General Anatomical Terms - Copy of PRELIMS_GEN ANA LEC PDF

General Anatomical Terms Facies - refers to the surface appearance or features Acinus - A small, sac-like structure, where secretion or of a structure, often used in anatomical descriptions excretion occurs. Falciform -...

General Anatomical Terms Facies - refers to the surface appearance or features Acinus - A small, sac-like structure, where secretion or of a structure, often used in anatomical descriptions excretion occurs. Falciform - means shaped like a sickle or crescent, Aditus - An entrance, opening, or passage, particularly such as the falciform ligament in the liver. referring to anatomical structures like the opening into Fascia - is a connective tissue that surrounds and a cavity or canal supports muscles, organs, and other structures in the Afferent - Nerves or vessels that carry impulses or fluid body. towards a particular organ or region Filum - generally refers to a thread-like structure, such Ala - A winglike or wing-shaped anatomical structure as the filum terminale in the spinal cord. Alveolus - A small hollow cavity or pit, especially in Folliculus - A folliculus is a small anatomical structure reference to the sockets in the jawbone that hold teeth, resembling a small bag or sac, often used in the or the air sacs in the lungs context of follicles in various organs. Ampulla - A dilated or expanded part of a tube or canal Foramen - A foramen is an opening or hole in bone Ansa - A loop or handle shaped anatomical structure that allows nerves, blood vessels, or other structures to Antrum - A cavity or chamber, particularly referring to pass through a sinus or a bony cavity in the body Fornix - The fornos is an arch-like or vaulted such as Anulus - A ring-shaped structure or band, such as the the fornix of the brain or the vagina. fibrous ring around an intervertebral disc. Fossa - A fossa is a shallow depression or hollow, Aponeurosis - A sheet or layer of fibrous tissue often in bone, serving as an anatomical landmark serving to connect muscles or to attach muscle to bone Fovea - A fovea is a small pit or depression, such as Brachium - An anatomical term for the arm, the fovea centralis in the retina of the eye. specifically the upper arm or the part of the arm Frenulum - A frenulum is a small fold or band of tissue, between the shoulder and the elbow. often found in areas like the tongue or genitalia. Bursa - A small fluid-filled sac located between a Fundus - The fundus is the base or bottom of an organ tendon and a bone or skin, serving to reduce friction or structure, often used in reference to the uterus or during movement stomach Canaliculus - A small channel or duct, particularly Ganglion - A ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies, referring to microscopic channels in bone for the typically outside the central nervous system passage of blood vessels or nerves Genu - refers to a bent or angular structure, such as Commissure - A line or point where two structures the genu of the corpus callosum in the brain come together or meet, especially nerve fibers or heart Glomus - A glomus is a small, globular cluster of blood valves. vessels, often associated with nerve endings. Condyle - A rounded prominence at the end of a bone, Hamulus - A hamulus is a hook-shaped or curved often forming a joint with another bone. process, such as the hamulus of the hamate bone in Corona - used to describe crownlike structures or the hand. structures resembling a crown, such as the corona Hiatus - Hiatus refers to an opening, gap, or radiata in the brain passageway, often in anatomical structures like the Cortex - The outer layer or region of an organ or diaphragm structure, especially referring to the outer layer of the Hilus - The hilus is the depression or indented region brain or the adrenal gland. where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit an Crista - A ridge or crest, particularly referring to bony organ, like the renal hilus in the kidney. ridges or projections within the body. Incisura - a notch or indentation, often found in Crus - term used to describe a leglike or leg-shaped anatomical structures like bones or organs structure Infundibulum - Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, Cystic - Relating to or resembling a cysl, which is a sac consectetul adipiscing elit. Etiam euismod id sem quis or capsule filled with fluid or semisolid material Cras suscipit est at mauris accumsan sed tempus Dens - is the odontoid process, a bony projection on placerat velit a placerat the second cervical vertebra (C2) that acts as a pivot Isthmus - a narrow part of an organ or structure that point for head rotation. connects two larger parts. For instance, in the neck, the Efferent - refers to structures or pathways carrying thyroid gland has two lobes connected by a narrow signals away from the central nervous system, typically bend of tissue called the thyroid isthmus transmitting motor commands to muscles or glands Labium - refers to specific structures. In females, the Epicondyle - An epicondyle is a bony prominence labia (singular labium) are the folds of skin surrounding near a joint often serving as an attachment point for the vaginal opening. tendons and ligaments. Labrum - the labrum is a ring of cartilage that surrounds the socket of the shoulder blade. Labyrinth - the complex system of interconnected Retinaculum - A stay or tie. Usually a band of passages found within the inner ear. It includes the connective tissue (ligament) which holds a tendon in cochlea, which is involved in hearing, and the place. semicircular canals. Rima - A chink or cleft, e.g, the slit between the eyelids Lacuna - refer to a small cavity or space within a bodily lips, or vocal cords tissue or structure Scaphoid - scapha, a boat. Any hollowed-out Lamina or Lamella - refers to thin layers of bone, structure. cartilage, or tissue. Septum - A hedge, fence, or dividing wall. A partition, Ligament - a strong band of tissue that connects bone usually thin. to bone. Ligaments are like tough, flexible bands that Sinus - A hollow or creek are two of its many help to stabilize and support joints in the body. meanings. In anatomy, it is applied to the air-filed Limbus - refer to the border or edge of a body structure cavities of the cranial bones, to large venous spaces or organ within the skull and elsewhere, and to dilatations of Lingula - a small, tongue-like projection on the left blood vessels. lung, located below the left upper lobe and resembling Spina or Spine - A sharp-pointed projection that is also a little tongue. called as backbone, spinal column, and vertebral Macula - a small area near the center of the retina that column responsible for central vision and detailed sight Somatic - Belonging to the body wall. Meatus - refers to the ear canal, the passage leading Splachnic - it is a term used to describe organs that from the outer ear to the eardrum. are