Copy of Pathology Test 2.txt

Pathology Test 2 Virtual Colonoscopy Virtual Colonoscopy, also known as CT Colonography, is a non-invasive procedure used to examine the colon. Method: The procedure consists of performing an abdominal CT scan after insufflating carbon dioxide (CO2) into the colon to distend it, allowing for better...

Pathology Test 2 Virtual Colonoscopy Virtual Colonoscopy, also known as CT Colonography, is a non-invasive procedure used to examine the colon. Method: The procedure consists of performing an abdominal CT scan after insufflating carbon dioxide (CO2) into the colon to distend it, allowing for better visualization. Advanced Imaging: Virtual Colonoscopy employs advanced imaging techniques and virtual reality software to reconstruct three-dimensional images of the colon. Alternative to Optical Colonoscopy: It offers an alternative to traditional optical colonoscopy, which is invasive and involves the insertion of a colonoscope through the rectum. Diagnostic Utility: Virtual Colonoscopy is effective in detecting colorectal polyps, tumors, and other abnormalities within the colon. Non-Invasive: It provides detailed images of the colon’s interior without the need for a traditional scope insertion, making it a less invasive option for colorectal screening. Colostomy Barium Enema Purpose: To assess the colostomy and the connected portion of the colon. To check for any potential issues, such as blockages, leaks, or other abnormalities. Procedure: The patient’s stoma and colostomy bag may be removed temporarily. A catheter is inserted into the stoma. Barium contrast material is introduced through the catheter and into the colon. X-ray imaging or fluoroscopy is used to monitor the flow of the contrast material through the colostomy and colon. The procedure helps in visualizing the anatomy and functionality of the colostomy and identifying any potential problems. Colostomy Barium Enema Purpose: To assess the colostomy and the connected portion of the colon. To check for any potential issues, such as blockages, leaks, or other abnormalities. Procedure: The patient’s stoma and colostomy bag may be removed temporarily. A catheter is inserted into the stoma. Barium contrast material is introduced through the catheter and into the colon. X-ray imaging or fluoroscopy is used to monitor the flow of the contrast material through the colostomy and colon. The procedure helps in visualizing the anatomy and functionality of the colostomy and identifying any potential problems. Crohn’s Disease: IBD Crohn’s Disease, also known as Regional Enteritis, is a chronic inflammatory disorder that primarily affects the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Cause: The exact cause is unknown, may involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors. Stress may also play a role in exacerbating symptoms. Age: Young adults, although it can occur at any age. Location: Can occur in any part of the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus. Involves the terminal ileum, which is the end portion of the small intestine. Pathology: Transmural inflammation, meaning it can affect the entire bowel wall. Complications, include the formation of fistulae (abnormal connections or passageways between different parts of the GI tract or between the GI tract and other organs) Symptoms: Includes abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss Can cause flare-ups and periods of remission. Treatment: Medication, dietary changes, and, in some cases, surgery. Crohn’s Disease: IBD Crohn’s Disease, also known as Regional Enteritis, is a chronic inflammatory disorder that primarily affects the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Cause: The exact cause is unknown, may involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors. Stress may also play a role in exacerbating symptoms. Age: Young adults, although it can occur at any age. Location: Can occur in any part of the GI tract, from the mouth to the anus. Involves the terminal ileum, which is the end portion of the small intestine. Pathology: Transmural inflammation, meaning it can affect the entire bowel wall. Complications, include the formation of fistulae (abnormal connections or passageways between different parts of the GI tract or between the GI tract and other organs) Symptoms: Includes abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss Can cause flare-ups and periods of remission. Treatment: Medication, dietary changes, and, in some cases, surgery. Radiographic Appearance: Skip Lesions String Sign (Narrowing) Cobblestone Appearance Fistula Formation Crohn’s Disease: IBD Cobblestone Skip-lesions Skip lesions String Ulcerative Colitis: IBD Cause: The exact cause is unknown, but it is believed to have a genetic and autoimmune component. Stress may exacerbate symptoms but is not a direct cause. Prevalence: It is about five times more common than Crohn’s Disease. Age: It primarily affects young adults but can occur at any age. Symptoms: Common symptoms include bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and fever. Location: Arises in the left colon and is often continuous with the rectum. I t primarily affects the recto-sigmoid area of the colon. Pathology: Superficial ulcerations of the colon mucosa and submucosa. Unlike Crohn’s Disease, which is transmural (affecting the entire bowel wall), it primarily affects the mucosal and submucosal layers and does not involve the deeper layers of the bowel wall. Clinical Course: The disease may have periods of remission and