Introduction to Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY 1. LOWER The scientific study of mind and behavior Underlying Process: Biological The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words Examples: “psyche,”...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY 1. LOWER The scientific study of mind and behavior Underlying Process: Biological The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words Examples: “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation - Depression is in part genetically influenced - Depression is influenced by the action of PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE neurotransmitters in the brain All psychologists have one thing in common: they rely on scientific methods 2. MIDDLE The science of psychology is important for both Underlying Process: Interpersonal researchers and practitioners Examples: It has been argued that people are “everyday scientists” - People who are depressed may interpret the events that who conduct research projects to answer questions about occur to them too negatively behavior (Nisbett & Ross, 1980) - Psychotherapy can be used to help people talk about and combat depression THE PROBLEM OF INTUITION With they way people collect and interpret data in their 3. HIGHER everyday lives is that they are not always particularly Underlying Process: Cultural and Social thorough Examples: The tendency to think that we could have predicted - Women experience more depression than do men something that has already occurred that we probably - The prevalence of depression varies across cultures and would not have been able to predict is called the historical time periods hindsight bias. CHALLENGES OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY WHY PSYCHOLOGISTS RELY ON EMPIRICAL METHOD Individual differences are the variations among people on Empirical methods include the processes of collecting and physical or psychological dimensions organizing data and drawing conclusions about those Almost all behavior is multiply determined or produced by data many factors Scientific method as the set of assumptions, rules, and Much human behavior is caused by factors that are procedures that scientist use to conduct empirical outside our conscious awareness, making it impossible for research us, as individuals, to really understand them Values are personal statements determined to be accurate through empirical study THE EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY LEVELS OF EXPLANATION IN PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY ○ Contributors: Sigmund Freud (founder of psychoanalysis), Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson. ○ Details: Examines how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, often stemming from childhood experiences. Behaviorism ○ Original Text: Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore, psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. ○ Contributors: John B. Watson (promoted behaviorism), B.F. Skinner (focused on Structuralism reinforcement and conditioning). ○ Original Text: Uses the method of introspection ○ Details: Emphasized observable behavior and the to identify the basic elements or “structures” of environmental factors that reinforce or discourage psychological experience. behavior, downplaying internal mental ○ Contributors: Wilhelm Wundt (considered the processes. father of psychology), Edward B. Titchener. Cognitive Psychology ○ Details: Emphasized understanding the mind ○ Original Text: The study of mental processes, through its simplest components and how they including perception, thinking, memory, and combine to form complex experiences. judgments. Functionalism ○ Contributors: Hermann Ebbinghaus (memory ○ Original Text: Attempts to understand why studies), Sir Frederic Bartlett (cognitive animals and humans have developed the processes), Jean Piaget (developmental particular psychological aspects that they psychology). currently possess. ○ Details: Investigates how people think, learn, ○ Contributor: William James. remember, and perceive, considering the internal ○ Details: Focused on how mental processes help processes that affect behavior. individuals adapt to their environments and Socio-Cultural Approach emphasized the purpose of consciousness rather ○ Original Text: The study of how the social than its structure. situations and the cultures in which people find Psychodynamic Approach themselves influence thinking and behavior. ○ Original Text: Focuses on the role of our ○ Contributors: Fritz Heider (attribution theory), unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories Leon Festinger (cognitive dissonance), Stanley and our early childhood experiences in Schachter (emotion). determining behavior. ○ Details: Focuses on how cultural norms and societal contexts impact individual behaviors, thoughts, and emotional responses. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Key Debates in Psychology Free Will: The belief that individuals have the ability to make choices independently, without external or biological constraints, Nature vs. Nurture and are responsible for their actions. ○ Original Text: Example: Deciding to quit a job to pursue a passion project based Nature: Refers to the genetic and biological factors that shape on personal desire. behavior, personality, and mental processes. It emphasizes the role of heredity in determining traits and abilities. Determinism: The belief that behavior is shaped or controlled by internal (biological) and external (environmental) factors, leaving Example: A person being good at sports because they inherit little or no room for individual choice. strong physical attributes from their parents. Example: A person becoming an addict due to a genetic Nurture: Refers to environmental influences, such as upbringing, predisposition combined with growing up in a household where culture, and personal experiences, that shape behavior and substance abuse was normalized. development. Debate: The extent to which human behavior is freely chosen Example: A child becoming good at sports because they are versus predetermined by factors beyond our control. trained and encouraged by their parents