situated in the abdominal cavity. It includes the Medulla - the "medulla oblongata," is the lowermost stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, part of the brainstem, located just above the spinal spleen, liver, and may also include the kidney. cord. Squama - An animal or plant's scale or scale-like Mesentery - a fold of tissue in the abdomen that structure. Word origin L. husk, a scale For instance, the attaches the intestines to the abdominal wall. It helps vertical section of the frontal bone that forms the to support and stabilize the intestines. forehead and the occipital bone's posterior, plate-like Nodus or Node - refer to various small, rounded portion structures within the body. For example, lymph nodes Stria - Stresch marks also known as striae (striae are small, bean-shaped structures found throughout distensae, striae atrophicus) in medicine, are frequent the body’s lymphatic system skin abnormalities that usually appear in the first half of Nucleus - the control center or command center of a life. Although they are mostly benign, patients may cell. It's a membrane-bound organelle found in the worry about them from a cosmetic standpoint center of most eukaryotic cells. Styloid - A needle-like, cylindrical, thin projection with Ostium -refer to various openings in the body. a range of lengths, averaging 2 to 3'cm. The stylohyoid Papilla - The nipple. A nipple-shaped elevation. ligament, as well as the stylohyoid, stylopharyngeus, Parenchyma - The proper tissue of an organ as distinct and styloglossus muscles, are attached to the styloid from accessory structures such as its fibrous capsule. process, which protrudes from the inferior portion of the Paries - A wall. The walls of the abdomen. The parietal petrous temporal bone. bone is the sidewall of the skull. Sulcus - It is necessary to study these two distinct Pedicle- Diminutive of pes, a foot, a basal attachment words together. The definition of "groove or fissure" in Pediculus - The stalk of a fruit. A narrow rod or tube Latin is [sulcus) [sulci is the plural version of it The joining two structures costal sulcus in the ribs is one of the body’s many Pelvis - A basin anatomical sulci. The brain is known for having so Plexus - A plaited or braided structure of vessels or many sulci nerves Synovia - Synovial fluid, or synovia, is an alkaline Plica - A fold. viscid transparent fluid resembling egg white that is Porus - A pore or opening, example of a meatus found in joint cavities, tendon sheaths, and bursae, and Radix - A root or origin example the root portion of a is responsible for lubrication and nourishment of these cranial or spinal nerve joint structures. Ramus - A branch, such as a branch of a blood vessel Taenia - The tapeworm species Taenia saginata (beef or nerve. Tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), and Raphe - A seam. The line of union of two soft tissues Taenia asiatica (Asian tapeworm) are the parasite example is the interlocking aponeuroses of two infections that cause taeniasis in humans. Eating raw muscles. or undercooked beef (T. saginata) or pork (T.solium Rete - A net. Often a labyrinth of communicating and T. asiatica) can expose humans to these channels tapeworm infections Tegmen - The tegmen lympnai, or roof of the tympanic birth; or from one-cell stage to the complex human cavity, and the tegmen mastoideum, or root of the being. mastoid cavity, make up its two or three components Neuroanatomy- study of the nervous system Tela - Any thin, web-like tissue, especially the tela Methods of Studying Anatomy choroidea, which is a folded double layer of pia mater Regional or Topographical Anatomy - study of the that reaches into many brain ventricles and is packed relationships of all structures found in a particular area with tiny blood veins. or region of the body. Torus - An abnormal growth of bone on the roof of the Head mouth is called a torus palatinus Although these A. Cranium growths are not harmful, they can cause discomfort  Crown and inconvenience. Torus palatinus might be inherited  Forehead or arise later in life. Unless the development causes  Occiput problems or obstructs speech or swallowing, removal  Temple is not required. B. Face Trabecula - A tiny, frequently microscopic tissue  Frontal component that takes the shape of a rod, strut, or beam  Orbital that serves to support or anchor the framework of  Nasal components inside a body or organ  Maxillary Trochlear - a long, narrow, hollow space in a surface  Zygomatic in the body that a bone or tendon can move against,  Mandibular especially the lower end of the humerus. NECK / CERVICAL Tuber - a rounded swelling or protuberance, a tub of a A. Superiorly tubercle. 1. Anterior - lower border of the mandible Vagina - The muscular canal that goes from the uterus 2. Lateral - line between the gonion and the to the outside of the body. During birth, the baby mastoid temporal. passes through the vagina. Also called birth canal. 3. Posterior - inion and superior nuchal line Enlarge B. Inferiorly Velum - a membrane or membranous part resembling 1. Anterior -jugular or suprasternal notch a vell or curtain 2. Lateral - superior border of the clavicle. Vesica - A bladder, especially the urinary bladder. 3. Posterior- transverse line from the Villus - A small slender often vascular process. Finger- acromioclavicular joint to the spinous process shaped processes of the mucous membrane of the of the 7th cervical vertebra small intestine that serve in the absorption of nutriment TRUNK / TORSO Visceral - the soft internal organs of the body, including Thoracic or Chest the lungs, the heart, and the organs of the digestive, 1. Pectoral region excretory, reproductive, and circulatory systems 2. Back Zona - A girdle or belt A circular or ring-like structure 3. Thoracic cavity Abdomen INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL ANATOMY 1 1. Navel Anatomy 2. Flank  derived from two Greek words 3. Loin  "ana" - meaning apart 4. Groin  "tome"- meaning cutting Pelvic Human Anatomy - Deals with the study of shapes and 1. Pelvic cavity structures of the human body with special emphasis on 2. Genitalia the relationships of the different parts. 3. Gluteal region Subdivisions of Anatomy UPPER EXTREMITY OR UPPER LIMB Gross Anatomy or Macroscopic Anatomy -Refers to  Shoulder the study of the parts of the body as seen by the naked  Arm eye  Elbow Histology or Microscopic Anatomy - study of the minute structures that can be seen only with the aid of  Forearm lenses.  Wrist Developmental Anatomy - study of the origin, growth,  Hand and development of an organism from conception, until Lower Extremity or Lower Limb  Hips or buttocks   Thigh Superficial - nearer the surface of the body.  