg those whose relatives had come to pay for their release, to assist us to get in touch with our relatives or friends to come and negotiate our own release as well. Within a short time of the arrest, some neighbours of mine who saw me and my friend being whisked away by the criminals in uniform came to the station to pay for my release but I refused to succumb, requesting to see the Divisional Police Officer (DPO) of that station. Consequently, I stayed there till the next morning but not without being assaulted by one of the policemen on duty. One of the inmates appealed to me to give peace a chance by accepting the terms of release (paying illegal money as bail). And through so much pressure from my neighbours, I gave in. To my greatest surprise, one of the policemen told me that it was a nice decision, accepting the terms of my release. Money was forcefully taken by the police to secure my release and that of my friend. The policeman went further to say that if I had insisted to settle the case in court, he was very sure, due to lackadaisical and ineffective justice system in the country, that the court would ask us to be remanded in prison, even without making attempt to find out if the arrest was a lawful one in the first instance. Unfortunately, the experience of most civilians, resulting from official and unofficial extortion by security operatives in the country undermines the integrity and capacity of the public security sector in fulfilling the overall goals of their establishment particularly the security of lives and property of the citizens. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Describe extortion as a security threat. 3.7 Insurgency Insurgency is another form of manmade security threat. It usually involves an armed struggle or rebellion aimed to challenge the sovereign power of a constituted authority. It can also be described as violent aggression by belligerents against the government of any given country, especially the one recognised by the United Nations (see Oxford English Dictionary, 1989). However, we can also define insurgency as:...an organized rebellion aimed at overthrowing a constituted government through the use of subversion and armed conflict (://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn)....an armed uprising, revolt, or insurrection against an established civil or political authority. Persons engaging in insurgency are called insurgents, and typically engage in regular or guerrilla combat against the armed forces of the established regime, or 33 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats conduct sabotage and harassment in the land (://www.answerbag.com/q_view/68 079). Some of the causes of insurgency may include electoral malpractices as experienced in Algeria, ethno-religious conflict, human rights abuse, personal envy, maladministration, ineffective justice system, to mention a few. The problem of insurgency has been a regular feature of African politics due to a number of reasons. One of the reasons is the sharp ethnic division that exists among various ethnic groups, which compose an average African state. This problem is prevalent where there is deepened economic deprivation and patron-client network. In such a country, the elite are often accused of flying the kite of ethnicity in the accumulation of state resources thereby creating a culture of ethnic hatred as evident in the Rwandan crisis. The ideological rivalry between the Angolan government and the National Union for the Total Liberation of Angola (UNITA) rebel led by late J. Savimbi especially during the cold war era has also shown how ideological differences can attract insurgency in any given state. There is no doubt that most insurgent groups use instrument and tactic of terror to attract public attention to themselves. And most times, methods applied by insurgents do not only undermine the security of lives and property, but they also infringe on the natural rights of the innocent civilians and dislocate them socially and economically. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE How do you explain insurgency as a security threat? 3.8 Strike Action Strike action is often described as refusal of employees to report at their workplaces or/and refusal to discharge their respective duties in protest against poor working conditions and/or policies of authorities or government or employers which they consider inimical to their welfare and wellbeing. Since the period of industrial revolution, strike action has become a veritable tool used (as the last resort) by different unions to express their grievances and prevail on the authorities or employers to yield to the labour demands. Undoubtedly, strike action can potentially constitute a threat to any regime, as it can lead to the loss of huge amount of working hours and money. For instance, the strike embarked upon by labour unions in the early 1990s in reaction to the annulment of the June 12, 1993 presidential election by General Babangida almost degenerated to total collapse of socio-economic activities in Nigeria. The strike also had a devastating effect on the political administration of the Nigerian state, as the military government under Late General Sani Abacha resorted to carrying out unlawful arrests on the union leaders and several human rights activists to legitimise his unconstitutional rule after taking over from Chief Ernest Shonekan, the leader of the interim government put in 34 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats place by General Ibrahim Babangida when he failed in his transition programme before he relinquished his position as military leader of Nigeria. Types of Strike Wildcats Strikes: These are a form of strike or industrial show-down whereby workers or employees embark on work boycott without being mandated by their respective (labour) unions. They may decide to embark on such strikes if they consider that the leaderships of their unions are not actually supporting their intention to force their employers to yield to their demands through industrial action or if they suspect that their unions have betrayed them. Wildcats strikes are often regarded as unofficial strikes because they are embarked