Creative And Critical Thinking PDF

uccc 1102: CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING ========================================= Nature of Critical Thinking: ============================ - Thinking is an activity of the mind involving ideas. As such it is an aggregation of many distinct acts such as dreaming, reasoning, problem-sol...

uccc 1102: CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING ========================================= Nature of Critical Thinking: ============================ - Thinking is an activity of the mind involving ideas. As such it is an aggregation of many distinct acts such as dreaming, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, doubting, questioning, systematizing, hypothesizing, classification, theorizing, conceptualization, perception, etc. - Thinking can therefore be modeled as a spectrum ranging from one extreme of spontaneous, natural, unfocused thinking such as occurs in dreams and hallucinations to the other extreme of conscious, deliberated, goal-directed and systematic thinking such as the various instances we encounter in a learning context. - Critical thinking is focused on this higher-level thinking part of thinking with the sole aim of improving its quality. - The basic assumption for this is that even though we are born with the capacity to think, when allowed just to follow its own unrestrained course, thinking is normally erroneous and of low quality. - But with effort, determination and skill we can improve on its quality and avoid its common errors. Critical Thinking: some definitions ----------------------------------- - **Wolff 1989** defines critical as the habit of carefully reasoned inspection of the way we evaluate, judge and act with the aim of making ourselves wiser, more reflective and therefore better men and women. - **Lipman 1991** defines critical thinking "as skilful and responsible thinking that facilitates good judgement because it relies on criteria, is selfcorrecting and is sensitive to context" - **Richard Paul (2001)**: critical thinking as metacognition: "thinking about thinking while we are thinking in order to make our thinking better." - **Namwambah 2003, 2005** defines critical thinking "the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, and/or evaluating information gathered from or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication as a guide to belief and action" - **Chafee (2012):** "Critical thinking" involves the ability to recognize, evaluate, and construct arguments, to assess one's own beliefs and the factors that influence them, to understand the dynamics of persuasion and propaganda, and so on. A desired outcome is the ability to think and reason not only more clearly and logically, but also more creatively. The above definitions highlight important aspects of critical thinking: - It is a higher level thinking and a self-directed activity - It is guided by reason and seeks to justify claims - It is reflective and attempt to get in depth to avoid deceptive situations - It facilitates good judgement - It is purposeful and focused -- not merely accidental and spontaneous - It is skillful since it employs specific standards and traits such as clarity, relevance, fair-mindedness and intellectual integrity among others. - It is responsible because it is accountable for all that it evaluates and generates, and it is flexible because it fosters open mindedness. - Critical thinking is an intellectual disposition which enables one: - To identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims; - To discover and overcome personal preconceptions and biases; - To formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and to make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do. - It entails a set of skills to process and generate information and beliefs, and the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior. Creative Thinking-definition ---------------------------- - Creative thinking on the other hand refers to the formation of possible solutions to a problem or possible explanations to a phenomenon. It entails bringing into being something which did not exist before, either as a product, a process or a thought, or working on the old with a view of producing a harmonized new (Namwambah 2003). - Creative thinking is therefore thinking that is characterized by imagination, innovation and originality in the generation of ideas. It is demonstrated, for instance, when we: i. Invent something which never existed before ii. Invent a new process for doing something iii. Reapply an existing process or product into a new or different market iv. Develop a new way of looking at something - Coming up with something new in itself is not hard, but it is not sufficient for creativity. Creativity is a matter of coming up with new ideas that are also useful. It is at this point that critical thinking merges with creativity. - First, we use critical thinking to analyse a problem and identify the limitations of existing solutions. So, we know what a better solution might look like. And when we have a new solution, critical thinking helps us determine whether it really works. - Actual creative process involves trial and error. We might have to fail several times before getting the best solution. Good critical thinking enables us to learn from our mistakes and solve our problems more efficiently. - There is a distinction between a creative idea and an innovation---an idea becomes an innovation when it is implemented and brings about substantial practical