Knee Leg Ankle Foot Deep - away from the surface of the body. Systemic Anatomy - study in which all parts of the Somatic or parietal - refers to the walls of a cavity. body made up of the same structure and of related Visceral - refers to the organs within the cavity. functions are taken up individually or as a group. Surface Anatomy - delineating on the external surface of the body the relative positions of the organs and structures found inside the body. This is achieved through the use of the constantly seen or felt bony projections or depressions for our surface landmarks. Radiographic Anatomy - the - includes the use of plain xrays as well as xrays taken the introduction of various dyes into the blood stream or ingested. Applied Anatomy - - application of the knowledge Cavities learned to the actual practice You sent Materials Used in Studying Anatomy 1. Books 2. Charts, drawings, and atlases 3. Human models and cadavers 4. Living Body Four Basic Reference Systems Direction ANATOMICAL POSITION - A standard position to which description of any part of the body are referred to. Ventral Cavity 1. Body is standing erect facing the observer.  Thoracic Pleural 2. The face and the eyes are directed forward.  Abdomino-Pelvic – abdominal cavity proper 3. The arms are hanging at the side.  Dorsal Cavity 4. Palms are facing forward with thumb pointing Thoracic Cavity laterally. 5. The heels are together and feet flat on the floor. Fundamental Planes - Standard reference terms based on anatomic position Kinds: 1. Median Plane or Sagittal Plane – medial, Other Cavities lateral  Oral 2. Coronal or Frontal Plane – anterior/ventral,  Nasal posterior/dorsal  Occipital 3. Transverse Plane - superior/cranial, Structural Units inferior/caudal Cell fundamental unit of all living things Other commonly used term Tissue - collection of similar cells having the same Superior or cranial - nearer the head; higher; or functions. above. Fundamental Tissues: Inferior or caudal - farther from the head; lower; below Epithelial - these tissue cover the surface of the body Anterior or ventral - nearer the front or belly side of and line the various body cavities, ducts and vessels. the body Connective - derived from the mesoderm and has the Posterior or dorsal - nearer the back following functions: Medial - nearer the midline of the body. a) Support (cartilages and bones) Lateral - farther from the midline of the body b) For the attachment of other tissues (tendons, Proximal - nearer the point of origin of a part. ligaments, and fascia) Distal - farther from the point of origin of the part c) Specialized function (blood) Internal - closer to the central axis of the body. Muscular -composed of specialized cells capable of External - farther from the central axis of the body. contracting, and thereby decreasing in length. Three types of muscular tissues: facial skin, can signal emotional states by means of a) Skeletal- moves the skeleton muscular and vascular responses. b) Cardiac - propel blood throughout the body  It provides individual identification and awareness c) Smooth - aid in digestion by moving food of personal identity and self-image. through the digestive tract.  It is a major sense organ, richly supplied by nerve Nervous - forms the brain, spinal cord and nerves. terminals and specialized receptors for touch, These transmit messages throughout the body. temperature, pain, mechanical and pleasurable Organ - A group of fundamental tissues bound stimuli. together in the performance of a given function. TWO LAYERS OF THE SKIN System - a group of organs similar in origin and THE EPIDERMIS - is a compound tissue consisting structure, united together in the performance of a given mainly of a continuously self-replacing stratified function. keratinized squamous epithelium, the principal cells of a) integumentary system which are called keratinocytes. b) skeletal system STRATUM BASALE c) articular system  Lowermost layer d) muscular system  Firmly attached to the basement membrane that e) nervous system separates the epidermis from the loose connective f) respiratory system tissue of the adjacent dermis g) digestive system  Forms the epidermal ridges that extend to the h) urinary system dermis, increasing area of contact between the two i) reproductive system regions j) endocrine system  Dermal papillae extend between the adjacent k) circulatory system ridges THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM  Epidermal ridges and dermal papillae increases the Cutaneous Membrane - covers the entire external surface area for diffusion between the dermis and surface of the body, including the external auditory the epidermis. meatus, the lateral aspect of the tympanic membrane  Large stem cells dominate the stratum basale and the vestibule of the nose. thereby making it the layer where mitosis takes  It is continuous with the mucosae of the place. alimentary, respiratory, and urogenital tracts at  Contain melanocytes which synthesis melanin their respective orifices, where the specialized pigments skin of mucocutaneous junctions occurs. STRATUM SPINOSUM  It also fuses with the conjunctiva at the margins of  Cells are bound together by cytoplasmic extensions the eyelids, and with the lining of the lacrimal called desmosomes. canaliculi at the lacrimal puncta.  Some cells are still undergoing mitosis.  Skin forms about 8% of the total body mass, and  Still contain melanocytes. its surface area varies with height and weight STRATUM GRANULOSUM Accessory  Cells stopped dividing and begin manufacturing  Structures  large quantities of proteins and enzymes.  Hair  Contain keratohyaline granules.  Sebaceous Glands STRATUM LUCIDUM  Sweat Glands  Also know as the clear layer  Nail  Only found in thickened skin. FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN  Cells are flattened and densely packed.  it forms an effective barrier against microbial  The cytoplasm contains enzymes involved in the invasion, and has properties which can protect production of fibrous protein keratin. against mechanical, chemical, osmotic, thermal and STRATUM CORNEUM photic damage.  Consists of flattened and dead epithelial cells that  It is capable of absorption and excretion, and is have accumulated large amounts of keratin. selectively and regionally permeable to a variety of  Keratin is extremely strong, light, flexible, durable, chemical substances. and water resistant.  Skin carries out the formation of vitamin D SKIN COLOR  Control of body temperature The color of the epidermis is caused by the interaction  Skin is involved in sociosexual communication at between close quarters and at a distance, and in the case of  1. 1 pigment composition and concentration,  Lubricates the hair 2. dermal blood supply.  Inhibits the growth of bacteria due to its low ph. TWO PIGMENTS:  Sensitive to changes in the concentration of sex Carotene - an orange yellow pigments which hormones accumulates inside epidermal cells. Two kinds: Melanin - is a brown, yellow-brown, or black pigment Apocrine sweat gland produced by melanocytes. Its prevents akin damage by  located along the armpits, nipples, absorbing the UV radiation before it reaches the deep  associated with each hair strand, groin, layers of the dermis and epidermis.  