upon by employees without any formal authorisation from the unions. They are capable of posing huge security risk to any organisation or government as the employers may find it difficult to negotiate with the striking workers because of the distance that might have been created between the employees and their union leaderships. Thus, decisions made with the union may not be accepted by the striking workers with little opportunity for collective bargaining. Sit-Down Strike: This is another type of strike, which usually involves workers’ presence at their places of work but they will not perform any official duties. Here, striking employees will only boycott their duties but not places of work. Work-to-Rule Strike: This form of strike is known in Italy as Sciopero bianco. In this strike, workers report for duties and perform their various tasks but they will fail to improve on their inputs in production processes by following very strictly all safety regulations. For instance, striking police personnel may report to their respective duties but through this form of strike, they will not respond to any emergency calls in the absence of operational equipment like patrol vehicles, as well as non-availability of bullet proof vests. Meanwhile, we may have observed that even without operational vehicles, police patrol teams still manage to use commercial vehicles to perform their duties. But, due to work-to-rule strike, they will insist that they will not do the patrol or emergency intervention if there are no official vehicles. In this case, there is tendency that the services that will be rendered by the police will be insufficient in the management of security of lives and property in any community especially where there is no adequate funding of the police like Nigeria. General Strikes: These are usual strikes which involve employees acting on the directives of their unions to embark on work boycott in their reaction to poor working conditions and as last resort to compel the authorities or employers to yield to their demands. General strikes also pose huge security threat to any nation or organisation owing to the amount of time and money wasted resulting from the industrial action. For instance, in Nigeria, no less than five hundred billion Naira must have been lost in the last three years as a result of regular face-off between Labour Unions and Government at all levels, leading to a series of strikes. 35 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Sympathy Strike: It is another form of strike that is undertaken by the workers of a union supporting the workers of another union who are on strike by refusing “to cross a picket line established by another as a means of supporting the striking workers” (://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action). Student Strike: This form of strike has impact on public image of any country rather than its economy. Here, the students embark on boycott of lectures and other academic activities to express their displeasure towards some of the policies of the authorities or government. This strike action by the students is often supported by the teachers especially if the aim of the strike is to press the authorities or government to improve the working conditions of their teachers. Student strike can also pose a risk to the community because such action is often followed with demonstration that may become bloody if not maturely handled by security personnel and school authorities. Hunger Strike: This is another form of strike, which poses very little or no threat to any community other than the negative impact that such action may have on the image of the community. It actually involves intentional refusal to eat to protest against some actions of government or authorities. Sick-out Strike : This type of strike is also known as "blue flu" strike, and it usually involves the striking workers pretending as if they are sick as a way of refusing to work. As you may know, there are some employees whose nature of their professions does not permit them to go on strike. In many countries including Nigeria, police, military, fire-fighters as well as air controllers are constitutionally barred from embarking on strike because such action is mostly likely to generate breakdown of law and order as well as collapse of public safety. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Explain the meaning and types of strike action. 3.9 Assassination Assassination is another form of manmade security threat. Etymologically, the word Assassin emanated from the Arabic word Hashshashin. The term usually involves a target killing of any political leader or any other person for ideological or political or military or even economic reasons. Traditionally, assassination was synonymous to (covert) government-sanctioned killing of any people especially the opponents for political reasons (see ://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2004/mar/25/20040325- 091452-7923r). The use of assassination by leaders has long been supported by some political philosophers and military strategists. For instance, Sun Tzu in his book, The Art of War lent his weight behind the use of the strategy of assassination for military purposes while another great writer, Nicollo Machiavelli contended in his book, “The 36 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats Prince” that assassination could be a very tactical instrument for political rulers to retain and consolidate their grips on political power and preserve their regimes. Assassination can also constitute a huge security threat to communities or people. The use of assassination by any individuals or authorities can potentially undermine the capacity of law enforcement agents in managing local and international security. For instance, the spate of political assassinations that has greeted Nigeria in the last eight years has nevertheless made rubbish of the ability of the Nigeria Police to guarantee the security of lives and property of the citizens. The situation has really had a devastating effect on the economic wellbeing of Nigerian state owing to the demonising image that the ugly trend of political assassinations have brought on Nigerian people. Many well-meaning Nigerians who can contribute greatly to national growth are not willing to vie for elective positions for the fear that they may be killed or assassinated by opponents, further complicating the problem of the nation’s underdevelopment. