CPL Navigation PDF

🗺️ CPL Navigation Created @November 28, 2024 11:08 AM Class NAV Course CPL Overview: form of the earth latitude, longitude a...

🗺️ CPL Navigation Created @November 28, 2024 11:08 AM Class NAV Course CPL Overview: form of the earth latitude, longitude aeronautical charts direction charts earth’s magnetism effects of wind nav computer and plotter types of navigation pilotage dead reckoning radio navigation GPS lost procedures Air Navigation navis (ship) agere (to direct) systematic logical way of going from point A to point B CPL Navigation 1  the process of piloting an aircraft from one geographic position to another while monitoring one’s position as the flight progresses Form of the Earth to navigate along the earth, a representation of it has to be referred to oblate spheroid two geographic poles diameter at the poles is 6865NM diameter at the equator is 6888NM ⚠️ 1NM is 6076 ft earth’s rotation from the north: counter-clockwise, west to east Equator separates north and south hemisphere 0 degrees latitude Prime Meridian 0 degrees longitude Longitude: lines parallel to the prime meridian meridians Latitude: lines parallel to the equator parallels degrees are based from the equator Small Circles these are circles within the Earth whose center does not coincide with the center of the earth CPL Navigation 2  Great Circles it is a circle within the Earth whose center coincide with Earth’s center equal the earth’s diameter orthodromic route less fuel less time shorter distance different headings for long haul flights Convergence all meridians converge towards the poles the closer to the poles, the smaller the distance between meridians Rhumb Line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all meridians in the same angle straight line on a chart luxodromic route more fuel consumption more time greater distance but constant heading Great Circle CPL Navigation 3  Graticule/Grid the network of imaginary lines formed on the surface of the earth Determining Position a coordinate is the specific position of a point on the surface of the Earth latitude and longitude can be broken down into degrees minutes and seconds 🛬 minutes = nautical miles on the grids Timezones solar time: points on same meridian have same time local mean time: standardized time for each time zone GMT: greenwich mean time UTC: coordinated universal time (standard) 15 degrees = 1 hr 1 degree = 4 mins 1 minute = 4 seconds West: earlier (subtract) CPL Navigation 4  East: later (add) Sunrise and Sunset solar time is taken into account will change throughout the year determine boundaries for day and night operation Maps vs Charts Maps a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface Cylindrical Map Projection straight coordinate lines with horizontal parallels crossing meridians at right angles meridians are equally spaced Conical Map projection defined by the cone constant the meridians are equidistant Common Types of charts used for visual navigation World Aeronautical Charts (WAC) a chart with a scale of 1:1,000,000 long distance Sectional Charts (SEC) chart with a scale of 1:500,000 allows for more detailed information topographical aeronautical VFR Terminal Area Charts chart with a scale of 1:250,000 CPL Navigation 5  provides more detail around very busy airports ONC - operational navigation chart standard small scale aeronautical chart 2000-25000ft high-speed visual and radar navigation used for operational planning and intelligence briefing TPC - tactical pilotage chart Topographical chart high speed low altitude radar and visual navigation high perf aircraft Provides information that allows pilots to track their position and provides information that enhances safety and show surface features of an area Aerodrome Charts provides a visual representation of the airport environment shows taxiways (and names), bay numbers, ramps, aprons, fuel sheds, etc Earth’s Magnetism magnetic north and geographic north are different magnetic field is generated by the metals in the outer core of the earth Cardinal Directions composed of four main directions NSEW subdivided into quadrantal directions or intercardinal directions NW NE SW SE further subdivided into secondary intercardinal directions NNE NEN SSW sexagesimal system CPL Navigation 6  True Heading (TH) the direction in which the aircraft is pointed during the flight, measured in degrees clockwise from true north is a bit different from True Course (TC) to offset the effect of the wind Magnetic Variation angular difference between true north and magnetic north magnetic north pole is moving towards Russia by 55 to 60km per year ➡️ east is least (-), west is best (+) charts: true north instrument (magnetic compass): magnetic north Isogonic Charts bends and anomalies in isogonic lines are caused by geological features influencing magnetic forces along the lines depicted by isogonals or isogonic lines lines of zero variation are called agonic lines where true and magnetic north are aligned magnetic heading = TRUE +/- declination TH = MH +/- declination