coiled tubular glands which discharge a sticky, EPIDEMIS AND VITAMIN D3 cloudy, secretion. Ultraviolet rays -> stratum spinosum and germinativum Merocrine sweat gland/ Eccrine sweat gland -> steroid -> vit. D3 -> liver -> kidney -> calcitriol  far more numerous that apocrine glands. (important for absorption of calcium and phosphoris by  coiled tubular glands that discharge their secretions the small intestine) -> bone maintenance and growth of directly unto the surface of the skin. the bone NAILS - The nail unit has five components: THE DERMIS - is an irregular, moderately dense, soft  the nail plate, a horny translucent plate on the connective tissue, with a matrix composed of an extensor surface of the distal segment of each digit interwoven collagenous and elastic network in an  the matrix, the proximal extension of the nail plate amorphous ground substance of glycosaminoglycans, underneath glycoproteins, and bound water, which accommodates  a proximal nail fold nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics, epidermal appendages and a changing population of cells.  a nail bed on which the nail plate rests THE TWO LAYERS OF THE DERMIS  the hyponychium, which underlies the free distal The Papillary Layer edge of the nail plate - consists of loose connective tissue that support and nourish the epidermis. - contains receptors for touch The Reticular Layer - consists of an interwoven network of dense, irregular connective tissue THE HYPODERMIS - Provides support and attachment for the dermis while also allowing flexibility and independent movement. Accessory glands THE HAIR - Covers the entire surface of the skin except over the sides and soles of the feet, palms of the hand, sides of the fingers and toes Skeletal System PARTS OF THE HAIR Axial Skeleton Shaft - projects above the skin surface. The axial skeleton creates framework that supports Hair follicle - covers the root of the hair; composed of and protects organ systems in the dorsal and ventral cell layers found in the epidermis. Hair is formed at the cavities. In addition, it provides an extensive surface deepest portion of the follicle where basal cell divides. area for the attachment of muscles that : Inner Cortex - contains pigments  adjusts the position of the head, neck and trunk Outer Cuticle SEBACEOUS GLANDS - Are holocrine glands that  perform respiratory movements; discharge waxy secretions into the hair follicles.  stabilize or position elements of the Location: appendicular skeleton. This divisions 80 bones can be subdivided into:  all throughout the body except the palms of the hand and soles of the feet.  Skull bone – 22  lips, corner of the mouth, glans penis, internal fold of  Ossicles – 6 the prepuce, labia minora, clitoris, areola,and nipple  Hyoid Bone – 1  Released upon contraction of the arrector pili muscle  Vertebral Column – 24 that elevates the hair, squeezing the gland, forcing  Ribs – 12 out the sebum.  Sternum – 1 Function:   Vomer – 1  Palatine – 2  Inferior concha -2  Mandible – 1 The Bones of the Cranium The Frontal Bone - The frontal bone of the cranium forms the forehead and superior surface of each eye socket or orbit. The Parietal Bones - On either side of the skull a parietal bone is found posterior to the frontal bone. Together the parietal bone forms the roof and superior walls of the cranium at the sagittal suture. The Occipital Bone - The occipital bone forms the posterior and inferior portions of the cranium. Along its superior margins, the occipital bone contacts teo parietal bones at the lambdoidal suture. The Temporal Bones Lying below the parietal bones and contributing to the sides and base of the cranium are the temporal bones. As it comes it contact with the parietal bone it forms the squamosal suture. The Skull - The skull is the most modified part of the The Sphenoid Bone - The sphenoid bone forms the axial skeleton. It is the entire skeleton of the face floor of the cranium. It also acts as a bridge uniting the including the mandible. cranial and facial bones, and it braces the sides of the skull. The Ethmoid Bone The ethmoid bone consists of two Functions of the Skull honeycombed masses of bone. It forms part of the 1. A skeleta] complex adapted to support the brain and cranial floor, contributes to the medial surface of the organs of special senses, orbit of each eye, and forms the roof and the sides of a. Sensation for seeing, the nasal cavity. b. Hearing, The Bones of the Face c. Taste, Maxillary Bones - The maxillary bones or Maxillae, d. Smell articulate with all other facial bones except the 2. Protection of the brain from external impacts, mandible. 3. Serves as a barrier against stresses from powerful The Palatine Bones - The paired palatine bones form masticatory and axial musculature, the posterior surface of the bony hard palate, or the 4. The rigid cranial walls provide continuous isolation roof of the mouth. for cerebral circulation, The Zygomatic Bones - On each side of the skull a 5. Contain openings that lead to the digestive tract, zygomatic bone articulates with the frontal bone and respiratory tract, and skull. the maxilla to complete the lateral wall of the orbit. Divisions of Skull Bones The Nasal Bones - Forming the bridge of the rise Cerebral cranium or cranial bones or braincase (8 midway between the orbits, the nasal bones articulate bones) with the frontal bone and the maxillary bones.  Frontal – 1 The Lacrimal Bones - The lacrimal bones are found within the medial wall of the orbit. They articulate with  Parietal – 2 the frontal, ethmoid and maxillary bones.  Occipital - 1 The Inferior Nasal Conchae - The paired inferior  Temporal -2 nasal conchae projects from the lateral wall of the nasal  Sphenoid – 1 cavity.  Ethmoid -1 The Mandible - The broad mandible is the bone of the Facial or visceral cranium (14 bones) lower jaw. It forms a broad, horizontal curve that on  Zygomatic – 2 either side extends into two vertical processes. The  Maxillae – 2 more posterior process articulates with the mandibular  Nasal – 2 fossa of the temporal bone on that side. The  Lacrimal – 2 articulation is quite mobile, and the disadvantage of Lumbar 5 5 such mobility is that the jaw can be easily dislocated. Sacral 5 1 The Ossicles Coccygeal 4 1 A chain of three mobile ossicles, transfers sound General Vertebral Features waves across the tympanic cavity from its membrane Body - varies in size, shape and proportion in different to the inner ear. regions 1. the malleus,  The complete column of bodies and intervertebral 2. incus and discs forms a strong but flexible central axis of the 3. stapes body supporting the full weight of the head and the trunk.  