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE What is assassination, and how does it pose a security threat? 3.10 Demonstration Demonstration is another manmade threat that also has the tendency to pose a danger to any community. Demonstration may also be regarded as civil disturbance or direct action. It is often undertaken for different reasons but most times, demonstration is politically motivated. For instance, during the military rule of General Abacha, many human-rights and pro-democracy activists as well as several other individuals including students staged demonstration to protest the continued detention of Chief Moshood Abiola and continued sojourn of the military in governance. There are two basic type of demonstration, and they are violent and non-violent demonstrations. Violent demonstrations largely constitute huge security risk, as it can lead to the breakdown of law and order. Violent demonstration may generate wanton destruction of lives and property. On the other hand, non-violent demonstration normally involves the use of peaceful approaches like strike, the use of graffiti etc. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Explain demonstration as a security threat. 3.11 Mob Action Mob Action is a potential form of manmade threat. It is usually a crowd or large gathering of people with strong emotional convictions that often lead them to act in violent or criminal or unlawful ways. Many people have been killed through mob actions. For instance, the bloody rivalry between United Party of Nigeria (UPN) led 37 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats by late Chief Obafemi Awolowo and National Party of Nigeria (NPN) led by Alhaji Shehu Shagari and Chief Adisa Akinloye resulted in a series of mob actions in South- western Nigeria where the supporters of these rival parties in groups violently attacked opponents with high record of arson and killing. There is no doubt, mob action can really undermine the security of lives and property in communities. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Describe mob action as a manmade threat. 4.0 CONCLUSION The growing danger that many manmade threats pose to the survival of any community has actually attracted increasing attention of various security stakeholders and practitioners to fathom ways through which the adverse impact that manmade security threats may have on any community can be reduced or prevented. The advancement in world technology has further made the world unsafe and on the verge of perpetual fear particularly resulting from the development of nuclear weapons and other lethal substances that can decimate the population by more than 25% if they are used. In the event of the usage of nuclear weapons by any state or non-state actors, no less than 2.5 billion people will be affected directly or indirectly. Also, the ecosystem will not be spared by the very destructive effect that nuclear weapon can pose to the planet. It is against this background that many national governments and non- governmental organisations (NGOs) through bilateral or multilateral arrangements to discourage proliferation of weapons or the use of deadly weapons for global security. 5. 0 SU M MA R Y In this unit, we began our search into various manmade security threats by describing the meaning and types of robbery. Thereafter, we discussed some other types of manmade security threats including theft, arson, kidnapping, badger game, extortion, among others. You are expected to note that there are several other types of manmade security threat that we could not treat in this study due to limited time and space. Some of these threats include corruption and embezzlement, gender discrimination, ethnocentrism, to mention a few. You are, therefore, advised to always engage yourself in further reading because it is difficult to have an instructional material that will cover all areas of discourse pertaining to any course. By and large, we hope that you have found this unit very interesting. In the next three units, we shall be focussing on some other types of manmade threat. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Discuss any five types of manmade security threat. 38 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats 7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING English Dictionary (1989). Second edition. Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 10 December 1982, Part VII: High Seas, Article 101. Also available on ://www.un.org/Depts/los/ convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part7.htm. Retrieved on 4 September, 2009. ://criminal-law.freeadvice.com/violent_crimes/offenses _ robbery.htm. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009. Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009. ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping. Retrieved on 30 August, 2009. ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbery. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009. ://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action. Retrieved on 10 November, 2009. ://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Theft. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009. ://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/698 3476.stm. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009. ://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn. Retrieved on 31 August, 2009. ://www.answerbag.com/q_view/68 079. Retrieved on 1 September, 2009. ://www.btp.presscentre.com/Content/Detail.asp?ReleaseID=675&NewsAreaID=2. Retrieved on 4 September, 2009. Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009. ://ww.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Carjacking. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009. ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Extortion. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009. ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Kidnapping. Retrieved on 4 Sept., 2009. ://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Robbery. Retrieved on 3 September, 2009. ://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2004/mar/25/20040325-091452-7923r. Retrieved on 3 0ctober, 2009. UNIT 3 39 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats TERRORISM AS A SECURITY THREAT AND INDIVIDUAL PROTECTIVE MEASURES CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Body 3.1 Meaning of Terrorism 3.2 Aspects of Terrorism 3.2.1 Chemical Terrorism 3.2.2 Cyberterrorism 3.2.3 Bioterrorism 3.2.4 Radiological Terrorism 3.2.5 Physical Violence 3.3 Individual Protective Measures 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 S u m mar y 6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References / Further Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION Terrorism is not a new concept. The term terrorism trod its semantic pathway to the English usage in 1795. The term was popularized by the Jacobins who ruled France between 1793 and 1794, as their reign was labelled as reign of terror. Right from 1798, the word terrorism has become a regular vocabulary to explain the attempt by some individuals, state actors or groups to articulate their political goals and aspirations through the application of systemic violence. Terrorism has a long history. In the 12th century, the Assassins, a terrorist network, an Ismaili sect of Shiite Muslims advanced some hostilities against Sunni Muslims. In 1408, John Wyclife, a theologian escaped death but several hundreds of his followers were not lucky as they were burnt to death. The reason was that Wyclife translated the Latin Valgate Bible into English in a way not favourable to the doctrine of trinity. In the aftermath of reformation; there had been a terrorist combat between the catholic and protestant dissidents in Ireland; that culminated into the creation of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which grew out of the Irish civil Rights movements in the 1960s. IRA has on several occasions attacked the British civilians. It declared a cease- fire in August 31, 1994, but resumed hostilities on 15 September 1997. In Spain, Basques separatist organization (ETA) has carried several terrorist operations in which more than 1000 Spaniards were killed, kidnapped or maimed. The long anarchist tradition and instability in the Italian political system propelled the inauguration of terrorist movements in Italy. The most notable among them was the Red Brigades 40 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats whose terrorism activities reached a crescendo in the 1978 kidnapping and killing of Aido Moro, a former prime minister. In the old West Germany, Red army faction also known as the baader- Meinhof Gang conducted series of terrorist operations both within and outside their immediate territory. They specialized also in Bank robbery. By 1970s, the activities of terrorists reached a descending order. The subject of terrorism much more became a global debate due to the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack where commercial aircrafts were used as weapons of mass destruction by terrorists linked to the Al Qaeda network led by Osama bin Laden. In this unit, we shall discuss various important issues on the subject of terrorism as a security threat. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Describe the term terrorism; Discuss various forms of terrorism; Explain various aspects of terrorism; and Clarify a number of individual protective measures towards mitigation of terrorism. 3.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 Meaning of Terrorism Conceptually, Wilkinson (1977) observes the underlying problem or dilemma which detonates the subjective nature of terror. The “complex interplay of the subjective forces and...frequently irrational individual responses” (Wardlaw, 1989: 8) make the definition of terrorism a utopian project (Wilkinson, 1977). It is often said that the use of terror is not always characteristic of terrorism such that:...the killing of one soldier on field of battle by another is not ‘terrorism’; the threat by one state that it will assist another if that is attacked is not ‘terrorism’, the shooting of a person in a store during a robbery is not ‘terrorism’. It is apparent that while these acts can constitute terrorism, the definitional answer depends on other factors too (Higgins, 1997: 15). Then, what constitutes terrorism? The definitional problem of terrorism begs for more questions than answers. Is slave trade an act of terrorism? Does a state territorial aggression or occupation of another state constitute terrorism? Does imperial conquest constitute terrorism? Does violence generated through ethnic nationalism and struggle for self-determination constitute terrorism? Does the violence emanating from the 41 CSS 244 Types and Analysis of Security Threats advancement of religious fundamentalism constitute terrorism? Is application of terror to combat terror, an act of terrorism? These questions may lead us to the question of morality and justification of violence. However, pacifists contend that the use of terror as a means to an end or as an end in itself is obsolete, immoral and absurd because ‘there can be no morally valid authorization to kill human beings’ (Claude, 1983: 4). On the definition of terrorism, According to Hardman, terrorism can be defined as;...the method or the theory behind the method whereby an organized group or party seeks to achieve its avowed aims chiefly through the systematic use of violence (Hardman, 1937)....extraordinary violence. It is intended to create massive fear and involves a planned attack for a purpose, often against something or someone. Terrorism is meant to have an audience. The differences between various terrorist attacks involve the people, purpose, and how it is carried out (://edhelper.com/Reading Comprehension_33_243.html). Terrorism is undoubtedly the systematic and ferocious use of violence, a form of guerrilla alternative to conventional warfare by state or non-state actors, with the strategic creation of psychic fear and (or) tactical production and reproduction of wanton destru