History of Computing (Introduction) PDF

HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself.  Men in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing machine for counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools. Mo...

HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  The history of computing dates back as far as the dawn of human civilization itself.  Men in ancient times used their fingers and toes as a rudimentary computing machine for counting. They also used stones and sticks as primitive calculating tools. Most African countries, most especially West African countries, traditionally used cowrie shells to perform mathematical calculations  In Nigeria, the Yoruba people developed the "Odu Ifa," which is a binary number system that was used for divination, computation, and other purposes.  The abacus, which was developed in Asia between 2700 and 2300 before the common era (BCE)  John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, developed the logarithm in 1614 for the easy computation of numbers  In 1632, William Oughtred, a clergyman and a mathematician, invented the slide rules based on John Napier's ideas. Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician and Philosopher, built the first calculating machine, which later became commercially viable between 1642 and 1644.  The machine is named Pascaline, Adding machine or Arithmetic machine. Pascaline was good in addition and subtraction but elementary in multiplication and division 1  HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar of France, in 1820, made it a task to build an arithmometer. The arithmometer was the first precision commercial mechanical calculator that could accomplish elementary mathematical processes such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in addition to performing complex tasks.  In 1804, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented another mechanical machine called the Jacquard loom, which marked the beginning of the automated system  Charles Babbage, a scientist, inventor, and mathematician, developed the difference engine in the 1820s.  Lady Lovelace, an English mathematician and author, also known as Duchess of Lovelace, was an associate of Babbage, who invented the Analytical Engine in the 19th century. She was well known as the first computer programmer because of her close work with Charles Babbage 2  HISTORY OF COMPUTING (INTRODUCTION)  Herman Hollerith, an American inventor who was employed in the United States (US) Census Bureau in the year 1880 as a statistician, developed the first electromechanical tabulating machine displayed for the US Census Bureau in the year 1890.  The first electronic digital computer was manufactured in the late 1930s and early 1940s by John Atanasoff, a physicist and mathematician, and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College (now Iowa State University). The name of the computer was Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). It was developed to find solutions to systems of simultaneous linear equations 3  The First Generations of Computers (1940s – 1950s)  Computers first emerged in the 1940s, and their first generation spanned until the 1950s.  These sets of computers were big, costly, and used vacuum tubes for their operations  This era of computing brought about the invention of the first digital electronic computers, which were used for scientific and military purposes.  Machine and assembly languages were introduced during the first generation of computers, which were characterized by their large size, high cost, limited performance, and slow operational speed.  The first generation of computers, which included the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), Universal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC I), International Business Machines (IBM), and Ferranti Mark I 4 The First Generations of Computers (1940s – 1950s) 5  Characteristics of the first generation of Computers Vacuum tube:  The first generation of computers was made up of glass tubes called vacuum tubes that could be used as electronic switches.  The vacuum tubes were very big and needed much energy to function and were used for computations and switching operations.  They are often prone to failure due to the intensity of temperatures produced. Machine Language:  During the first generation of computers, machine language, the lowest-level programming language, was utilized.  This language consisted of binary code, a sequence of 0s and 1s, which is the only language that the computer can comprehend.  The code is time-consuming and difficult to understand. The binary code had to be manually keyed into the computer. Magnetic Drum Memory:  The first generation of computers achieved the storage of data through the use of magnetic drum memory, which was a non- volatile memory that used magnetic fields to keep output information.  Magnetic drums, while slow, have limited storage capacity. 6  Characteristics of the first generation of Computers Punch Cards:  Punch cards were used to input data and instruction into the first generation of computer systems.  A punch card was a piece of rigid paper that had holes perforated in precise places to signify data or instructions.  The punch cards were input into the computer, and the computer would read the holes to control the data or instructions. Limited Applications:  The first generation of computers could not be used for many applications.  They were only used for scientific and military needs, such as the computation of complex mathematical equations and the simulation of the behavior of physical systems  Batch Processing:  In the first generation of computing, all the input data are collected and then processed together.  The process of collecting and then processing input together is called batch processing. 7  Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )  The second generation of computing started from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s  In this second generation of computing, vacuum tubes were replaced with smaller and more dependable transistors.  The second generation of computers was smaller, faster, and more efficient.  Magnetics core memory, which replaces the vacuum tube memory and drum memory, was faster and more dependable.  However, machine and assembly languages were used in UNIVAC 1.  At the same time, IBM 704 was developed in 1954 to use transistors instead of vacuum tubes and had a magnetic core memory that allowed for larger storage capacity and faster processing.  IBM 704 was also the first computer to have a Fortran compiler, which gave room for programmers to write high-level language code that could be translated into machine language. 8  Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s )  Some examples of computers developed in this period are IBM 7090 and IBM System/360, Control Data Corporation 6600 (CDC 6600), UNIVAC 1108, and Digital Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-8 (DEC PDP8).  Many programming languages were developed in the second generation of computers.  Such programming Languages are Formula Translation (FORTRAN), developed in 1954 and released in 1957 by John Backus and his team at IBM; Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL), produced by Grace Hopper in 1959 as a business application programming language; and Algorithmic Language (ALGOL) developed in 1958 by a committee of computer scientists, among whom were John Backus and Peter Naur. 9  Characteristics of the second generation of Computers Use of Transistors:  The most significant development of the second generation of computers was the replacement of vacuum tubes with transistors.  Transistors were well reduced in size, faster, and more dependable than vacuum tubes, and they gave room for computers to be made much smaller than earlier generations. Magnetic Core Memory:  Magnetic core replaced the Vacuum Tube Memory, Delay Line Memory, and Drum Memory, which were used in the first generation of computers to store data.  Magnetic core memory that came into vogue in the second generation of computing was faster and more dependable than the memory technologies of the first generation, and it gives room for the storage of more data in a smaller space. Batch Processing:  During the second generation of computers, Batch Processing was utilized as a means of running programs. This involved processing assignments of data together in a single batch, as opposed to processing them individually or in real-time.  The method is used when dealing with large assignments of data that can be automatically executed, such as processing large-scale scientific and engineering simulations, besides commercial applications, such as payroll processing. 10  Characteristics of the second generation of Computers High-Level Programming Languages:  High-Level Programming Languages such as Formula Translation (FORTRAN) and Common Business-oriented languages (COBOL) were developed on second generation computers.  These languages open the door to easy programming of complex codes by programmers.  It also commenced the development of contemporary programming languages. Operating Systems (OS)  Operating systems such as IBM's OS/360 that permit many users to run programs on the same computer at the same time were developed when computer technology shifted from vacuum tube-based to transistor-based systems 11 Second Generation of Computers ( 1950s – 1960s ) 12  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s)  The third phase or era in the evolution of computing technology began from the early 1960s to the 1970s.  It is generally believed that the introduction of the IBM System/360 mainframe computer in 1964 marked the beginning of the third phase in the evolution of computing technology, while the commencement of the use of the Intel 4004 microprocessor, which was released in 1971, marked the end of the third era in the evolution of computing technology.  The third phase in the evolution of technology brought in the development of integrated circuits, which gave an avenue for greater reduction and the formation of smaller and more powerful computers.  Thus, the use of transistors was replaced with the use of integrated circuits (ICs), which permits the development of smaller and more powerful computers. The idea of time-sharing, which permits many users to access a single computer at the same time, was introduced by the computers of the third era.  There were lots of improvements in hardware and software technology, which led to more powerful, accessible, and user-friendly computers.  The first personal computer (PC) Altair 8800, based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor and came with 256 bytes of memory designed by Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), was introduced in 1975. 13  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s)  Examples of third-era computers are IBM System/360, Digital Equipment Corporation Programmed Data Processor-11 (DEC PDP-11), Cray-1, HP 3000, and Virtual Address eXtension (VAX-11). Figure 1.3 displays an example of the third generation of computers.  