impact. This crucial process of creating a practical impact also requires good critical thinking. Critical and creative thinking ------------------------------ - Critical and creative thinking should be complementary, not opposed. Besides the ability to reason systematically, it is important to be able to generate new and creative ideas. **Vertical and Lateral Thinking (de Bono)** - "Vertical" thinking involves being able to analyze a problem critically, arrange ideas in logical order, and work systematically toward a solution - "Lateral" thinking involves freely and creatively generating new ideas, approaches in order to open up unforeseen possibilities - Once creative/new ideas and approaches appear, one can examine them critically to see whether they are helpful or not, but the creative process should not be cut off prematurely Ways to become more creative ---------------------------- a. Practice "mindfulness" (being aware of one feelings, intuitions, assumptions) b. Become absorbed in the issue (great breakthroughs come after long effort) c. Give time for ideas to "incubate" (focus on something else for a while) d. Pay attention to creative ideas when they come e. Don't be stopped by the internal "voice of criticism" f. Confirm ideas with others you trust (do a "reality check" with them) - Critical and creative thinking are two sides of the same coin (thought): - They are metrically connected, intertwined and reinforce each other to improve our reasoning and life. - Critical thinking evaluates and critiques whatever is generated through creativity. - Therefore, criticality gives ground for creativity while creativity provides the basis for criticality. Key Critical and Creative Thinking Dispositions =============================================== - Critical thinking (CT) consists of a number of skills and dispositions that, when used appropriately, increase the chances of success in academic pursuits as learners, as well as our everyday life, as individuals. - By Critical Thinking dispositions we refer to the inclination, tendency or willingness to perform a given thinking skill. - Different types of Critical Thinking dispositions are essential for understanding how we think and how we can make our thinking better, in both academic settings and everyday situations. 1. **Inquisitiveness** This is the inclination to be curious; desire to fully understand something, discover the answer to a problem and accept that the full answer may not yet be known; and make sure to understand a task and its associated requirements, available options and limits. 2. **Open-mindedness** refers to an inclination to be cognitively flexible and avoid rigidity in thinking; to tolerate divergent or conflicting views and treat all viewpoints alike, prior to subsequent analysis and evaluation; to detach from one's own beliefs and consider, seriously, points of view different from one's own without bias or self-interest; to be open to feedback by accepting positive feedback and to not reject criticism or constructive feedback without thoughtful consideration; to amend existing knowledge in light of new ideas and experiences; and to explore such new, alternative or 'unusual' ideas. 3. **Self-efficacy** refers to the tendency to be confident and trust in one's own reasoned judgments; to acknowledge one's sense of self while considering problems and arguments (i.e., knowledge, biases, culture and environment); to be confident and believe in one's ability to receive and internalize resulting feedback positively and constructively; to be self-efficacious in leading others in the rational resolution of problems; and recognize that good reasoning is the key to living a rational life. 4. **Attentiveness:** refers to a willingness to focus and concentrate; to be aware of surroundings, context, consequences and potential obstacles; to have the 'full picture.\' 5. **Intrinsic goal orientation** 6. **Perseverance** 7. **Organization** 8. **Truth-seeking** 9. **Creativity** 10. **Skepticism** 11. **Reflection** 12. **Resourcefulness** Significance of critical thinking in learning and life ------------------------------------------------------ - Critical thinking promotes deeper understanding and retention of information. When you critically analyze a topic or concept, you engage with it on a more profound level, which can lead to better comprehension and memory. - Critical thinking is essential for effective problem-solving. It allows individuals to break down complex problems into smaller, manageable parts, consider various solutions, and evaluate their potential outcomes before making decisions. - In everyday life, individuals face numerous decisions, both minor and major. Critical thinking helps individuals make informed choices by weighing the pros and cons of different options and considering long-term consequences. Critical thinking and creativity are closely related. The ability to think critically enables individuals to explore new ideas, perspectives, and possibilities. It encourages innovation and original thought. - Critical thinking fosters effective communication skills. It enables individuals to express their thoughts and ideas clearly and persuasively, while also listening attentively and critically evaluating the information they receive. In personal and professional relationships, conflicts are inevitable. Critical thinking aids in resolving conflicts by helping individuals understand different viewpoints, find common ground, and negotiate solutions. - In today\'s information-rich world, being able to