progression, where symptoms improve and worsen over time 1. Mucosa - thickened, deep ulcerations, loss of mucosal pattern – fibrosis - pipestem sign (narrowing) 2. Loss of haustral markings 3. Toxic megacolon –dilation … possible - perforation (emergency colectomy) Ulcerative Colitis: IBD IBD Locations Crohn’s Disease: Characterized by skip segments, meaning it can affect one part of the digestive tract while leaving others unaffected. Commonly involves the terminal ileum, cecum, ascending colon, and small bowel, spares the rectum. Treatment options include medications, surgery, and in some cases, fecal transplant. Involves the mucosa and submucosa, affecting multiple layers of the bowel wall. Disease involvement is often not continuous but has gaps in affected areas. Ulcerative Colitis: Involves continuous segments of the large bowel, particularly the rectum. Approximately 95% of cases have rectal involvement. Characterized by inflammation of the mucosa and submucosa, primarily affecting the top layers of the bowel wall. Treatment may involve dietary changes, including a low-bulk diet. Surgery is sometimes necessary to manage the condition, often involving the removal of the affected colon. Malabsorption Syndrome: IBD Malabsorption Syndrome: Intestinal mucosa is unable to adequately absorb nutrients from the digestive tract, leading to deficiencies in various vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients. Potential causes: Following Gastric Surgery: Can alter the digestive processes, including reducing the production of intrinsic factor, a protein needed for the absorption of vitamin B12 (leading to vitamin B12 deficiency) Pancreatic Disorders: Conditions that affect the pancreas, such as chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic enzyme deficiencies, can impair the digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, leading to malabsorption Hepato-biliary Disease: Diseases of the liver and biliary system can interfere with the production and release of bile, which is essential for the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins. Small Bowel Diseases: Conditions like Crohn’s disease and infections that affect the small intestine can damage the intestinal lining, reducing the absorption of nutrients. Hereditary Disorders: Some hereditary conditions, like celiac disease (gluten intolerance), can lead to damage to the intestinal lining and malabsorption of nutrients. Treatment - dietary modifications, nutritional supplementation, medications, probioitcs, or fecal transplant Malabsorption Syndrome: IBD Radiographic Appearance Small bowel dilation, or irregular distorted folds Diverticular Disease: IBD Diverticular Disease: presence of small pouches or pockets called diverticula in the wall of the colon, typically in the lower part of the large intestine (colon). Age: Rare in individuals below the age of 35. However, its incidence increases with age, and it is more commonly seen in older adults. Stress and Lifestyle Factors: Stress and alterations in bowel habits, such as bouts of constipation and diarrhea, can contribute to the development or exacerbation of diverticular disease. Signs and Symptoms: Majority may not experience any symptoms. Can include: Flatulence (excessive gas) Intermittent diarrhea Constipation Discomfort or tenderness in the lower left quadrant (LLQ) of the abdomen, which may be palpable. Treatment: Initial treatment- managing symptoms with medications. Surgery is reserved for complications like perforation, obstruction, or hemorrhage. Dietary modifications- a high-fiber diet recommended to prevent future flare-ups. Foods with seeds, nuts, or popcorn should be avoided. Regular exercise is encouraged to promote gastrointestinal health and reduce the risk of constipation, which can contribute to the condition. Diverticular Disease: IBD Radiographic Appearance Outpouchings of Colon Wall: Diverticula are small, sac-like protrusions that develop on the colon wall. They often occur in clusters. Affected Segment Shortened and Lumen Narrowed: The presence of diverticula can lead to the shortening of the affected segment of the colon and a narrowing of the intestinal lumen, which may impact the flow of stool and waste material. Diverticulitis: Diverticulitis is a complication of Diverticular Disease and occurs when one or more diverticula become inflamed or infected Meckel’s Diverticulum: IBD Meckel’s Diverticulum: Congenital abnormality of the small intestine, specifically the ileum, characterized by the presence of a small sac or appendage near the ileum, typically about 2-3 inches in length, resembling a finger of a glove. Develops due to the failure of the vitelline duct to close during embryonic development. Complications: Ulcers: The diverticulum can develop ulcers, which are open sores on its inner lining. Perforation: In some cases, the diverticulum may rupture or perforate, leading to leakage of its contents into the abdominal cavity. Hemorrhage: Ulcers or irritation of the diverticulum’s lining can cause bleeding, leading to rectal or intestinal bleeding. Strangulation: In rare instances, the diverticulum can become twisted or strangulated, obstructing the blood supply and causing severe abdominal pain. Meckel’s Diverticulum: IBD Radiographic Appearance Intussusception Intussusception: One segment of the bowel telescopes or slides into the segment of bowel just distal to it, similar to how a telescope’s sections slide into one another. Characterized by a form of bowel obstruction. Age Group: Intussusception is