Magnetic Deviation is the effect of the aircraft’s internal magnetic parts affecting the compass indication can be compensated for using a compass card deviation card shows corrections to be made Effect of Wind CPL Navigation 7  25 kt wind from the north means air is moving south at 25 kts object in the wind is carried 25nm south in an hour Groundspeed (GS): distance covered by the airplane over the ground in an hour track: path on the ground drift angle: difference between track and heading Flight Computer a device used to compute for and convert values of time, speed, distance, fuel consumption, weight, volume, temp, density, and altitude Fixed Outer Scale A distance (statute miles, nautical miles, kilometers) speed (mph, knots, kph) fuel consumption (gallons per hour) CPL Navigation 8  true airspeed (TAS), true altitude Rotating Inner Scale B time in minutes indicated/calibrated airspeed indicated/calibrated altitude Rotating Inner Scale C time in hours: minutes Temperature Conversion Scale degree celsius to degree fahrenheit and vice versa Computer Side Problem: if an aircraft is flying at a speed of 80 mph, how long will it take to fly a distance of 200 miles? Equation time = distance/rate Solution a. longhand method divide 200 by 80 = 2.5 change the fraction to minute by multiplying it by 60, 0.5 *60 = 30 mins 2 hrs and 30 mins b. flight computer using index point to 80 to “A” scale and find 20 directly below is 15 on the “B” scale which is 150 mins, and further down on the “C” scale, you will read 2:30 the answer Wind Side CPL Navigation 9  provides a graphical method of solving ground speed and wind correction angle 1. Set wind direction under true index 2. mark wind velocity up from center point 3. set true course under true index 4. slide wind velocity mark to true airspeed 5. ground speed reads under center 6. wind correction angle reads between center line and wind velocity mark Types of Navigation 1. Pilotage 2. Dead Reckoning 3. Radio Navigation 4. GPS 5. Celestial Navigation 6. Inertial Navigation measure using accelerometer Pilotage navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints roads railroad tracks rivers lakes mountains ground features notable ground formations that are visible from the air drainage and water features CPL Navigation 10  notable features depicted in blue on charts relief color coded contours, or lines joining areas of equal elevation spot elevation represented by a black dot with an adjacent number of the peak elevation above MSL actual elevation of a selected point or area in ft or meters above sea level highest point in an area obstructions maximum elevation figures represent the highest elevation in a grid small empty circles VFR routes (waypoints) small squares landmarks for each town can be used as waypoints CPL Navigation 11  Dead Reckoning deduced reckoning navigation solely by means of computations based on time, airspeed, distance, and direction takes wind into consideration for corrections resulting in course heading and ground speed Steps 1. Plot your route 2. Select a cruise altitude 3. select waypoints and note the course and distances between them 4. obtain weather data 5. compute the climb and descent performances 6. compute for course heading, ground speed, enroute time, and fuel burn Formulas 🛫 Time to Climb/Descend = |target altitude - present altitude| n. /(rate of climb/descent) 🛬 Distance to Climb/Descend = (ground speed/60) * time to climb/descend ➡️ Rate of Descent = Airspeed x 5 = FPM CPL Navigation 12  1 in 60 Rule 1NM subtends an angle of 1˚ at a distance of 60NM 1. Use the 1 in 60 to shop drifting futher fly parallel formula: (miles off track x 60)/miles flown = track error (in degrees) or degrees off course 2. WCA to return to desired course formula: (miles off track x 60)/miles to go = correction angle 3. Add track error & correction angle = to go back to desired track miles off track = 60/miles flown Point of Equal Time (critical point) the point between two aerodromes wherein it would take the same time to proceed to either aerodrome X = DH/(O + H) 1. Get GS home and GS out GS home = TAS + HW, TAS - TW GS out = TAS - HW, TAS + TW 2. Get distance to PET CPL Navigation 13  3. Get your time to PET T = x / GS out Point of Safe Return 1. Get endurance based on fuel on board FOB and fuel consumption rate FCR E = FOB/FCR + reserves (0.5gal day, 0.75 gal night) 2. Get time to PSR Tsr = EH/O + H 3. Dsr = GS Out * Tsr Radius of Action the distance to the furthest point from departure that an aircraft can fly, carry out a given task, and return to its airfield of departure within the safe endurance Radio Navigation navigation with reference to radio waves transmitted by ground or space- based station VOR - VHF Omnidirectional Range a ground station projecting radials in all directions CPL Navigation 14  radials are accurate up to 1 degree of the magnetic course radial is a line of bearing extending outward from the VOR station VOR Type Code Range Altitude Terminal VOR TVOR Up to 25 NM 1000 to 14,500 AGL Low Altitude LVOR