critically evaluate sources of information is crucial. Critical thinkers can distinguish between credible and unreliable sources, which is essential for making well-informed decisions and avoiding misinformation. - Career advancement- employers highly value critical thinking skills. They are often essential for job performance, problem-solving, and decision-making in various professions. Individuals with strong critical thinking abilities are more likely to excel in their careers. - Lifelong Learning: Critical thinking is a foundation for continuous learning. It encourages curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge, enabling individuals to adapt to new information, technologies, and challenges throughout their lives. - Personal development: Critical thinking empowers individuals to take control of their lives and make choices that align with their values and goals. - It fosters self-confidence and independence. Impediments to Creative and Critical Thinking What are impediments? ------------------------------------------------------------------- - They are obstacles or barriers that can hinder effective critical thinking. These impediments can prevent individuals from making well-informed and reasoned judgments. - **Personal obstacles:** These are obstacles related to one's state of mind, stereotypes, and ego-defenses (such as denial, projection, introjections, rationalization) - **Egocentricity**: This is the tendency to be self-centered and the inclination to use one's own interest as the reference point for making judgements. This leads to difficulty in understanding or empathizing with the viewpoints of others. - **Socio-centricity:** This is the tendency to be biased in favor of one's own group in the making of judgements. One's group can be one's own family, ethnic group, professional group, religious group etc. - **Habit.** Repeated patterns of thinking and acting can inhibit clear thinking if they were based on flawed foundations. - **Emotional Reasoning:** Emotional reasoning occurs when individuals rely on their emotions and feelings rather than objective evidence or logical analysis when making judgments or decisions. Emotions can cloud one\'s judgment and lead to irrational conclusions. - **Propaganda.** - **Peer and Social Pressure.** - **Paternalism.** - **Religious dogma.** - **Prejudice.** - **Authoritarianism**. Class learning activity What would you consider as obstacles to critical thinking in the Kenyan context? DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING =================================== - Decision-making and problem-solving are the hallmark of our existential conditions as human beings. - They are closely related in the sense that a given decision generates problems in its turn and conversely. - The general distinction between the two is that in problem-solving usually a single solution is what is required. - The required solution can usually be of two distinct kinds namely; analytic and synthetic. - The analytic problems are the ones in which the focus is on the achievement of an unknown goal through a known process. The synthetic problems are the ones that consist in the design of a new process to achieve a required known goal, for example, devising a proof for a known theorem. - But in case of decision-making there are usually several possibilities among which we are needed to pick one as the optimal solution under the current circumstances. - What is common to the two activities (i.e. Decision making and Problem solving) is that they usually involve some degree of novelty which requires a measure of creativity. - In ordinary circumstances decision-making and problem-solving are never so thought-provoking but in certain critical moments they require very careful engagement of the mind. Failure to do this results in common regrets such as I wish I knew better, I wish I had not listened to so and so, I wish I had thought about it a little bit longer, etc. - Here we propose a model that can be heuristic in conducting problemsolving and decision-making in a more rational way. It is a complex process which involves the following steps: 1. Identify the problem (problem solving) or the goal (for decision making) 2. Analyze the problem or goal 3. State the problem/goal clearly 4. Think of the possible solutions to the problem/means for achieving the goal 5. Consider the consequences of each solution/decision 6. Isolate the set with the least adverse effects 7. Set the determinants such as who, when, how, cost, knowledge required to solve the problem/achieve the goal 8. Select the best solution/decision from the set in terms of the determinants 9. Design an algorithm (specific and systematic steps needed to have the problem solved/the goal achieved 10. Implement the solution/decision 11. Evaluate the outcome of implemented solution/decision Condensed steps of Problem Solving in a flow chart  Key dispositions in problem solving =================================== - **Open-Mindedness** - **Humility and Flexibility** - **Persistence** - **Collaboration** - **Social Intelligence** - **Forecasting/embracing the future** - **Resilience** - **Ethical Considerations** - **Clarity of Purpose** problem solvers start at the end. They know exactly what they want to achieve before they begin and determine appropriate actions, based on how it will help them achieve their aim. - **Listening and Communication ability** - **Methodological Skepticism** PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING - Problem Solving is a practical thing, and requires knowledge of practical skills and strategies. The mastery of a few of these skills and strategies is of practical significance for effective and efficient solutions of problems. - Below, we are going to consider some of these skills and strategies. We must warn, though, that these are not quick fix strategies, or strategies which shall work for us, as though by automation. - We must, each, work on inculcating and mastering their use. - You are, therefore, encouraged to commit them to memory, through practice. This might take longer for some people than for others. The trick is to try your best, at your speed, to imbibe them. - When trying to solve a problem, the following approach is suitable: i. **Identify the cause (or causes) of the problem.