It also transmits even greater forces due to muscles attached to it directly or indirectly. Vertebral arch extends by a lever-like processes which has on each side a vertically narrower ventral part, a pedicle, and a dorsally broader lamina. Vertebral foramen which is formed by a series of vertebrae enclosing the spinal cord. Paired superior and inferior articular processes - which arise from the vertebral arch at the pedicolaminar junctions. The superior articular The Hyoid Bone processes projects cranially while the inferior articular The small U-shaped hyoid bone hangs below the skull, processes bulge caudally. suspended by ligaments Pedicles are short, thick, rounded projections from the from the styloid processes superior part of the body at the junction of its lateral and of the temporal bones. dorsal surfaces, so that the concavity formed by its a. serves a base for curved superior border is shallower than the inferior muscles associated with one. the tongue and larynx, Transverse processes project laterally from the b. supports and pedicolaminar junctions as levers of muscles and stabilizes the position of ligaments particularly concerned with rotation and f the larynx. Laminae directly continuous with pedicles, are vertically flattened and curve dorsomedially to complete, with the base of the spinous process, a vertebral foramen. Spine projects dorsally and often caudally from the The Vertebral Column junction of the laminae. Spines vary much in size,  The vertebral column comprises some 33 vertebral shape and direction. They act as levers for muscles segments, each separated by fibrocartilaginous which control posture and active movements discs. (flexion/extension, lateral flexion and rotation) of the  Its function is to support the trunk and to protect the vertebral column. spinal cord. The Cervical Vertebrae  It lies in the general vertebrate plane, and is median The seven cervical vertebrae, the smallest of the and posterior to the whole body. Its total length in movable vertebrae, are typified by a foramen on each males is about 70cm and in females about 60cm. transverse processes. The first, second, and seventh Classification of Vertebra cervical vertebrae have, special features. The third, According to the region which they occupy fourth, and fifth are almost identical; while the sixth, Individual regions of the column account for while typical in its general features, has minor approximately: differences which usually enable its distinction from  8% of the whole body length for the cervical, others.  20% for the thoracic, Typical Cervical Vertebra  12% for the lumbar, and  small, relatively broad ventral body,  8% for the sacrococcygeal.  pedicles projects posterolaterally, Vertebra Young Adult  longer and broader laminae, Cervical 7 7  triangular vertebral foramen which accommodates Thoracic 12 12 the enlargement of the spinal cord,   the spinous processes are short and bifid  Pedicles do not diverge,  transverse foramen on each transverse processes.  Laminae are short, thick, and broad overlapping Atlas or First Cervical Vertebra - The atlas, the first  from above, downwards cervical vertebra, supports the head and unique in that o The spinous process slants downwards. it fails to incorporate a centrum, the expected position Lumbar Vertebra of which is occupied by a cranial protuberance of the The five lumbar vertebrae are distinguished by their axis known dens as the. large size and absence of costal facets and transverse  No body foramina. They are located in the posterior abdominal  Anterior arch is slightly convex anteriorly and carries wall. a roughened anterior tubercle to which is attached the  The vertebral foramen is triangular, larger than anterior longitudinal ligament. It presents a facet for thoracic but smaller than cervical. the dens of the axis which forms a pivot around which  The body is wider transversely and deeper in front. the head rotates.  The pedicles are short.  Posterior arch forms three-fifths of the  The spinous process is almost horizontal, circumference of the atlantal ring. It bears a small quadrangular, and thickened along its posterior and bony projection called the posterior tubercle. inferior borders.  Transverse processes are longer than those of the  The superior articular processes bear a vertical cervical vertebrae except the seventh cervical. concave articular facets facing posteromedially,  Superior articular facet is larger, oval and concave with rough mammillary process on their posterior for articulation with the occipital condyles borders. Axis or Epistropheus - The axis, the second cervical  The inferior articular processes are thin and long, vertebra, is an axle for rotation of the atlas and the except the more substantial fifth. head around the strong dens (odontoid process), which  A small accessory process marks the projects cranially from the superior surface of the body. posteroinferior aspect of the root of e transverse  Presence of dens which projects upward from the process. body into the anterior section of the vertebral The Base foramen of the atlas. This is the upper surface of the first sacral vertebra  The body consists of less compact bone than the  The body dens.  sacral promontory.  The pedicles are stout, with superior surface  vertebral foramen carrying part of the superior articular facet, which  pedicles. also projects laterally and downwards on to the  laminae transverse process.  superior articular process  The transverse processes are pointed and project  transverse process inferiorly and laterally, arising from the Pelvic Surface peducololaminar junction and the lateral aspect of  sacral the interarticular area of the pedicle.  foramina  The laminae are thick.  transverse ridges.  The spinous process is large, with a bifid tip Dorsal Surface  and a broad base concave inferiorly  median sacral crest Seventh Cervical Vertebra - The spinous process of  sacral hiatus this cervical vertebra is not  dorsal sacral foramina bifid.  Intermediate sacral crests THORACIC Vertebrae The twelve thoracic vertebrae increases in size  lateral sacral crest caudally like other vertebrae, due to increased loading  sacral cornua from above. The Lateral Surface  All their bodies present lateral costal facets for the  Articular surface head of the rib The Coccyx  Bodies are larger than the cervical vertebrae,  base  All but the lowest two or three transverse processes  Transverse Process also have facets for the tubercle of  Rudimentary vertebral bodies.  the rib, CURVATURES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN Primary Curves: Appear in late fetal development, as  The vertebral foramen is small and circular, the thoracic and abdominal viscera enlarge.  