The third-generation languages (3GL) were the first to be used for structured programming  They were developed in the 1960s and were closer to natural language than the previous generations and made programming easier for nonexperts. The C Programming Language was created at Bell Labs in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie, while Pascal was invented in 1970 by Niklaus Wirth.  COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC are other programming languages that played a significant role in advancing the development of third-generation computers.  Many advances in the field of programming were linked to 3GL.  Some of them are structured programming, the ability to handle large data sets, and improved error checking.  Third-generation languages (3GLs) have paved the way for the emergence of more advanced programming languages like Python, Ruby, and Java. 14  Characteristics of second-generation computers The features of third-generation computers.  Integrated circuits  Third-generation computers were characterized by their use of integrated circuits, which revolutionized computing by allowing multiple transistors and other components to be combined on a single silicon chip.  This breakthrough greatly reduced the size and complexity of computers while simultaneously improving their reliability and performance. Operating systems  This generation of computers developed an operating system that made it easier to use and program computers  Two widely used operating systems during the third generation of computing were IBM's OS/360 and DEC's TOPS-10 High-level programming languages  During the advent of 3rd generation programming languages (3GL), several highlevel programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, and BASIC were developed  These languages enabled programmers to write more expressive and concise code, thus making programming easier and more accessible to a wider range of people.  In addition, the development of software and maintenance is very easy. It also assisted in widening the user base of computers. 15  Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s) Time-sharing:  With the introduction of third-generation computers, multiple system users were able to access a computer simultaneously.  This was a significant improvement over earlier generations, where only one user could access the computer at a time.  This increased accessibility and made computing more efficient, allowing for greater collaboration and productivity among users.  The method that enables multiple computer system users to access a computer simultaneously is known as timesharing. Mainframes and minicomputers:  There was massive development of mainframes and minicomputers in the thirdgeneration computers. 16 Third Generation of Computers (1960s – 1970s) 17  Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s )  The fourth generation of computers saw sporadic changes in computer technology from the early 1970s to the mid-1980s, with the development of microprocessors and personal computers revolutionizing the industry  It featured the production of integrated circuits, which made it possible to miniaturize and mass-produce computer components, leading to a significant increase in computing power.  Thus, it was possible to build computers using large-scale integration (LSI) and very largescale integration (VLSI) technology.  This knowledge permits the development of microprocessors, which made computers even smaller and more powerful. Personal computers (PCs) were also introduced in this era.  Examples of fourth-generation computers are IBM Personal Computer (PC), IIBM System/370, Apple Macintosh, Commodore 64 (C64), and Atari 800.  The fourth-generation programming languages known as 4GLs were developed to allow the production of complex business applications.  These high-level languages were developed in the 1980s so that nonprogrammers could develop applications that would handle large amounts of data. Examples are Structured Query Language (SGL), Visual Basic, and PowerBuilder, Ada. 18  Computing's fourth generation features ( 1970s – 1980s ) Microprocessors:  The discovery of microprocessors gave birth to the building of fourth-generation computers in the late 1970s and mid-1980s.  Several microprocessors were built by different companies to contribute to the development of fourth-generation computers.  The Intel 8008 and 8080, which were the foundation of the first personal computers, were made available in 1972 and 1974, respectively.  Motorola produced the 6800 microprocessor in 1974, and Zilog announced the Z80 microprocessor in 1976.  Motorola 6800 microprocessor enjoyed a lot of patronage from early home computers and video game consoles, while Zilog microprocessors gained popularity among early personal computers, such as the TRS-80 and the ZX Spectrum.  Microprocessors give room for better processing power and speed.  They are much smaller and more effective than the large, bulky vacuum tubes and transistors used in earlier generations of computers. 19  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers Increased memory capacity:  The fourth-generation computers witnessed the development of dynamic randomaccess memory (DRAM) technology, which made it possible to construct extra memory in computers, which then gave room for more complex and sophisticated programs to be run in addition to permitting the formation of smaller, more reliable, and cheaper memory chips.  The introduction of microprocessors in fourthgeneration computers brings into play a single chip integrated into the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, combining two vital computing components into one, which led to the development of microprocessors.  This increased the general memory capacity and allowed faster processing speeds and reduced the need for distinct memory components. Operating systems :  The development of microprocessors, integrated circuits, and personal computers led to the advancement of more powerful operating systems (OS) with greater functionality, efficiency, and user-friendliness.  During that time, several operating systems emerged, including MS-DOS, Macintosh System Software, Unix, MS Windows, and OS/2, each offering unique features and capabilities to users.  MS-DOS was made available in the 1980s and used by IBM-compatible systems.  It uses a command-line interface and permits users to run programs, manage files, and access hardware facilities.  In 1984, Apple introduced Macintosh System Software, which boasted a graphical user interface (GUI), allowing users to manage files through dragand-drop and access features via a menu bar. 20  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers  Unix operating system was introduced in the 1970s and was generally used in the 1980s in workstations and minicomputers. Featuring a command-line interface, it was designed as a multi-user, multi-tasking operating system  MS Windows was first made available in 1985, and it was issued as a GUI for IBM-compatible personal computers.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the popularity of the operating system increased with the release of Windows 3.0 and 3.1, which introduced advanced graphics support, virtual memory, and other features, making it more widely adopted. OS/2 was produced by the combined efforts of IBM and Microsoft in 1987 to pave the way for an advanced operating system for personal computers.  It was developed to be a multi-tasking, multi-user operating system with GUI. However, it was not generally accepted, hence suspended in 2001. User-friendly interfaces:  The graphical user interface, which was first developed by Xerox in the 1970s and became popular in the 1980s, made fourth- generation computer usage easier for average individuals.  Windows, Icons, Menus, and Pointers (WIMP) interface was introduced in the 1980s, gained general acceptance among Windows OS users, and featured a desktop with icons representing programs, files, and folders, as well as drop-down menus and pointers to navigate.  Command Line Interface (CLI), though less user-friendly than the GUI, was still in use in the 4GL. Touchscreens were developed in the 1980s, though not used until later.  In all, GUI permits users to relate with the computer using icons, windows, and menus rather than having to type in complex commands. 21  Features of Fourth-Generation Computers Networking:  Advanced networking technology was developed in the fourth generation of computers, which gives room for computers to interface, communicate, and share facilities more easily than ever before  Robert Metcalfe developed Ethernet at Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) in 1973, enabling computers to connect through a shared communication protocol for resource and data exchange. Internet Protocol (IP), which allows communication between different devices over a network, was first developed in the late 1970s by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn as a way to connect multiple networks, creating a larger network of networks.  Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) were introduced during this period for businesses to connect their computers and share data across diverse locations. Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction:  A lot of programming languages at a higher level of abstraction, as discussed earlier, were developed in fourth-generation computers.  Complex software applications became easier to write programs on, with the development of Programming languages at a higher level of abstraction, such as C, C++, Java, Structured Query Language (SQL), Lisp, Prolog, and BASIC, among others. 22  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s)  The idea of starting the fifth generation of computing, called the "Fifth Generation Computer Project," was started by the Japanese government with the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry and some important Japanese technology companies, such as Fujitsu, NEC, and Hitachi, taking part in the development in the 1980s.  The goal was to develop a novel generation of computers that could use cutting-edge artificial intelligence, natural language processing (NLP) capabilities, and logic programming techniques.  The project that was expected to be on for ten years was terminated in the 1990s due to their inability to achieve their goals.  They were not able to achieve their goals because of the increasing cost of the project and the helplessness of the researchers to develop practical and useful applications for the technology they were researching. Despite the stoppage of the project, it was able to promote the development of computer science and artificial intelligence research, most especially in the area of logic programming and knowledge representation.  Furthermore, it inspired research in parallel processing and distributed systems, which became a field in computer science later. Some of the fifth generations of computer Languages (5GLs) are not so distinct. 