** ii. **Find ways to eliminate these causes and prevent them from recurring.** Useful techniques in problem solving ==================================== - **Root cause analysis (RCA):** This is a systematic process and methodology used to identify the underlying causes of problems or incidents, rather than just addressing their symptoms. - It is a problem-solving technique employed in various fields, including business, engineering, healthcare, and safety management, to understand and eliminate the fundamental reasons behind undesirable events or issues. - The primary goal of root cause analysis is to prevent the recurrence of problems by addressing their root causes. - Once the real causes of a problem have been identified, eliminating them is often a much easier task. Hence, identifying a problem's cause is paramount. A problem is often the result of multiple causes at different levels. Causes can be classified as one of the following: 1. Symptoms. These are not regarded as actual causes, but rather as signs of existing problems. 2. First-level causes. These are causes that directly lead to a problem. 3. Higher-level causes. These are causes that lead to the first-level causes. While they do not directly cause the problem, higher-level causes form links in the chain of cause-and-effect relationships that ultimately create the problem. - Some problems often have compound causes, where different factors combine to cause the problem. For a satisfactory solution to any problem, the primary objective in the search for the solution is to:FIND THE ROOT CAUSE! - The root cause is "the evil at the bottom" that sets in motion the entire cause-and-effect chain causing the problem(s). - Once you have identified the root cause of a problem, for effective solution to the problem, ELIMINATE THE ROOT CAUSE! - When you have removed the root cause, monitor the symptoms to help ensure that the problem will not recur. Key steps involved in a root cause analysis: -------------------------------------------- - **Define the Problem or Incident:** Clearly define the problem or incident that needs analysis. This step involves gathering information, specifying the issue\'s scope, and understanding its impact. - **Collect Facts/Data**: Collect data and information related to the problem or incident. This can include reports, records, interviews, observations, and any other relevant sources of information. - **Identify Possible Causes:** Brainstorm and identify potential causes of the problem. These causes are often categorized into multiple levels, such as immediate causes (symptoms), underlying causes (contributing factors), and root causes (fundamental reasons). - **Determine Root Causes:** Among the identified causes, focus on identifying the root causes, which are the fundamental factors that, if addressed, can prevent the problem from occurring in the future. Root causes are often deeper and less obvious than immediate or contributing causes. - **Cause-and-Effect Analysis:** Use tools like fishbone diagrams (Ishikawa diagrams) or causal factor charts to visualize the relationships between causes and effects. This helps in understanding the complex interactions among various factors. - **Verify Root Causes:** Verify the identified root causes by gathering evidence and conducting further analysis. Ensure that the root causes are based on facts and data rather than assumptions or opinions. - **Recommend Corrective Actions:** Develop a list of corrective actions or recommendations aimed at addressing the root causes. These actions should be specific, actionable, and tailored to prevent the recurrence of the problem. - **Implement Corrective Actions:** Put the recommended corrective actions into practice. Assign responsibilities, set timelines, and monitor the progress of implementation. - **Evaluate Effectiveness:** After implementing the corrective actions, evaluate their effectiveness in preventing the problem from recurring. This step may involve ongoing monitoring and measuring to ensure sustained improvement. ### Discussion question-1 ### Discussion question 2 - Root cause analysis is multi tool and multi strategy technique. In essence, therefore, root cause analysis, is a collective term used to describe a wide range of approaches, tools, and techniques used to uncover causes of problems. - Some of the approaches are geared more toward identifying the true root causes than others; some are more general problem-solving techniques, while others simply offer support for the core activity of root cause analysis. - Some tools are characterized by a structured approach, while others are more creative (and haphazard) in nature. - The point is not to learn and apply all these tools, but rather to become acquainted with the root cause analysis toolbox and