Characteristics: Posteriorly the thorax includes thoracic vertebrae and 1. concave anteriorly posterior parts of the ribs. 2. exists in fetal life Anteriorly are the sternum, anterior parts of the ribs for accommodation of the thoracic and pelvic organs and costal cartilages; Thoracic Curve - is concave forwards or kyphotic. It Laterally the thorax is convex and formed by ribs extends between the second and the eleventh and alone. twelfth thoracic vertebrae, with the apex lying between The Sternum the sixth and the ninth thoracic vertebrae. This  The human sternum consists of cranial curvature is caused by increased posterior depth of the manubrium(prosternum), intermediate thoracic vertebral bodies. body(mesosternum), and a caudal xiphoid process Pelvic Curve - is concave anteroinferiorly and involves (metasternum). It is composed of highly vascular the sacrum and the coccygeal vertebrae, extending trabecular bone enclosed by a compact layer thickes from the lumbosacral junction to the apex of the in the manubrium between clavicular notches. The coccyx. medulla contains red bone marrow. Secondary Curves: These spinal curves do not  Manubrium Sterni jugular (suprasternal) notch - appear until month after birth. clavicular notches Characteristics:  Mesosternum (Body)- Longer, narrower, and  convex anteriorly thinner than the manubrium,  develops after birth  Xiphoid Process(xiphisternum,metasternum) -  for the maintenance of balance in the upright The smallest and most variable sternal element position The Ribs Cervical Curve - is convex forwards and the least The ribs are elastic arches, connected posteriorly with marked. It extends from the atlas to the second thoracic the vertebral column, forming much of the thoracic vertebra, with its apex between the fourth and fifth skeleton. It consists of highly vascular trabecular bone, cervical vertebrae. This is developed when an infant enclosed in a thin layer of compact bone and can support its head at three to four months. containing large amounts of bone marrow. The twelve Lumbar Curve - is convex forwards. It has pairs may be increased by cervical or lumbar ribs or greater magnitude in females and extends from the reduced to eleven by the absence of the last pair. twelfth thoracic vertebra to the lumbosacral angle, with Classification of Ribs: increased convexity of the last three segments due to True ribs (vertebrosternal ribs)-these are ribs 1 to 7 greater anterior depth of the intervertebral discs and as they are connected to the sternum by costal some anterior wedging of the vertebral bodies. Its apex cartilages and posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae. is at the level of the third lumbar vertebra. False Ribs -these are ribs 8 to 12 as they are not ABNORMAL DISTORTIONS OF THE SPINAL directly attached to the sternum but to the preceding COLUMN cartilage. Kyphosis - exaggerated thoracic curve. It results from False Ribs Proper (Vertcbrochondral ribs)- are ribs 8 the erosion of the anterior portion of one or more to 10 whose cartilages jois the suprajacent costal vertebral body. cartilage of the 7th rib. Lordosis - exaggerated lumbar curve. It is Floating Ribs (Vertebral Ribs)- are ribs 11 and 12 as accompanied by the downward rotation of the pelvis. they are free at their anterior ends. Physiologically, it is seen in the later stages of The Typical Rib pregnancy.  Shaft Scoliosis- an abnormal lateral curve usually to the  The posterior, vertebral end has a head neck and right. It involves rotation of the column in which the tubercle. spinous process of vertebrae turn toward the concavity  The head presents two facets articulates with the of the curvature. body of the corresponding vertebra,  The neck is the flat part beyond the head, The Thorax  The tubercle The thorax is an osteocartilaginous frame around the  The posterior angle principal organs of respiration and circulation. It is  The external surface narrow above, broad below, flattened  The internal surface is smooth and marked by a anteroposteriorly, and longer behind. It is reniform in costal groove, horizontal section due to forward projection of the  The costal groove vertebral bodies. The First Rib Location of the Thorax:  Most acutely curved and usually shortest, it is broad Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and flat, its surfaces superior and inferior, its borders internal and external. It slopes obliquely down and forwards to the sternal end. Appendicular Skeleton - Forms the extremities - Consists of 126 bones Clavicle Classification of Bones According to shape  - Spongy bone vocered by a thin layer of compact bone Carpal Bones - She Looks Too Pretty: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform - Try To Catch Her: Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate Long bones: femur, humerus, ulna, radius, metatarsals, metacarpals, femur, tibia, fibula Short bones: carpals, tarsals Flat bones: occipital, frontal, parietal, nasal, lacrimal, vomer, sternum, ribs, ilium, ischium, pubis Tarsal Bones – Can Tell Now Cuteness Counts3 Irregular bones – sphenoid, ethmoid, temporal, hyoid, (Calcaneus, Talus, Navicular, Cuboid, Cuneiform, maxilla, mandible, sacrum, vertebrae lateral, intermediate, medial) Sesamoid bones – patella, pisiform, Long bones – 90 bones Upper extremities - Humerus – 2 - Radius – 2 - Ulna – 2 - Metacarpals – 10 - Phalanges – 28 Lower extremities - Femur -2 - Tibia – 2 - Fibula – 2 - Metatarsals – 10 - Phalanges – 28 Collarbone - Clavicle -2 Flat bones – 36 bones - Are flattened, thin, and curved - Give protection to internal organs like the brain, heart, and lungs - Points of attachments for muscles - Cranial bones, sternum, ribs, scapula Skull - Frontal -1 - Parietal – 2 - Occipital – 1 - Nasal – 2 - Lacrimal – 2 - Vomer – 1 Breastbone - Sternum – 1 Rib cage - Ribs – 24 Shoulder blades Short bones – 28 bones - Scapula - 2 - Bones that are cube-shaped-vertical is Irregular bones – 48 bones almost same as horizontal length - Vary in shape and form - Bones that give support nd stability - Spongy bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact bone  - Have a fairly complex shape, which helps between the bones. It is surrounded by a joint capsule protect internal organs which is lined inside by a synovial membrane which Skull bones secretes the synovial fluid. The articulating ends of the - Temporal – 2 bones are re- enforced by articulating cartilage. A disc - Ethmoid – 1 or meniscus is sometimes present which acts as shock - Sphenoid -1 absorber. - Zygomatic – 2  E.g. knee joint, shoulder joint - Maxilla – 2 According to the degree of mobility - Mandible – 1 Synarthroses- immovable type or little movement of - Inferior nasal concha – 2 joint. - Palatine – 2  E.g. sutures, teeth in sockets Hip SUTURES- generally found in bones of the skull, - Hip bones 2 characterized by the presence of fibrous tissue Vertebral Column connecting media - Cervical -1 Sutura-Sutura is that form of articulation where the - Thoracic – 12 contiguous margins of the bones are united by a thin - Lumbar – 5 layer of fibrous tissue - Sacrum – 1 E.g. coronal sutures, sagittal suture, - Coccyx – 1 lambdoid suture. Hyoid Wormian bones- an island bone loc. At lambdoidal - Hyoid bone – 1 Suture Ear - Hammer or Malleus – 2 TRUE SUTURE (sutura vera) -When the margins of - Anvil or Incus – 2 the bones are connected by a series of processes, and - Stirrup or Stapes – 2 indentations interlocked together, Sesamoid Bones – 4 bones  sutura dentata, serrata, and limbosa. The - Small and round bones margins of the bones are not in direct contact, - Embedded in tendons being separated by a thin layer of fibrous - Protect tendoms from compressive forces, tissue, continuous externally with the stress, and wear perieranium, internally with the dura mater. Carpal bones sutura dentata is so called from the tooth-like form of - Pisiform – 2 the projecting processes, as in the suture between the Kneecap parietal bones. - Patella – 2 sutura serrata the edges of the bones are serrated like Articular System the teeth of a fine saw, as between the two portions of ARTHROLGY the frontal bone.  