most commonly observed in infants and children between 3 months and 6 years of age. Location: It can occur in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract, but the most common location is near the ileocecal valve, which is the junction between the small intestine (ileum) and the large intestine (cecum). Can also occur anywhere in the large or small bowel. Pathophysiology: Intussusception typically occurs due to abnormal peristaltic movements in the bowel. Peristalsis forces one segment of the bowel to move into the adjacent healthy segment, causing the telescoping effect. This gradually leads to obstruction and can potentially compromise the blood supply to the affected bowel, resulting in ischemic necrosis. Intussusception is a medical emergency and requires prompt evaluation and treatment. The condition can lead to severe abdominal pain, vomiting, and, if left untreated, can result in tissue damage due to reduced blood supply. Treatment: Often involves medical interventions to reduce the intussusception and restore normal bowel function. In some cases, surgery may be necessary if the condition is severe or recurrent. Intussusception: Radiographic Appearance Sudden Abdominal Pain: Intussusception typically starts suddenly with severe abdominal pain, which can be quite painful and distressing. Blood in Stool: Sometimes, there can be blood in the stool, which might appear red or tarry. Palpable Right-Side Mass: A doctor may be able to feel a lump or mass on the right side of the abdomen, especially in the ileocecal region (where the small and large intestines meet). Polyps Polyps: Growths that project from the lining of the bowel into the interior of the bowel (lumen). These growths can have varying characteristics and, in some cases, carry malignant (cancerous) potential. Pedunculated Polyps: These are polyps that are attached to the bowel wall by a stalk, making them look like they’re hanging. They are commonly found in the ascending and transverse portions of the large bowel and, to a lesser extent, in the recto-sigmoid area. Sessile Polyps: Sessile polyps do not have a stalk and appear more flat against the bowel wall. These polyps are more frequently found in the sigmoid and rectum. Sessile polyps have a greater potential for malignancy compared to pedunculated polyps. Polyps: Radiographic Appearance Rectal Bleeding: Polyps can lead to bleeding from the rectum, which may result in blood in the stool. Diarrhea: Changes in bowel habits, such as increased frequency of loose or watery stools, can occur. Constipation: In some cases, constipation or difficulty passing stool may be a symptom Colon Cancer Dietary Factors: Red meat, especially when consumed in excess, high levels of fat, and sugar have been associated with an increased risk. In contrast, a diet rich in fiber, chicken, fish, fruits, and vegetables is linked to a reduced risk. Smoking: Smoking is another factor that can increase the risk of colorectal cancer. It’s essential to quit smoking to reduce this risk and improve overall health. Indications Suggesting Pre-Existing Polyps: Colorectal cancer often develops from pre-existing polyps in the colon. The type of polyp can influence the likelihood of malignancy. Sessile polyps are more likely to be malignant, while pedunculated polyps are usually benign. Common Locations: Colorectal cancer is most frequently found in the recto-sigmoid region, which is the lower part of the colon and the sigmoid colon. The cecum and ascending colon are the next most common sites for the development of this cancer. Prognosis: Regular screenings, such as colonoscopies, are essential for early diagnosis and successful treatment. Detecting and removing pre-cancerous polyps can significantly improve outcomes. Pancreatic Cancer Pancreatic cancer- is a type of cancer that originates in the tissues of the pancreas. Most common type begins in the cells that line the ducts responsible for carrying enzymes, known as pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Causes: The exact causes of pancreatic cancer are not entirely clear, but there are some associated risk factors. Increased risk factors for pancreatic cancer include smoking, inherited gene mutations (particularly in families with a history of genetic syndromes or pancreatic cancer), obesity, diabetes, and a history of pancreatitis. Most people diagnosed with pancreatic cancer are over the age of 65. Symptoms: Pancreatic cancer is often not detected early, as it typically doesn’t produce noticeable symptoms until it has spread to other organs. Symptoms of pancreatic cancer may include abdominal pain that radiates to the back, loss of appetite, unintended weight loss, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes), changes in stool and urine color, itchy skin, blood clots, and fatigue. Treatment: The choice of treatment for pancreatic cancer depends on the extent of the disease. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these. The prognosis for pancreatic cancer can vary greatly based on the stage of the disease at the time of diagnosis. Pancreatic cancer often has a poor prognosis, and survival rates are relatively low. Median survival for untreated cases is around 3.5 months, but treatment can extend survival to around 8 months, and in some cases, individuals may live for several years. Early detection and treatment can significantly improve the prognosis for pancreatic cancer, which is why it’s crucial for individuals at higher risk or experiencing symptoms to seek medical attention promptly.