apply the appropriate technique or tool to address a specific problem. Techniques for Understanding the problem ---------------------------------------- To ensure that your root cause analysis efforts are directed at the right problem, you must first understand the problem. There are a number of tools to help you do this: 1) Flowchart ------------ Problem-Solving Flowcharts is a graphical representation used to break down problem or process into smaller, manageable parts, identify the root causes and outline a step-by-step solution. It helps in visually organizing information and showing the relationships between various parts of the problem.Many of the problems that occur in your environment, e.g., place of work, are connected to the business or work processes that are carried out there. The main purpose of a flowchart is to indicate the flow of activities in a process. Flowcharts can be used to: - 1\) Map a process to illustrate where problems occur and which problems should be solved. - 2\) Provide a basis for an ensuing root cause analysis by providing a detailed understanding of the process(es) that contain or influence the problem ### Types of flowcharts: - 1\) Regular flowchart, which simply depicts a sequence of activities or tasks and contains no other information. - 2\) Cross-functional flowchart, which additionally indicates which person or department is responsible for each of the activities or tasks. This flowchart can also contain information on the duration of the activities, how much they cost, etc. - 3\) Flowcharts on several levels, which enable adding more detail to the charts. A simple flowchart usually forms the top-level chart, which gives a clear overview of the process. To provide information about certain steps in the process without clouding the top-level picture, each step is detailed in a new chart on a level below. For very complex processes, there can be many such levels of charts ### The Steps in Using Flowchart The following steps are recommended for using the flowchart technique to understand a problem. The primary assumption here is that you are not working alone, for most of these techniques operate better when you work as a team: - 1\) Gather those working in the process to be documented in a meeting room with whiteboard facilities and plenty of adhesive notes in different colors. - 2\) Define the recipients (internal or external) of the process, the output they'll receive, the input needed for the process, and the suppliers of that input. - 3\) Identify the main activities or tasks undertaken during the process to convert input to output, preferably starting with the end product/ service and working backward. - 4\) Use adhesive notes in different colors to represent activities, products, documents, and other elements of the process. - 5\) Map the process by moving the notes around until they reflect the most realistic picture of the current process. - 6\) If there is a need to store the flowchart electronically, enter the chart into a computer ### Example of flowchart technique 2) Critical Incident Technique (CIT) ------------------------------------ - The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is a qualitative research method that is used to gather detailed and specific information about critical events or incidents. While it is not a problem-solving technique in itself, it can be a valuable tool in problem-solving and decision-making processes by providing in-depth insights into specific incidents related to a problem or issue. - When beginning to solve a problem, many work simply from a gut feeling about what the problem really is. Finding the root cause of the problem, and ultimately its solution, would be easier if the true crux of the problem was acknowledged. The main purpose of the critical incident method is to understand what the most troublesome symptoms in a problematic situation really are. - Critical incident analysis is helpful in: - 1\) Understanding which aspects of the problem need to be solved. - 2\) Realizing the nature of the problem and its consequences ### The steps in Using the Critical Incident Technique The technique is often used in user interviews to gather first-hand experiences about a particular situation and its outcomes. The steps involved in using the Critical Incident Technique are as follows: - 1\) Decide on the participants to be included, attempting to cover all departments or functional areas involved in the problem situation. - 2\) Ask each participant to answer in writing questions like: Which incident last week was most difficult to handle? Which episode created the biggest problems in terms of maintaining customer satisfaction? Which incident cost the most in terms of extra resources or direct expenditures? - 3\) Collect, sort, and analyze answers based on the frequency of different incidents. - 4\) Graphically present the sorted list to show the criticality of each incident. - 5\) Use the most critical incidents as starting points for the search for problem causes - The Critical Incident Technique is a valuable tool for organizations to identify and resolve workplace problems, advancing organizational development through learning experiences. - Please note that this technique requires participants to share their experiences, and it can be applied in various contexts such as user interviews, focus groups, surveys, and general interviews. - Diagram example - 3) Spider chart --------------- - Flowcharts and critical incident help in understanding the problem from an internal point of