Up to 40 NM 1000 to 18,000 AGL High Altitude HVOR Up to 40 NM 1000 to 14,500 AGL High Altitude HVOR Up to 100 NM 14,500 to 60,000 AGL High Altitude HVOR Up to 130 NM 18,000 to 45,000 AGL Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) airborne equipment course index: where the arrow is pointing CDI needle: course deviation indication needle TO and FROM flag indicators Deviation scale: one doe is 2 degrees, 10 degrees each side NAV/OFF flag omni bearing selector (OBS) an OFF flag is displayed when: you are not within the Line of Sight of the station Cone of Confusion you are directly over the VOR Zone of ambiguity you are flying perpendicular to the set course 🛬 OBS: Omni-Bearing Selector CPL Navigation 15  to determine your position relative to the VOR 1. tune to the published VOR frequency 2. identify if on the correct frequency (morse code/g1000 identifier) 3. twist OBS knob until needle centers a. if FROM flag, LOP reads under Course Index b. if TO flag, LOP reads under reciprocal of Course Index TO the station Course is UP Radial is DOWN FROM the station Course is UP Radial is UP To Track Away from a Station 1. tune to the published VOR frequency 2. identify if on the correct frequency 3. twist OBS knob until FROM flag appears 4. continue twisting until needle centers 5. heading to fly reads under the course index To track towards a station 1. tune to in the published VOR frequency 2. identify if on the correct frequency (morse code/g1000 identifier) 3. twist OBS knot until TO flag appears 4. continue twisting OBS knob until needle centers 5. heading to fly reads under course index CPL Navigation 16  HSI (Horizontal situation indicator) direction indicator + CDI gives an indication of the location of the aircraft relative to the chose course on radial Interception ➡️ interception angle: = PLOP - DLOP x 2 result + intended course (DLOP) present LOP desired LOP ➡️ Interception Heading: = desired course ± intercept angle CPL Navigation 17  LARS if left of desired course add if right of desired course subtract Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) slant distance between aircraft and station 1. distance in NM to the VOR or DME 2. ground speed 3. time en route to the station NDB (Non-directional Beacon) a continuously transmitting radio station with no inherent directional information signals are not governed by line of sight ground and sky waves ADF (automatic direction finder) airborne equipment paired with NDBs needle always points directly to the stations Types: fixed-card ADF only needle moves needle measures relative bearing rotating card ADF radio magnetic indicator RMI no OFF flags reflections of signals bouncing from the ionosphere CPL Navigation 18  indications are affected by thunderstorms, static electricity, terrain and shorelines relative bearing clockwise angle between nose and direction of NDB or station Magnetic bearing TO the station heading to fly to the station magnetic bearing FROM the station line of position relative to the station MBto = magnetic heading + relative bearing MBfrom = MBto + 180 degrees MH + RB = MB i.e.: Heading = 100 RB = 270 MBto = 370 or 10 degrees MBfrom = 10 degrees + 180 degrees = 190 Landing Guidance localizer and glide slope needles 3 degree glide slope angle 108.1-111.95MHz: can switch to ILS freq 10NM inbound 0.5 degrees per dot Instrument Landing System system that provides lateral and vertical guidance for landing the aircraft CPL Navigation 19  course width can be 3˚ to 6˚ lateral guidance: localizer vertical: guide slope GPS a system of 31 active satellites orbiting around the earth a minimum of 4 satellites signals have to be received to obtain a three- dimensional position Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) helps determine if a satellite is providing corrupted info RAIM needs at least 5 satellites to perform an integrity check Radar radio detecting and range operates on the concept of reflected radio waves Primary Surveillance Radar can provide distance and radial speed of target often used in conjunction with a secondary surveillance radar does not require any onboard equipment in the aircraft Secondary Surveillance Radar actively interrogates the aircraft’s information requires an onboard transponder Transponder Modes A - basic transponder type with 4096 different selectable codes C - similar to mode A but with an automatic altitude reporting capability S - mode C capabilities plus the addition of aircraft registration and type information Common transponder codes: 1200 - default for VFR 7500 - hijacking CPL Navigation 20  7600 - no radio 7700 - emergency GLONASS Global navigation satellite system a minimum of 4 satellites must be received to obtain a three dimensional position Differential GPS substantiations send post-processed data to GPS receivers to correct for any errors in signal reception Other methods of navigation Celestial Navigation sun moon stars anywhere u can see da sky Inertial navigation Lost Procedures 5 C’s 1. Climb 2. Circle 3. Conserve 4. Confess 5. Comply CPL Navigation 21