Is the study of structures and functions, sutura limbosa there is besides the interlocking, a biomechanics of the joint system. certain degree of bevelling of the articular surfaces, so  Joints are important for smooth and coordinated that the bones overlap one another, as in the suture movements of the body between the parietal and frontal bones  Embryonic development of the Joints mesodermal FALSE SUTURE (sutura notha), when the articulation layer is formed by roughened surfaces placed in apposition Joints and Articulations with one another, According to the nature of material between the sutura squamosa, formed by the overlapping of bones contiguous bones by broad bevelled margins, as in the Fibrous joints- contain a variable amount of fibrous squamosal suture between the temporal and parietal, connective tissue, no joint cavity sutura harmonia, where there is simple apposition of  E.g. sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses contiguous rough surfaces, as in the articulation Cartilaginous joint is characterized by fibro- between the maxillæ, or between the horizontal parts cartilaginous or hyaline cartilage, which is situated of the palatine bones. between the Articular surfaces of the bones Schindylesis-Schindylesis is that form of articulation  Bones are held together by cartilage, no joint cavity in which a thin plate of bone is received into a cleft or  E.g. synchondrosis, symphysis fissure formed by the separation of two laminæ in Synovial joint- consist of a fluid-filled synovial cavity another bone, which allows considerable freedom of movement  Example: articulation of the rostrum of the sphenoid Saddle joint- two bones which are saddle-shaped with and perpendicular plate of the ethmoid with the reciprocal surfaces allowing movement into two planes vomer, or in the reception of the latter in the fissure  E.g. base of the thumb-trapeziometacarpal between the maxillæ and between the palatine Temporo Mandibular Joint (TMJ) bones.  Is the articulation of the condyle of the mandible Gomphoses- A conical process received into with the glenoid fossa of the temporal bone corresponding socket.  Function in a hingelike fashion-during elevation and E.g. root of tooth into alveolus of maxilla or mandible depression- HINGE Syndesmoses- are joints at which bones are bound by  Glides slightly forward when the jaw is in protrusion a ligament only. This is the most movable joint under -CONDYLOID fibrous joint  Glides side to side during chewing - GLIDING/  E.g. interosseous membrane ARTHRODIAL Amphiarthroses- slightly movable type of joints Possible movement of joint  E.g. symphysis, intervertebral dics Gliding-simple slipping or rubbing of the flat surfaces; Symphysis- uniting medium is a fibrocartilage E.g no angular or rotary movement pubic symphysis Angular- generally found in long bones Synchondrosis- A cartilagenous medium which may flexion-movement that forms an acute angulation later ossify / the bones are joined by a hyaline cartilage between 2 approximating parts; the angle is thus  E.g. between epiphysis and diaphysis of long bones decreased Diarthroses- Freely movable joint characterized by the Extension- movement that forms an obtuse angulation presence of the following between 2 parts; the angle is increased  E.g. Diarthrosis, interphalangeal joint Adduction- movement towards the median plane of Characteristics the body Articular surfaces- parts of bone entering into Abduction- movement away from the median plane of articulation the body Articular cartilage- re-enforce the articular surfaces  In the fingers of the hand, away from the middle Articular disk or meniscus- shock absorber between finger articular surfaces  In the toes, away from the second toe Articular capsule- encloses the articulation Synovial membrane- lines the inside of the articular Circumduction-circular motion where the extremity capsule; secretes synovial fluid that lubricates the joint describes a cone, with the apex located at the joint Muscles, tendons, ligaments, etc. itself and the base at the free or distal end; a circular DIARTHROSES sub-types movement combining flexion, extension, abduction and Ginglymus or Hinge joint- with movement along a adduction transverse axis, hence limited to forward and backward Rotation- movement along a central axis without the movements only. Articular surfaces are united by bones being displaced from such an axis. It may be strong collateral ligaments directed medially or laterally  E.g. elbow joint and knee joint-humeroulnar Peculiar movements and position- Trochoid or Pivot joint- movement along the long axis In the forearm and hand limited to a simple rotation Supination- forearm from prone to supine  E.g. Atlanto-axial joint (when the head rotates from Pronation- forearm from supine to prone side to side)- radioulnar Supine position – radius & ulna are parallel to each Enarthrosis or Ball and socket joint- rounded ball- other like head received into a cup- like concavity, hence Prone position - radius crosses the anterior aspect of capable all kinds of movement. ulna  E.g shoulder and hip joints- humeroscapular or In the foot femoropelvic Inversion-plantar surface of the foot to be directed Condyloid joint- with an ovoid Articular surface or towards the median plane condyle received into a corresponding elliptical shallow Eversion- plantar surface of the foot to be directed cavity, hence, capable of all movements except away from the median plane rotation. Dorsiflexion- walking uphill  E.g metacarpophalengeal Plantar Flexion- walking downhill Arthrodial or Sliding- flat orslightly curved articulating surfaces, hence, having simple movements Muscular System  E.g. intercarpals and intertarsals articulations, TMJ Myology - deals with the study of muscles Functions of Muscles:  Produce movement. Muscle contractions pull on  for movement tendons and move the bones of the skeleton.  