view. When seeking an external comparison, a spider chart can be a helpful tool. The main purpose of the spider chart is to give a graphical impression of how the performance of business processes (or problem areas) compares with other organizations. - In root cause analysis, the main applications of a spider chart are to: - 1\) Determine which problem is most critical. - 2\) Compare the seriousness of problems and causes - A Spider Chart Is a Way of Benchmarking - Benchmarking means comparing performance levels or practices with someone else, preferably someone with superior performance. Such comparison serves many purposes, including: - i\) Motivating improvement by demonstrating that someone has solved a problem or reached higher levels of performance, thus showing that it is possible. - ii\) Providing input as to what objectives should be set for the improvements stemming from problem solving and other improvement efforts, based on the achievement of others. - iii\) Learning how to do better by obtaining ideas and inspiration from those who are better than yourself. ### The Steps in Using Spider Charts - 1\) Collect the information needed to construct the spider chart (data from market analyses, surveys, competitor analyses, etc). - 2\) Assign one variable to each spoke in the chart. - 3\) Divide each spoke into logical segments by using a separate unit of measurement for each variable. The farther from the centre of the chart, the higher the performance. - 4\) Plot the performance data for each variable along the correct spokes, using different colours or symbols to separate the data points from different organizations. - 5\) Draw lines between the data points for each organization to generate performance profiles. - 6\) Identify the variables that show the largest gaps between your organization and the benchmarks ### Diagram example -  4) Performance matrix --------------------- - When comparing the different aspects of a spider chart, the focus is solely on the performance of the factors included in the chart. An equally relevant aspect to consider along with the current performance level, however, is the importance of each factor. The performance matrix is used to illustrate current performance and importance at the same time, helping to arrive at a sense of priority. In root cause analysis, performance matrices can be used to illustrate problems or causes in terms of: - 1\) Which aspect of the problem is most important to attack - 2\) Which causes will give the most relief if removed ### The Steps in Using Performance Matrix - 1\) Construct an empty chart by placing importance on the horizontal axis and current performance on the vertical axis and dividing both axes into nine segments of equal size. - 2\) Decide which problems, factors, or issues to analyze. - 3\) Place each factor in the chart according to its position along the two axes, using symbols to identify each factor. - 4\) Divide the chart into four quadrants approximately at the middle of each axis. If many factors are clustered in one area, place the division lines farther to one side. - 5\) Determine which factors fall within the quadrants - It is important to create a visual representation of the performance matrix. This can be in the form of a table, graph, or chart. The matrix should clearly display the criteria, metrics, and performance scores. - Assess the performance of individuals, teams, or processes by comparing their actual performance against the established standards and expectations. Use the performance matrix to provide a comprehensive view of performance. - Diagram example - ### The Steps in Brainstorming - 1\) Clearly define the topic to brainstorm and write it on top of a whiteboard or a flip-chart. - 2\) Allow participants to launch ideas according to the approach used, structured or unstructured. - 3\) Write down every idea launched, using the same wording as the original proposition. - 4\) Do not discuss, criticize, or evaluate ideas during the session. - 5\) Allow the flow of ideas to stagnate once, because it will usually pick up again. Close the process when new ideas are only reformulations of previously launched ideas or when few new ideas are evident. - 6\) Evaluate the ideas by sorting them into groups, either by theme or by decreasing potential 2)Brainwriting -------------- - [https://youtu.be/WnbyZeKSXE4] - While brainwriting serves the same purpose as brainstorming, it offers these advantages: - 1)Every one has better access to the process. - 2\) Participants can describe more detailed and coherent ideas. - 3\) It is possible to protect the anonymity of the participants, which is useful if you're dealing with a sensitive subject. Typical applications during root cause analysis include generating ideas about problems, consequences, and ways to eliminate causes in situations where: - 1\) Complex ideas are expected. - 2\) It is feared that some people might dominate the brainstorming were it conducted orally. - There are two ways to conduct a brainwriting session. The objective is the same with both approaches and most of the steps are identical; the difference lies in the way ideas are recorded. - 1\) In the **card method**, ideas are written on small cards and circulated among the participants, who add related ideas or expand on the existing ones. - 2\) In the **gallery method**, ideas are written on a number of whiteboards or flip-charts and the participants circulate among them, adding related ideas or expanding on the existing ones ### Steps in Brainwriting - 1\) As with