23  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s)  The Languages were advancements in the fourth generation of computer languages.  Some examples of programming languages of the fifth generation of computers are Prolog, Concurrent Prolog, Mercury, Official Production System 5 (OPS5), LISt Processing (LISP), Miranda, Structured Query Language (SQL), Statistical Analysis System (SAS), Adaptive Design Automation (ADA) and VHSIC Hardware Description Language (VHDL) where VHSIC stands for Very High-Speed Integrated Circuit. 24  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) Artificial Intelligence (AI):  One of the features of the fifth-generation computers is the ability to depend on parallel processing, natural language processing, and expert systems, including the use of machine learning algorithms.  In other words, the computers of this generation should be able to do things that human beings normally do, such as knowledge of natural language, identifying patterns, and making decisions. Natural Language Processing (NLP):  NLP is a specialized study in artificial intelligence and part of the goals of fifthgeneration computers which were not achieved.  However, the research stimulated future development in the field. The study area gives the capability to comprehend and give answers to human language in a manner that is similar to human-to-human interaction. Knowledge-Based Systems (KBS)  KBS is an important component of AI and a fifth generation of computers that aims to use a database of knowledge and reasoning methods to replicate the problemsolving abilities of a human expert in a specific area.  It is intended to process natural language and use AI to reason and learn since it has a knowledge base and an inference engine.  In all, KBS has the power to save and retrieve huge quantities of information and use it to reason and make decisions. 25  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) Parallel Processing:  Parallel processing is an important characteristic of fifth-generation computers, which allows several instructions to be performed at the same time and also analyze large volumes of data.  It divides the work into smaller sub-units and performs them on many processors. Distributed Computing:  This is a vital goal of the fifth generation of computers to produce machines that are highly intelligent, flexible, and interactive.  In distributed computing, machines are aimed to accomplish a wide variety of jobs that need a large amount of computing power, memory, and speed. I  It gives room for a large number of computers to be linked together to form a single, powerful system, working together to find a solution to a problem.  In all, the fifth generation of computers gives the opportunity to connect and utilize the processing power of multiple computers, allowing for largescale computations and data analysis. Expert Systems:  This is a component of the fifth-generation computers that are aimed at imitating the decision-making functions of an expert in a specific area, using knowledge and reasoning methods to give solutions to problems and make decisions.  It is expected to assist users in finding solutions to complex problems by giving guidance and suggestions based on their knowledge of the specific area.  In all, one can expect systems to model and automate the decision-making processes of human experts in various fields. 26  The Fifth Generation of Computers (1980s – 1990s) User-Friendly Interfaces:  The definition of user-friendly interfaces of the fifth-generation computers was not absolutely agreed upon  However, it is known as an intelligent computer and is expected to have user-friendly interfaces.  The interfaces are developed to be intuitive, efficient, and pleasant to use, that is, easy to use and understand, even for non-expert users.  Thus, the fifth generation of computers ought to relate with users in a natural and casual manner, using natural language processing, speech recognition, and other advanced skills  In other words, users can interact with the computer in a more natural and intuitive way, such as through voice commands and touch screens. 27 Types of Computing Devices COS/SEN/CSC 101 NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 1 TYPES OF COMPUTER Since the invention of computers from first generation computers, they have been classified according to their types and how they operate, that is input, process and output information. Computer types can be divided into three categories according to electronic nature. They are named according to their functions. These computer types are: · Analogue Computers · Digital Computers · Hybrid Computers NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 2 ANALOG Computers Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers. These are computers which measure changes in continuous physical or electrical states, for example, pressure, temperature, voltage, length, volume, or shaft rotation. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 3  A petrol pump (at the filling station) uses an analog device which measures the quantity of petrol to the nearest kobo. A speedometer is another example of an analog device. In general, analog computers solve problems by measuring. They can only measure to a certain level of accuracy. Analog computers were popular throughout the 1950s and 1960s when the cost of digital computers was still very high. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 4 DIGITAL Computers These are computers which perform calculations by counting numbers precisely. In a digital computer data is represented by discrete states ("on" and "off" or yes/no or conducting/ non-conducting) of the computer's electronic circuitry. Number, letters, and symbols are represented by a code based on the binary number system. A number system consisting of two digits, 1 and 0. This binary number system is well suited to depict (or represent) the on/off states of electric current. The digital computer must convert all data to binary form. Generally, results from digital computers are more accurate than results from analog devices. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 5 HYBRID Computers These are computers which are a combination of DIGITAL and ANALOG computers. Some sub-units of hybrid computers are analog devices thereby requiring analog quantities, while others are digital, requiring digital quantities. It has the speed of analog computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer. are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of data need to be processed. process both continuous and discrete data. The operation of a hybrid computer demands that for any given problem, appropriate values of the computer's parameter need to be set up. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER Supercomputer A supercomputer refers to the most powerful computer that is currently available. These devices are specifically designed to process massive amounts of information at a high speed. Such as, Weather forecasting, Climate research, Scientific simulation, Oil and gas exploration, Quantum mechanics, Cryptanalysis. Supercomputers are particularly useful for scientific research, most especially in the field of nuclear research, where researchers need to accurately predict what will occur during each millisecond of a nuclear chain reaction. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 7 Mainframe Mainframe computers are the largest type of computers in common use. Mainframes are data servers that are designed to process up to 1 trillion web transactions daily with the highest levels of security and reliability. They are specifically designed to handle enormous amounts of input, output, and storage e. g. census. These computers are typically used by large organizations such as power companies, research institutions, telecommunication companies, and financial institutions. Users typically access mainframe computers through terminals, which consist of a keyboard and a video display or monitor. The mainframe computer is usually located in a dedicated computer room. Major manufacturers of mainframe computers include IBM, Burroughs, BINAC, CBC Cyber series, Univac. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 8 Minicomputer A minicomputer is also known as mini. A minicomputer is a computer which has all the features of a large size computer, but its size is smaller than those. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and he microcomputer it is also called as a mid-range computer. The term "midrange computers" is used in a general sense to refer to a computer that falls somewhere in between a personal computer and a mainframe computer in terms of processing power, storage capacity, and other capabilities. Minicomputers are mainly multi-users systems where more than one user can work simultaneously. Mini computer examples: IBM’s AS/400e, Honeywell200, TI-990. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 9 Personal Computer (PC) Desktop personal computers are those that are used on a desk and are referred to as Personal Computers (PC). There are varieties of personal computers Desk and Tower Units The first and most prevalent type of PC is Desktop and Tower units. Most desktops are just large enough to be carried around; they are yet tiny enough just to fit onto a desk. It typically has a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and a tower (system unit). Laptops/Noebooks A portable personal computer that is small enough to rest on the user’s lap and can be powered by a battery. It includes a flip down screen and a keyboard with a touchpad. Laptops are small type computers. Since the keyboard is mounted flat on the system unit, the screen is utilized to conceal the system. These can be used in automobiles while travelling and, when closed after use, can be carried around like a box. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 10 Pocket PCs A pocket PC is a mobile device or a portable computer which can be held in the hand or fits in a pocket. They come in various sizes and shapes, ranging from small smartphones to larger tablet computers. These devices are designed to be highly portable and allow users to perform many of the same tasks as traditional desktop or laptop computers. Examples of mobile devices include smartphones, e-readers, and tablets. Electronic Organizers Organizer is an electronic gadget that users use to manage their schedule and save data like names, addresses, telephone numbers, and meeting dates. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 11 Palmtop Computers The palmtop computer is significantly more compact. Despite their smaller size, mobile devices such as smartphones, tablets, and e- readers contain many of the same components as desktop and laptop computers. These components may include a processor, memory, storage, a display, and various input/output devices such as cameras, microphones, and speakers. However, due to their smaller size, these components are designed to be more compact and energy-efficient. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 12 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) are compact handheld computers with touch screens that are operated with a stylus. A virtual keyboard that displays on the touchpad is used to enter data (such as text). PDAs were initially used as personal organizers, but their usage has now expanded to include features such as mobile phone capabilities, internet connectivity, GPS navigation, multimedia support, and more. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 13 Components of a Computer System A computer system comprises of hardware and software. They go hand in hand. One cannot have one without the other. Hardware: The physical devices of a computer are known as hardware. Examples include CPU, and peripheral devices such as keyboard, printer and so on. A computer is a system of hardware devices organized to perform five basic functions: -input,, output, storage, communication, processing, control etc. Thus, a computer system consists of: Input Output CPU consisting of Memory, ALU and Control Secondary/External/Auxiliary/Backing storage. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 14 A Schematic Diagram of a Computer System. The phrase "hardware" refers to all the tangible parts of a computer system that a user can touch, such as the keyboard, visual display unit, system unit, mouse, and printer. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 15 Some common hardware that you’ll find inside a computer: Motherboard Central Processing Unit (CPU) Random Access Memory (RAM) Power Supply Video Card Hard Drive Optical Drive (i.e. BD/DVD/CD drive) Sound Card Network Interface Card (NIC) Analog Modem FireWire/USB Expansion Card. Some common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a computer: Keyboard Mouse Printer Scanner Speakers Monitor Modem NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 16 Input Devices Unit of computer system that bring data and instruction into the computer. It accepts data or instruction given by user and converts into machine readable code if required. Keyboard and mouse are the most popular input unit devices. Other devices of this unit are: light pen, joystick, tracker ball, microphone, scanners, sensors, graphic tablet, touch screen etc. Keyboard A computer key board is an electromechanical component designed to create specialized electronic codes (scan codes) when a key is pressed. These codes are transmitted along the cables to computer system unit or terminal, where it is analyzed and converted in to the appropriate computer usable code. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 17  Keyboards have five distinct groups of keys: Standard type writer keys: resembles a typewriter- Alphanumeric keys Function keys: The top row keys from F1 to F10 or F12 Cursor movement keys: Arrow keys, Home, End, PageUp, PageDown Numeric keys: a keypad at the right to make it easy to enter numbers Special purpose keys: Ctrl, Alt, Shift, Del, Insert. Types of Keyboard 1. PC/XT, 2. PC/AT, 3. Enhanced and 4. Windows 5. USB 6. Virtual keyboards. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 18 PC/XT (Stands for eXtended Technology) keyboards have 83 keys, function keys (F1 to F10) are arranged on left hand side. These keyboards are not compatible with AT keyboards PC/AT (Advanced Technology) contains 84 keys. SysRq (System Request) key was introduced. Indicator LEDs for Caps, Scroll and NUM lock are used in AT keyboards. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 19 Enhanced keyboards have 101 to 106 keys based on different language layout. Windows Keyboards contained 104 to 109 keys based on different language layouts. Win key and Menu key are the addition on the Windows Keyboards. Windows Enhanced Keyboard NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 20  Multimedia Keyboard The keyboard that has all multimedia buttons is called multimedia keyboard. The buttons include play, pause, previous, next, volume up, volume down, mute and special button to launch media. Also, a button to launch a browser, my computer, calculator is available. Wireless Keyboard Bluetooth, IR technology or Radio Frequency is used to connect the keyboard with the computer device. We can port the keyboard and the parent system is not needed near the keyboard. These keyboards are lightweight and smaller in size. These keyboards should have a transmitter and trans-receiver. Transmitter sends the strokes from the keyboard as radio waves which are received by trans-receiver kept near parent device. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 21 Virtual Keyboard The keyboard used in smartphones is called a virtual keyboard. This keyboard appears when needed and disappears when typing is completed. This can be automatically set as per need. Also in the windows system, we can use a virtual keyboard that appears on the screen. There is no physical object to carry for a virtual keyboard. USB Keyboard Universal Serial Bus Keyboard has a USB stick with a wire which has to be inserted into the USB port of the system. And then the keyboard works well. While rebooting the system, the keyboard is not supported and hence the users may face an issue. Installation of suitable drivers helps to resolve this issue. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 22 Ergonomic Keyboard This keyboard is mainly designed for users who use both hands for typing. The advantage of this keyboard is less muscle strain and carpal tunnel syndrome for users. The keyboard is built with the view of ergonomics. This keyboard is expensive and not affordable for common people. Gaming Keyboard The keyboard that has very few keys specific for gamers is called gaming keyboard. Graphics are also included in the keyboard. W, S, D, A and arrow keys are the only keys you could find in this keyboard. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 23 Mouse `A mouse is a device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a small object you can roll along a hard or flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape, which looks like a mouse, its connecting wire that one can imagine to be the mouse tail; As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in the same direction. Mice contain two or three buttons, which have different functions depending on what program is running. Some newer mice also include a scroll wheel for scrolling through long documents. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 24  There are three types of mouse: Mechanical, Opto-Mechanical and Optical. Mechanical mouse has a ball on its underside and sensors detect the direction of ball movement to move the cursor on the screen. Optomechanical mouse are similar to mechanical mouse but they have optical sensors instead of balls in it. Optical mouse uses laser to detect the mouse movement. Looking at how a mouse is connected to computer, we can find three types of mouse: Serial Mouse, Serial mouse connect through RS-232C serial port and it is the simplest of connection. PS/2 Mouse, PS/2 mouse connect through PS/2 port and USB Mouse. USB Mouse connect through USB port. Cordless mouse (wireless mouse) connects to the computer through infrared or radio wave to communicate with computer NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 25 Trackballs Using a trackball, you can input motion information into computers. Its top has a rolling, moving ball that can move in any direction, acting as a mouse- like device. Instead of moving the complete gadget, simply roll the movable ball on top of the trackball unit with your hand to provide motion input. The main function of computer trackballs, which are often used in place of mice, is to move the cursor around the screen. Trackballs can be found in various electronic devices outside computers, such as arcade games, mixing boards, and self-service kiosks. However, they are most frequently used with computers. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 26 Pointing sticks The pointing stick may move and control the computer cursor. It is intended for its height to be just above the keys. A pointing stick is a practical substitute for a touchpad if a laptop lacks the necessary space. The sensitivity grading of the pointing stick must be adjusted to recognise motions and taps intended for its use in order for it to function as intended. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 27 Touchpads Smartphones, ATMs, railway inquiry systems, and many other devices use touch screens widely. To choose an option, users only need to touch it. When the choice is touched, the light beam is broken, the position of the option is registered, and the program that controls that option is run. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 28 Light Pens The tip of a light pen has a photocell. To select the necessary choice, move it around the screen and touch it. The light pen executes the file concealed by that option after detecting the light emanating from it. The light pen is mostly utilised in computer-aided design (CAD) and graphic design work. During football broadcasts, light pens are frequently utilized by commentators to draw free-hand lines on the TV screen. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 29 Scanning Devices /Scanners A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. The recognition technology can recognize the text and marks present on the scanned image and convert them into editable form. Scanners come in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white only, or color. Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe’s Photoshop product, that lets you resize and otherwise modify a captured image. Different scanner technologies are OCR, OMR, BCR and MICR. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 30 Barcode Reader Barcodes are machine-readable vertical lines that are adjacent and have varied widths. Books, groceries, and other items can be identified by barcode. Barcode scanners make use of reflected light to read barcodes. The computer receives this data and uses the bars' spacing and thickness to decipher the code. In order to read labels on books and in department stores, handheld barcode readers are frequently utilised. They help provide customers with faster service and can also be used to count the number of each item sold or to retrieve an item's price. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 31 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) OMR is employed to find marks on paper. Through their blackness, the marks can be identified. OMR reads the marks using an optical mark reader. The information is passed when the OMR scanner scans the forms and recognises the mark that is correctly positioned on the paper and darker than the surrounding paper. It sends the information to the computer for processing by application software. In order to do this, a light beam is used to capture the presence and absence of marks on the paper that has been marked. By measuring the reflected light, the optical mark reader locates the mark. The computer interprets and stores the mark pattern. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 32  OMR is widely used to read the responses in objective-type tests, where students indicate their responses by darkening a particular circle with a pencil. OMR is used to read a variety of forms, especially orders and questionnaires. The OMR technology allows user to read the check boxes – that is the sign affixed in predefined spaces. This technology useful to automate the marking of objective exams. Specialized software along with OMR can completely automate the checking, marking and tabulating the exam papers. Ink Character Recognition (ICR) Technology ICR technology used to recognize manuscript data in unconstrained or constrained mode when there is usually space among characters. It can be used to enter the forms directly into the computer. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 33 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) OCR is a technique for scanning documents, converting them, and then identifying the image as modifiable ASCII text using OCR software. OCR uses an optical character reader to recognise characters. The optical character reader stores the scanned image as a bitmap image, which is a grid of dots. As a result, the text that has been scanned cannot be edited. OCR software is required in order to alter the scanned text. OCR software converts the array of dots into text that the computer can read as words and letters. In order to recognise the words and letters of text, OCR software compares the pattern on the scanned image with the ones that are stored on the computer. Different file formats can be used to store the text files produced by OCR. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 34 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) MICR technology used to identify the text written by magnetic ink. Magnetic ink is a special type of ink that contains iron particles dissolved in ink. Banks use MICR to process a lot of checks at once. The magnetic encoding numbers printed at the bottom of a check are recognised using them. The numbers on the check are printed with iron-containing ink and are legible to humans. These figures have magnets in them. For character recognition, MICR uses a magnetic ink character reader. MICR magnetizes the writing and scan it accurately. It used to verify the signatures in bank checks. The magnetic field causes the read head to detect the characters or numbers on the check when it is passed through a magnetic ink character reader. In banks, MICR readers are typically used to process checks. The bank, branch, and check numbers are all located at the bottom of the check. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) cannot read documents as quickly as MICR. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 35 Sensors A sensor is an apparatus that detects changes in electrical, physical, or other characteristics and produces an output to signal the recognition of the change. This sensor's output typically takes the shape of an electrical or optical signal. Infrared (IR) sensors, ultrasonic sensors, light sensors, smoke and gas sensors, proximity sensors, optical sensors, position sensors, thermal or heat or temperature sensors, electric current or potential or magnetic or radio sensors, humidity sensors, fluid velocity or flow sensors, pressure sensors, and magnetic switch sensors are among the most commonly used types of sensors. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 36 Audio-Input Devices Speech or human voice can be used to give the computer an audio input. The computer's audio input can serve a variety of functions. It can be used to make phone conversations, have audio and video conferences online, record voice, create audio files, include those files in emails, or translate spoken words into text. It speaks data into a computer using a microphone or another audio input device. The sound card transforms the analog audio signals from the microphone into digital codes so that the computer can store and use them. The sound card also transforms the digital sound into analog signals that can be sent to the speakers. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 37  Speech recognition, often known as voice recognition, is the process of turning spoken words into written ones. The speech recognition system or voice recognition system is made up of audio input and voice recognition software. Examples include MIDI keyboards, microphones, and different types of digital musical instruments. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 38 Video-Input Devices The computer receives video input from a video camera and a digital camera. Full-motion video images can be captured with a video camera. Images can be compressed and saved on a computer disk after being converted to digital form. A typical type of video camera is the webcam. To take pictures of the user using the computer, it is mounted on top of the screen of the device. The user can connect video equipment, such as camcorders, to the computer using a video capture card. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 39 Electronic Cameras Still photos can be captured with a digital camera. You can move your photographs to an external storage device and use it with your computer after its memory (RAM) is full. As an alternative, you can use a port on your computer—typically FireWire or USB—to download the images, which you can then edit for use in your own publications. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 40 Output Devices A unit of computer system that sends information out of the computer The unit of computer system that provides the result of processing to the users is output unit. This unit receives information from CPU and converts into suitable human readable form. Monitor, Plotter, Printer, Projector, Speaker etc. are output devices. Monitors A computer monitor is also called display screen or visual display unit (VDU). Text and Images are displayed on monitors by individual dots called pixels A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen. The density of dots determines the clarity of the images – known as resolution. A screen resolution 1024 x 768 means that it has 1024 dots in one line and 768 lines in one screen. Another measure of display resolution is a dot pitch. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 41  There are two types of monitors – cathode-ray tubes (CRT) and flat panel display. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. CRT monitors are of two types – monochrome and color. Monochrome Monitors Monochrome monitors have only two colors – one for background and other for the foreground (text). The colors can be white, amber or green on a dark background. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 42  A monochrome monitor was very common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s until color monitors became popular. They are still widely used in applications such as computerized cash register systems. Color Monitors A color monitor is a display peripheral that displays more than two colors. Color monitors implement the RGB color model by using three different phosphors that appear red, green, and blue when activated. By placing the phosphors directly next to each other, and activating them with different intensities, color monitors can create an unlimited number of colors. Color display technology have been developed through following paths: CGA stands for Color Graphics Adapter. It is a circuit board introduced by IBM and the first graphics standard for the IBM PC. With a CGA monitor, it is harder to read than with a monochrome monitor because the CGA supports much fewer pixels. It supports 4 colors. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 43 EGA It stands for Enhanced Graphics Adapter. EGA is a video display standard that has a resolution of 640 by 350 pixels and supports 16 colors. EGA supports previous display modes and requires a new monitor. VGA: VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. This is a video display standard that provides medium to high resolution. In a text mode, the resolution of this board is 720 by 400 pixels. It supports 16 colors with a higher resolution of 640 by 480 pixels and 256 colors with 320 x 200 pixels. Super VGA: This is a very high resolution standard that displays up to 65,536 colors. Super VGA can support a 16.8 million colors at 800 by 600 pixels and 256 colors at 1024 by 768 pixels. VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association) has set a standard for super VGA. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 44  Flat Panel Displays Portable computers such as a lap top use flat panel displays, because they are more compact and consume less power than CRTs. A Flat panel display LCD Monitor is shown. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 45 LCD monitor LCD stands for Liquid crystal display and is the most widely used monitor in the world. It tends to take up less space, less electricity, generate less heat, and are thinner and lighter than the ageing CRT monitors. These monitors have bright screens, and they are cost-effective. LED monitor An LED (Light Emitting Diode) display is among the newest techs out there and can be flat or curved. These monitors consist of light-emitting diodes rather than cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFLs), are brighter than other monitors, and boast up to 4k resolutions. LED displays are more common among gamers who play HD and high-definition games since they consume less power than LCD monitors. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 46 OLED monitor OLED stands for Organic Light Emitting Diode, and it uses organic materials like carbon, plastic, wood, and polymers to transform electric current into light. It is thinner than an LCD unit and is especially good for watching movies. OLED monitors are regarded as the best display technology because of their excellent contrast levels, excellent picture clarity, quick response, and ideal contrast and brightness. However, they have shorter lifespans than LCDs and LEDs, and are more expensive. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 47 Printers A printer is an output device that produces a hard copy of data on to a paper. The resolution of printer output is expressed as DPI (Dots per inch). Printers are classified into two types depending on the type of print image created by hitting an ink ribbon on the paper. In this way, printers fall into two categories: Impact and Non-Impact. Impact Printer The impact printer creates immediate contact between the ink ribbons and paper. They can be noisy yet are very popular. imilar to a typewriter, impact printers operate similar to how characters on paper are created on typewriters when an arm with an embossed character strikes the ribbon and leaves an impression. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 48  Impact printers have mechanical components that allow printing. Impact printers print individual characters one at a time, first from right to left and then from left to right. Examples include Daisy-wheel printers, line printers, and Dot-matrix printers. There are a variety of impact printers Dot matrix printer Daisy wheel printers Drum printer Printer for chains NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 49 Dot-Matrix Printer Dot-matrix printers are printers that write characters and form graphic images using one or two columns of tiny dots on a print head. The dot hammer moving serially across the paper strikes an inked-ribbon and creates images on paper. They are used for tasks where a high-quality image is not essential. Several kinds of dot matrix printers are available with print heads that have 7, 9, 18, or 24 pins. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 50 Non-impact Printer Non-impact printers do not make direct contact between the paper and ink ribbon. They depend upon xerographic, chemical, electrostatic, or laser technology. They’re less noisy and do not have mechanical components that perform printing. Some examples: Laser printers and Inkjet printers. These are a few types of non-impact printers: Inkjet printer Laser printer Thermal printer Dye sublimation printer NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 51  Laser Printer These printers make use of laser technology in order to print. The ink powder (also known as toner) is poured onto the drum and deposits itself on the characters that have been generated there after being charged by the laser beam. These characters are printed on the paper as it revolves on the drum. Although a laser printer has a high initial cost, the cost per page of printing is relatively low. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 52 Plotters plotter is a special-purpose output device that draws images with ink pens. It is a graphics printer for making sophisticated graphs, charts, maps, and three- dimensional graphics as well as high-quality colored documents. It can also produce larger size of documents. Plotters require data in a vector graphics format that can produce images with a series of lines. There are two main types of plotters: Drum Plotter: This is a plotter that has a drum. A paper wraps the drum that rotates to produce plots. Pens in a drum plotter move across the paper while the drum is turning. A drum plotter is usually used to produce smaller drawings. Flatbed Plotter: This is a plotter that has a bed. This is also called a table plotter. The plotter draws graphics on the paper placed on the bed. There are several size of beds. This plotter is usually used for producing large drawings. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 53  Large graphs and designs, such as construction maps, engineering drawings, architectural blueprints, and business charts, are printed out on paper. It can either be a standalone device with an inbuilt processor or a peripheral component added to computer system. When compared to a printer, it produces the data in hardcopy at a comparatively slower rate. It is simple to draw parallel, continuous lines between points. It is primarily employed in specialized fields like engineering, architecture, and drawing. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 54 Microfilm Documents are compressed and stored on photographic film as part of the microform storage technique. Microfiche and microfilm are the two types of microforms. Microform storage can readily store thousands of documents without taking up much space because the papers are typically shrunk to roughly 1/25 of their normal size. Depending on the kind of documents you need to keep, a typical roll of microfilm is either 16mm or 35mm in size. Microfilm NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 55 Microfiche Microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm, whereas microfilm is a roll of images that resembles a movie reel. Instead of being a roll, microfiche is a flat sheet of microfilm. Microfiche sheets may be simpler to organize due to their structure and shape, although they have a much lesser storage capacity. NINAN O. D. OCTOBER 2024. 56 Computer Software Dr. O. D. NINAN Computing Science Bowen University, Iwo. November, 2023 Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 1 Overview of Computer Software Computer software is the instructions, procedures and programs that can be executed on a computer system. Software gives life to hardware. Computer Software is broadly divided into three: 1. Systems Software (e.g. Operating Systems, Compilers, Assemblers, etc.) 2. Application Software (e.g. Word-processors, Spread-sheet, Database Managers, Graphics Packages, Entertainment Software, etc.) 3. Utilities (e.g. Anti-virus, Diagnostic software, etc.) Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 2  System Software This includes programs that manage and support a computer system. It executes the application programs of end-users. The Operating System is the most important systems software and it manages all the hardware resources of the computer system: the files stored in the system and tasks or jobs that the computer is being used for. It usually renders some support services as well, just like utility software. Examples of Operating Systems are: Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), MS-Window, UNIX, XENIX…etc. Operating System helps the user to manage computer hardware, for example, it helps to: List the contents of a diskette or hard disc Write or read from a diskette or a hard disc Communicates with computer peripheral, e.g. printers, scanners, plotters, etc Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 3 The Operating System(OS) This is one of the most important system software packages. It manages the input, processing, output and storage operations of a computer system. It controls the entire computer components and makes sure that everything gets along well. Operating system controls the operations of a computer by communicating with end-users, managing hardware resources and files, supervising the accomplishment of tasks, and providing other support services. It comes with the computer when one buys it. Examples of operating systems are MS-DOS, Windows, PC-DOS, OS/2, UNIX, Network Operating System and Linux Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 4  Functions of Operating System Scheduling and loading of processes (Jobs) in order to provide for continuous processing. Control, selection and operation of Input/Output devices and file handling. Calling into main memory of programs as and when required. Passing of control from one program (job) to another under a system of priority when more than one application program is in main memory. Provision of error correction routines. Keeps complete record (Log) of all that happens during processing of various jobs. Communication with the computer operator and users via the visual display unit. The reading/writing records to file, and where necessary, blocking and deblocking. Peripheral control, advancing or rewinding of magnetic tape reel, advancing paper in the printer. Opening and closing files, i.e. checking file labels, etc. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 5  Programming Languages A programming language is an artificial language designed for use by people in instructing machines. Its characteristics are a structure and syntax that prevents ambiguous constructions. With respect to a particular computer system, a programming language is often termed a source language; It is a language in which programs are written to control the operations of the computer system. a source language may either be a low-level language or a high level language. A high level language is one (e.g. COBOL, PASCAL and FORTRAN) that is designed for ease of use in writing programs and is intended to be used to program computers of different manufactures and types. The term high-level is used because a whole sequence of computer operation can be specified by writing a single instruction in the language. By contrast, a low level language is one that requires the programmer to tell the computer quite explicitly what is to be done. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 6 Machine Code Languages When computers were in early stage of development, all programs had to be written in the machine code. This was the only language of communication available for the programmer. (a) Low Level Languages: The first step towards easing the problems of the programmer came with the introduction of symbolic or assembly or low level languages. (b) High Level Languages: In order to simplify and speed-up the preparation of programs, high level languages were developed which are problem-oriented rather than machine-oriented, e.g.: (i) COBOL: It uses English-like statements for the writing of instructions, and is more applicable to business data processing. The name COBOL stands for COmmon Business-Oriented Languages. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 7 (ii) FORTRAN: It is an algebraic language used for preparing instructions in the form of arithmetic formula in scientific applications. The name FORTRAN is an abbreviation for FORmular TRANslation. (iii) ALGOL: This stands for ALGOrithmic Language for scientific programming using algorithms. Other examples of High Level Languages include: Pascal C Language Python Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 8  Application Software: This is a set of programs for accomplishing specific tasks or business functions. They are programs that make it possible to do a particular job, or application that one wants to accomplish. Application software products are designed to meet a particular need in an environment. It may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple text or consist of a collection of programs (suites of programs) often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as (i) word processor package like Microsoft WORD, (ii) spreadsheet package like Microsoft Excel, (iii) Database Management System such as Microsoft Access, (iv) Games like Monopoly, Freecell, Solitaire and (v) Educational programs e.g. Encarta, Encyclopedia. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 9 Examples of Application software are: Payroll Software Student Record Software (eportal and ISIS) Inventory Management Software Income Tax Software Hotel Reservation Software Microsoft Office Suite Software Microsoft Word Microsoft Excel Microsoft Powerpoint Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 10  Word Processor: The following basic terms are common in word processing packages: i. cut and paste ix. formatting ii. Clipboard x. style sheet iii. word wrap xi. spell checker iv. Justification xii. text searching v. font, proportional spacing, xiii. text retrieval vi. point size xiv. headers and footers vii. typeface xv. heading viii. formatting xvi. desktop publishing Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 11 Utility Software These are specialized programs that help one performs routine computing functions. They perform a variety of housekeeping and file conversion functions. Utility programs are computer programs that perform a particular function related to computer system management and maintenance. Examples are: i. Anti-virus software ii. Data compression software iii. Disk optimization software iv. Disk backup software Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 12 Device Drivers These are software program that make possible the communication between the computer system and other peripheral devices (e.g. printer, mouse, etc.) attached to the system. They take the instructions and/or data from the computer system and converts them into a form that is readily understood by a peripheral device, and vice versa Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 13 Custom-built Software Custom software (also known as bespoke software or tailor-made software) is software that is specially developed for some specific organization or other user. It is SW built for a particular organization to fulfill the needs of that particular organization. A common example is a system for processing students’ results in institutions. This type of SW is expensive because the builder has to recoup costs and make a profit from a single sale. The delivery time is longer. Customers get more productivity out of it because it is built according to their exact specifications – just like a custom-built shoe fits better, but generally is more expensive, and requires a longer period for delivery. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 14  Main Types of Software Licensees 1. Proprietary – Most software on a Windows PC or a Macintosh belongs to this category 2. Freeware – Most software on a Linux PC belongs to that category 3. Shareware – the category which lies between the above two categories Proprietary Software License The user needs to pay the maker of the Software for buying a license that allows the user to make use of the software. The license, generally, does not transfer the ownership of the software to the buyer but just allows the user to make use of it. The user is legally barred from making copies of the licensed software for sales or distribution. Generally, the license is meant for personal use only. Most software in use in the world is of this type. Examples are: Windows, Mac OS, MS Word, Adobe Photoshop, Norton Antivirus etc. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 15 Types of Proprietary Licenses Single-user license: A single user license is meant solely for the buyer and not any other person has legal right to the software. Multi-user license: A multiuser license allows more than one person legal right of usage of the software. In many cases the number of people who have the legal right of usage is specified. Concurrent-user license: The license allows software installed in the central computer to be used by more than one person at a time. Site license: The license allows a buyer to install the software from a website. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 16 Freeware software License It is also known as “Public Domain Software”. The licence allows the user free usage of the software. The author, however, generally retains the ownership of the software. It can usually be downloaded from author’s website or other Web sites. Examples are Linux; LaTeX; Netscape Web browser – the Navigator; the Internet Explorer etc. Shareware software License The license allows the user free usage of the software, but with a request that the user pay a token to the author if the user is satisfied with the software. The author retains ownership of the software. It is often downloaded from author’s Web sites. Examples are: WinZip, Download Accelerator. The author is an individual or a small business that cannot afford to advertise. No one will even try the software if it had a price. The expectation is that the user will try the software for free, find it useful, and then pay the very small price for the software Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 17 Trialware License This licence is similar to shareware, but different in the following areas: The software is usable for a short period only. After an initial trial period that can range from a week to a few months, the software self-destructs. Can be downloaded from the Internet or alternatively, the user can receive a copy by writing to the maker of the software. Trialware are good so customers can have a risk-free trial though for a limited-period only. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 18 Firmware Firmware is a set of instructions or programs written in machine language and designed to act as intermediary between the software and hardware. It is semi permanently stored in the hardware and updated less often. Examples, Basic Input Output System (BIOS), Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI), Embeded systems (Keyboard, TV, Remote, Graphic cards, Printers, etc.) Humanware Humanware is the hardware and software that emphasizes user capability and empowerment and the design of the user interface Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 19  Information system “An information system (IS) can be defined technically as a set of interrelated components that collect, process, store, and distribute in-formation to support decision making and control in an organization.” “Information systems are combinations of hardware, software, and telecommunications networks that people build and use to collect, create, and distribute useful data, typically in organizational settings.” “Information systems are interrelated components working together to collect, process, store, and disseminate information to support decision making, coordination, control, analysis, and visualization in an organization. The Components of Information Systems Information systems can be viewed as having five major components: hardware, software, data, people, and processes. The first three are technology. The last two components, people and processes, Data The third technology component is data. data as a collection of facts. For example, your address (street, city state, postal code), your phone number, and your social networking account are all pieces of data. Like software, data is also intangible, unable to be seen in its native state. Pieces of unrelated data are not very useful. But aggregated, indexed, and organized together into a database, a powerful tool for businesses. Organizations collect all kinds of data and use it to make decisions which can then be analyzed as to their effectiveness. The analysis of data is then used to improve the organization’s performance.  Besides the technology components (hardware, software, and data) which have long been considered the core technology of information systems, it has been suggested that one other component should be added: communication. An information system cannot exist without the ability to communicate – the first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access the Internet. However, in today’s hyper connected world, it is an extremely rare computer that does not connect to another device or to a network. Technically, the networking communication component is made up of hardware and software, but it is such a core feature of today’s information systems that it has become itown category Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 22 People the people involved in information systems may include user support staff, to systems analysts, to developers, all the way up to the chief information officer (CIO), the people involved with information systems are an essential element Process The last component of information systems is process. A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are becoming more integrated with organizational processes, bringing greater productivity and better control to those processes. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 23  Businesses/Organisations automating activities using technology also utilize information systems to do more. The ultimate goal is to improve processes both internally and externally, enhancing interfaces with suppliers and customers. Technology buzzwords such as “business process re-engineering,” “business process management,” and “enterprise resource planning” all have to do with the continued improvement of these business procedures and the integration of technology with them. Businesses hoping to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors are highly focused on this component of information systems. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 24 Computer-Based Information Systems The purpose of a computer-based information system is to provide managers (and various categories of employees) with the appropriate kind of information to help them make decisions. It is used to collect and analyze data from all departments and is designed to provide an organization’s management with up-to-date information at any time. There are several types of computer-based information systems, which serve different levels of management: Office information systems Transaction processing systems Management information systems Decision support systems Executive support systems Expert systems Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 25 Office Information Systems Office information systems (OISs), also called office automation systems (OASs), combine various technologies to reduce the manual labor required in operating an efficient office environment and to increase productivity. Used throughout all levels of an organization, OIS technologies include fax, voice mail, email, scheduling software, word processing, and desktop publishing, among others. The backbone of an OIS is a network—LAN, intranet, extranet—that connects everything. All office functions—dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, microfilm and records management, telephone calls and switchboard operations—are candidates for integration into the network. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 26 Transaction Processing Systems In most organizations, particularly business organizations, most of what goes on consists largely of structured information known as transactions. A transaction is a recorded event having to do with routine business activities. A transaction may be recorded manually or via a computer system and includes everything concerning the product or service in which the organization is engaged: production, distribution, sales, orders. It also includes materials purchased, employees hired, taxes paid, and so on. Today in most organizations, the bulk of such transactions is recorded in a computer-based information system. These systems tend to have clearly defined inputs and outputs, and there is an emphasis on efficiency and accuracy. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 27  Transaction processing systems record data but do little in the way of converting data into information. A transaction processing system (TPS) is a computer-based information system that keeps track of the transactions needed to conduct business. The transactions can be handled via batch processing, also known as offline processing —that is, the data is gathered and processed in batches at periodic intervals, such as at the end of the day or once a week. Or they may be handled via real-time processing, also known as online transaction processing —that is, each transaction is processed immediately as it is entered. The data collected by a TPS is typically stored in databases. Input and output: The inputs to the system are transaction data: bills, orders, inventory levels, and the like. The output consists of processed transactions: bills, paychecks, and so on. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 28 Management Information Systems A management information system (MIS) is a computer-based information system that uses data recorded by a TPS as input into programs that produce routine reports as output. Input and output: Inputs consist of processed transaction data, such as bills, orders, and paychecks, plus other internal data. Outputs consist of summarized, structured reports: budget summaries, production schedules, and the like. Produces several kinds of reports: Managers at this level usually receive information in the form of several kinds of reports: summary, exception, periodic, demand. Summary reports show totals and trends. An example is a report showing total sales by office, by product, and by salesperson, as well as total overall sales. Exception reports show out-of-the-ordinary data. An example is an inventory report listing only those items of which fewer than 10 are in stock. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 29  Periodic reports are produced on a regular schedule. Such daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annual reports may contain sales figures, income statements, or balance sheets. They are usually produced on paper, such as computer printouts. Demand reports produce information in response to an unscheduled demand. A director of finance might order a demand credit-background report on an unknown customer who wants to place a large order. Demand reports are often produced on a terminal or microcomputer screen, rather than on paper. Decision Support Systems A decision support system (DSS) is a computer-based information system that provides a flexible tool for analysis and helps managers focus on the future. A DSS aims to produce collected information known as business intelligence, gathering data from a wide range of sources in a way that can be interpreted by humans and used to support better business decision making. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 30  DSS applications are not single information resources, such as a database or a program that graphically represents sales figures, but a combination of integrated resources working together. Whereas a TPS records data and an MIS summarizes data, a DSS analyzes data. To reach the DSS level of sophistication in information technology, an organization must have established TPS and MIS systems first. Inputs include internal data—such as summarized reports and processed transaction data—and also data that is external to the organization. External data may be produced by trade associations, marketing research firms, the Bureau of the Census, and other government agencies. The outputs are demand reports on which a top manager can make decisions about unstructured problems. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 31 Produces analytic models: The key attribute of a DSS is that it uses models. A model is a mathematical representation of a real system. The models use a DSS database, which draws on the TPS and MIS files, as well as external data such as stock reports, government reports, and national and international news. Many DSSs are developed to support the types of decisions faced by managers in specific industries, such as airlines or real estate. Executive Support Systems Also called an executive information system (EIS), an executive support system (ESS) is an easy-to-use DSS made especially for strategic managers; it specifically supports strategic decision making. It draws on data not only from systems internal to the organization but also from those outside, such as news services or market-research databases. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 32 Expert Systems An expert system, or knowledge-based system, is a set of interactive computer programs that helps users solve problems that would otherwise require the assistance of a human expert. Expert systems are created on the basis of knowledge collected on specific topics from human specialists, and they imitate the reasoning process of a human being. Dr. O. D. Ninan Computing Science. CSC 101 2023/2024 33 Definition of a Computer A computer is an device that receives information (input), processes information, and outputs information input/output device that processes information Computer Hardware Key parts of a computer Input vs. output Interconnection between parts Essential Parts Box - Central Processing Unit (CPU) Monitor - main output device Keyboard - main input device The Box (CPU) All processing goes through the box A simple input/output (I/O) device Ports for connection of input and output devices Disk drives on for storage I/O Input vs. Output? Classify the following as input or output Monitor Digital Camera Keyboard CD Writer/Burner CPU (The Box) Hard Drive Pen Drive LCD Projector CD-ROM Laser Pointer Printer Network Card Scanner Bluetooth Card Modem Speakers  Monitor LCD Printer Legend HD Output Modem Computer PD Input CD-RW I/O Read - Write Scanner Mouse Camera Keyboard Inside the Box Processor – also known ac CPU provides instructions and processing power the computer needs to do it work. The more powerful and updated your processor, the faster your computer can complete it task. e.g. Core i3 Memory –a part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing. It stores programs or data. e.g. 256 MB RAM Storage – used to retain data temporarily or permanently. e.g. Hard Drive, CD-RW, flash drive. Input: Keyboards Standard keyboard - 101 key, letters, number-pad, function keys Various Keyboard layouts Input: Keyboards Input: Keyboards Mouse: Mechanics Most mouse have a round ball and rollers – rollers must be cleaned Newer mouse are OPTICAL, using LED and sensor to track movement Input: Scanners Flatbed Scanners - Lay image flat on “copier”-like glass panel. Scanning element moves Photo Scanners - Run a single photo through a scanner - photo moves, scanning element stays stationary Input: Digital Cameras Camera without film Pixel resolution measures number of dots Pixel resolution is key: 640x480 vs. 1280x1024 (1.3 Megapixels) vs. 2048X1536 (3.3 Megapixels) Storage can be on flash memory cards, memory sticks, floppy disks, internal, or no storage (web cam) Output: Types of Monitors Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) - standard monitor, inexpensive, good resolution, good pixel size Flat Panel (Liquid Crystal Display - LCD) – more expensive, prices dropping Output: Printers Inkjet Printers - Tiny dots of ink on paper Can print high quality photos Ink is expensive! Laser Printers - Laser, plastic toner, and heat; drawback: no color Color Laser Printers - ~$600 and up Dot Matrix Printers Output - LCD Projectors Similar to monitors but project image Expensive, becoming cheaper every day (some under $1000 now) For business and education, some people getting them for home theatre systems Two-way Communication: Modem MOdulator / DEModualter = MO-DEM Converts digital computer signal to analog telephone signal and vice versa Sends and receives information 56K is current standard Connect speeds often slower than 56K Storage Media Media refers to the objects on which information is stored Singular of word is medium A CD is a medium for storage, a floppy disk is a medium, … Storage: Magnetic Media “Drive” Storage: magnetic film stores 1s and 0s Hard Drives - Internal, sealed platters Floppy Drive - One flexible platter Zip Drive – Very high capacity floppy Most rewritable storage is magnetic  Storage: Optical Media Read Only CD-ROM – 650MB or 700 MB, read only. It is a storage medium that can hold large amount of data including images, text and audio. DVD - stands for Digital Versatile Disc, 4.7 Gb (7X CD): it is used as secondary storage in computers. It can acquire 7 times more amount of data compared to CD. Online Resources 2024/2025 ONLINE RESOURCES Online resources are digital tools or platforms (e.g., websites, mobile apps, databases, online communities, search engines, etc.) that are available on the Internet. They offer range of information and services in different areas of human lives, such as education, government, healthcare, transportation, commerce, communication, etc. They are affordable and offer flexibility in learning, collaboration, information sharing, and time management. Examples of online resources are social media, online libraries, e-learning platforms, e-commerce, and so on. They can be grouped according to different area of applications COS 101 2024/2025 LEARNING AND RESEARCH Examples of online resources used for, teaching, learning and research are online libraries, eLearning platforms, and online tools. They offer access to a vast digital collection of books, articles, journals, and other documents for reading and downloading by users. The libraries are accessed through browsers or specific apps developed for the libraries. These resources are alternative to traditional libraries in terms of the ability to read and listen to materials on various mobile gadgets. Contents offered by the libraries include ebooks, audiobooks, images, videos, multimedia, and scholarly articles. COS 101 2024/2025 Online libraries Subscription: Some online libraries may require a subscription or membership fee, while others are entirely free to use. Search: Resources of various categories and collections in the libraries can be accessed through queries submitted to the search engines via devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and e-readers. Recommendation: There are provisions for recommendation services based on the profile and reading history or preferences of users. Ability to highlight salient points on pages, take notes, bookmark pages, and download materials for offline use. COS 101 2024/2025 eLearning platforms These are application software that provides educational resources in the form of video lectures, interactive modules, quizzes, and assignments, online courses, training programs, and educational resources for learners of all ages and backgrounds, and so on. It offers a flexible and accessible approach to learning and developing skills. Examples of eLearning platforms are Moodle, Blackboards, Coursera, Udemy, Khan Academy, and more. eLearning platforms offer, Online learning: Support for live virtual classrooms enhances online delivery of educational content, where learners can interact with instructors and other students in real time. COS 101 2024/2025  Remote access to online courses and educational content: eLearning platforms utilize technology to deliver educational content, enabling learners to access courses and materials remotely. Development of new skills: It offers opportunities to students at all levels of education, as well as professionals seeking to develop new skills or enhance existing ones. It provides training to employees or offe