for respiration  Maintain posture and body position. With  to cause visceral motion constant muscular tension, we cansit upright  to eject blood from the heart without collapsing or stand without toppling over. Excitability  Support soft tissue. The abdominal wall and the  is the ability to respond to stimulation. floor of the pelvic cavity consist of layers of muscles  ex., skeletal muscles normally respond to that support the weight of the visceral organs and stimulation by the nervous system, and some shield tissues from injury. smooth muscles respond to circulating hormones.  Guards entrances and exits. Skeletal muscles Contractility - is the ability to shorten actively and guard openings to the digestive and urinary tracts exert a pull, or tension, that can be harnessed by and provide voluntary control over swallowing, connective tissues defecating and urination. Extensibility - is the ability to continue to extend over  Maintain body temperature. Muscle contractions a range of resting lengths. require energy, and whenever energy is used in the  ex., a smooth muscle can be stretched to several body, some of it is converted to heat. The heat lost times it original length and still contract on by working muscles keeps our body temperature in stimulation. normal range. Elasticity - is the ability of the muscle to rebound Connective tissue organization toward its original length after contraction and Three layers of connective tissue are part of each extension. muscle CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLE TISSUES: According to structure / histological classification: SMOOTH MUSCLES - is also referred to as non- striated or involuntary muscle, an outer coimysium. - The entire muscle is surrounded by epimysium, a layer of collagen fibers  It is more variable in form and function than cardiac or skeletal muscle tissues, a reflection of its varied that separates muscles from surrounding tissues and roles in the different systems of the body. organs. Functions of Smooth Muscles:  At the end of each muscle, the epimysial fibers  to regulate diameter come together to form tendons that attach skeletal muscles to bones.  to propel liquids or solids a central perimysium. = The connective tissue fibers  to expel contents of the perimysium divide the skeletal muscle. Into CARDIAC MUSCLES - The myocardium, the muscular series of compartments, each containing a bundle of component of the heart and constitutes the bulk of that muscle called fascicle. organ, is the location of this muscle tissue.  In addition to collagen and elastic fibers, the  Presence of intercalated discs are unique to perimysium contains blood vessels and nerves that cardiac muscles. In the light microscope they are supply the fascicles. seen as dark, transverse lines crossing the tracts and an inner endomysium. - Within a fascicle, the of cardiac cells. endomysium surrounds each skeletal muscle fiber and SKELETAL MUSCLES - Skeletal muscle consists of ties each adjacent muscle fibers together. parallel bundles of long, multinucleated fibers. PARTS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE:  referred to as voluntary muscle  It forms the bulk of the muscular tissue of the body. FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL MUSCLE:  Straplike muscle fibers are largely parallel to the line of pull which are flat and long. Ex. Sternothyroid, Sartorius Strap with tendinous insertions individual fibers run for over shorter segments when there are transverse, tendinous insertions at intervals. Ex. Rectus abdominis Fusiform fibers almost parallel to one another and ending in a tendon. Ex. Rectus femoris TYPE OF MUSCULAR ACTIONS OF SKELETAL Origin the more fixed point of attachment MUSCLES corresponding to the head of the muscle and usually Prime Movers - the chief muscle or member of a chief the proximal end. group of muscles responsible fora particular Insertion the movable point corresponding to the distal movement. end of the muscle. Muscles attached to bones may be Antagonists - Any muscle that opposes the action of anchored to cartilages, ligaments, membranes or skin. the prime mover is an antagonist. Belly fleshy part of the muscle. Fixators - These are the muscles that inhibit or prevent Types of muscular forms the movements that are not required.  For example, the muscles attaching the shoulder girdle to the trunk contract as fixators allow the deltoid to act on the shoulder joint Synergists - muscles that may individually have different actions but act as a group to produce the desired effect by steadying the intervening joints. these are the muscles which assist in accomplishing the movement. ATTACHMENTS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES Tendons - take the form of cords or straps of round or oval cross-section.  These are fibrous connective tissue which may be cord-like or ribbon- like.  have smooth surfaces and glistening  are strongly attached to bones  are slightly elastic and may be stretched up to 6% of their length without damage. Synovial Bursae - Is a sac of synovial membrane that separates a moving tendon from underlying bone or muscle or overlying skin to reduce friction. Oblique to the line of pull: Ligament - Connects bone to bone. Unipenniform - fibers are parallel to one another but Synovial Tendon Sheaths - Are elongated bursae or not along its long axis. ex. Palmar interossei, flexor tunnels of synovial membrane that surround and pollicis longus lubricate the long tendons of the hands and feet. Bipenniform - fibers converge to a common tendon.  Synovial tendon sheaths are found where tendons ex, Rectus femoris, dorsal interossei Multipenniform - fibers run in several direction, ex. pass under ligamentous bands and retinacula Aponeuroses - a broad, thin sheet of connective Deltoid Circumpenniform - muscle fibers start from the walls tissue of the osteofascial compartments, and converge  any sheet of dense connective tissue that carries obliquely in al central tendon. Ex. Tibialis anterior tensile forces directly or indirectly from skeletal Spiral - twisted in arrangement muscles to fasciae, other muscles, cartilage or bone. Cruciate - a spiral arrangement that have two or more Fascia - assemblages of connective tissue large planes of fiber arranged in differing direction enough to be visible to the unaided eye. Triangular muscle fibers run obliquely and converge Two types of fascia: to a common tendon. ex. Temporalis Superficial Fascia - a layer of loose connective Parallel to the line of pull: tissue of variable thickness which merges with the Quadrilateral muscle fibers are largely parallel to the deep aspect of the dermis. line of pull which are flat and short. Ex. Thyrohyoid  provides for increased mobility of the skin,  with the adipose component of superficial fascia, both contribute to thermal translation. Deep Fascia  composed mainly of collagenous fibers  these are compacted and in many cases arranged so regularly that the deep  fascia may be indistinguishable from aponeurotic tissue. In the neck and limbs, laminae of the deep fascia pass between groups of muscles, and connect extensively with bone