brainstorming, start by clearly defining the target topic for possible cause brainstorming. Depending on the method used, write the topic: - 2\) Have participants write down their ideas on their cards or on the whiteboard. Encourage precise explanations. - 3\) Allow participants to add to others' ideas to realize the benefits of combining ideas or further developing them. - 4\) Ask the group to discuss the ideas and, if possible, sort them into classes 3)Is--is Not Matrix ------------------- When brainstorming a problem and its possible causes, there is a danger of reaching a state of overload, where the ideas are so plentiful that it becomes difficult to separate the essential from the trivial. The is--is not matrix is a tool that helps us see this distinction and clarify what the problem is or is not about, for the purpose of: - 1\) Understanding plausible problem causes - 2\) Identifying issues that are definitely not related to the problem - By comparing "is" with "is not," we can more quickly determine which places we need to start looking at more closely ### The Steps in Is-Is Not Matrices - 1\) Create an empty matrix of six rows by four columns and fill the header column with the standard headings. - 2\) In the upper left corner of the matrix, state the problem being analysed. - 3\) Fill in the second column with "is" information; what is affected, where, when, who, and so on. - 4\) In the same way, fill in the third column with "is not" information. - 5\) Compare the two columns for anything odd or that stands out and place these in the fourth column. - 6\) For each element in this column, analyse how it could be a cause of the problem. - 7\) For the possible causes identified this way, test them by checking if they explain all items in the "is" and "is not" columns. Whatever explain(s) the items is/are likely the real cause(s). 4)Nominal group technique ------------------------- - When brainstorming, the loudest person or persons can sometimes dominate the activity. While discussing ideas, these people will generally continue to dominate, which can cause the group to arrive at minority decisions. The nominal group technique can facilitate a form of brainstorming in which all participants have the same vote when selecting solutions. Typical root cause analysis applications are: - 1\) Generating ideas by tapping the entire group's potential - 2\) Gaining consensus about which ideas to pursue further throughout the analysis ### Steps in Nominal Group Technique - In nominal group technique: - 1\) Each person generates ideas and writes them on idea cards, one idea on each card. - 2\) The session leader assigns each idea a letter (from A onwards) and registers it on a flip-chart. Participants briefly discuss the ideas for clarification and elimination of similar ideas. - 3\) Participants individually rank the ideas on their ranking card by selecting up to five ideas and assigning points to them, from 5 for the most important/best idea down to 1 for the least important/ good idea. - 4\) The session leader collects the ranking cards and totals the points. - 5\) The idea achieving the highest total score is the group's prioritized idea or solution, and will be the logical starting point for the ensuing activities in the root cause analysis 5) Paired comparisons --------------------- - This is a systematic approach for evaluating a small range of options by comparing them against each other. This technique is a useful and easy technique for rating and ranking alternatives where the evaluation criteria are subjective by nature. This is practically helpful when priorities are not clear enough, when alternatives are completely different from one another, or when there is little objective data to base our decision on. - Paired comparison is often used to choose the most compelling problem to solve, or to select the alternative that will be the most effective. It is useful in a wide range of applications, from selecting the concept design for a new product before it goes into production, to deciding the skills and qualifications when hiring people for a new position. Decisions like these are more difficult to make than comparing which investment to take or which vendor to select, as the selection would be based on based on quality, price, and delivery speed. Like the other tools, paired comparisons aims at prioritization and consensus reaching, but does so through a sequence of paired comparisons. One-to-one decisions are easier to make than selecting among a large number of possible solutions. Typical applications of paired comparisons include: - 1\) Prioritizing different alternative problems or causes - 2\) Helping decisions surface when there are many alternatives ### The Steps in Paired Comparisons - In paired comparisons, - 1\) Clearly identify the alternatives to be compared. The total number, denoted N, should be manageable, that is, not more than eight. - 2\) Create a matrix with the alternatives, coded by letters, as row headings and the pairs as column headings, indicated by letters only to save space. The number of pairs p is determined by the following formula: p = \[N × (N -- l)\]/2. - 3\) Column by column, each participant votes for one of the alternatives; the votes are logged in the matrix. - 4\) After all participants have voted for all pairs, sum the total number for each pair; this should equal the number of participants. - 5\) Sum the number of votes cast for each alternative to give the row totals. The highest-scoring alternative is the preferred one according to the group