or coaches. Example: Can someone become successful purely through their Debate: The ongoing debate centers on whether genetics (nature) choices, or are they determined by factors like socioeconomic or environment (nurture) plays a more significant role in human background? development. Most psychologists believe in a combination of both factors. Accuracy vs. Inaccuracy Example: Intelligence might be influenced by both genetic factors Accuracy: Refers to the human capacity to think and perceive (nature) and educational opportunities (nurture). information correctly, make sound judgments, and process facts reliably. Example: A student accurately recalls information during an exam because they studied thoroughly. Inaccuracy: Refers to the ways in which human cognition can be flawed or biased, leading to mistakes in perception, memory, and decision-making. Free Will vs. Determinism Example: Eyewitness testimonies can be inaccurate due to memory distortions or stress during an event. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Debate: Human cognition is often a mix of accurate and Example: Individual differences in personality, such as being inaccurate processing, influenced by various cognitive biases, extroverted versus introverted. emotions, and limitations. Similarities: Emphasize the common traits, behaviors, and Example: The "confirmation bias" can make people selectively cognitive processes shared by people or groups. remember information that supports their existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. Example: The universal ability of humans to experience emotions like happiness and fear. Conscious vs. Unconscious Processing Debate: While psychology studies both individual differences (like Conscious Processing: Involves being aware of the thoughts, intelligence or personality) and human similarities (such as shared feelings, and actions that guide behavior. It is deliberate and cognitive functions), the focus on either aspect can shape intentional. research and treatment approaches. Example: Consciously deciding to study for an exam instead of Example: In therapy, recognizing similarities in emotional watching TV. experiences may create a shared understanding, while accounting for individual differences helps tailor interventions. Unconscious Processing: Refers to mental processes that occur automatically and without conscious awareness, influencing PSYCHOLOGY FIELDS behavior in subtle ways. Example: Developing a negative impression of someone without realizing it's due to unconscious stereotypes. Freud's Theory: Sigmund Freud suggested that much of our mental life is unconscious, where hidden desires and unresolved conflicts influence our conscious behavior. Example: Repressed childhood trauma affecting adult relationships without awareness. Additional Details: Discusses the implications for therapy and personal insight. Differences vs. Similarities Differences: Focus on the unique traits, behaviors, and mental processes that distinguish individuals or groups from one another. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY ○ Sleep and Biological Rhythms: Exploring the biological rhythms governing sleep cycles. ○ Emotion: Examining the physiological components of emotional responses. 1. A system for taking information in one form and transforming it into another. Reductionist: Biological psychology is considered reductionist. For the reductionist, the simple is the source of the complex. (It attempts to explain complex psychological phenomena by analyzing simpler biological components.) The brain comprises four lobes: ○ Frontal Lobe: Also known as the motor cortex; involved in motor skills, higher-level cognition, and expressive language. ○ Occipital Lobe: Known as the visual cortex; interprets visual stimuli and information. L2: INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES ○ Parietal Lobe: Known as the somatosensory cortex; processes tactile sensory information 1. Biological Psychology (Slides 1-5) (pressure, touch, pain). ○ Temporal Lobe: Known as the auditory cortex; Definition: Biological psychologists are interested in interprets sounds and language. measuring biological, physiological, or genetic Nervous System (Divided into 2 parts): variables to relate them to psychological or behavioral ○ Peripheral Nervous System: variables. Somatic Nervous System: Controls Key Areas of Focus: actions of skeletal muscles. ○ Sensation and Perception: Understanding how Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates we experience the world through our senses. automatic processes (heart rate, ○ Motivated Behavior: Investigating biological breathing, blood pressure) and is divided drives such as hunger, thirst, and sex. into: ○ Control of Movement: How the brain regulates Sympathetic Nervous System: physical actions. Controls the fight-or-flight ○ Learning and Memory: The biological basis of response, preparing the body to learning and memory processes. respond to danger. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Parasympathetic Nervous ○ Unconscious: Contains those things that are System: Restores the body to its outside of conscious awareness, including many normal state after a fight-or-flight memories, thoughts, and urges not in conscious response. awareness. Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic method examining maladaptive functions developed early in life, focusing on Psychodynamic Psychology (Slides 6-24) unconscious conflicts. It involves patients talking about their difficulties to initiate change. Sigmund Freud: Carl Jung: ○ The psychodynamic perspective proposes that ○ Expanded on Freud’s theories, introducing there are psychological forces underlying human concepts like archetypes, collective unconscious, behavior, feelings, and emotions. and individuation (the psychological process of ○ Suggested that psychological processes are flows integrating opposites while maintaining of psychological energy (libido) in a complex autonomy). brain. Jung’s Concepts: ○ Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis assumes much of ○ Active Imagination: Activating imaginal mental life is unconscious, and that past processes in waking life to tap into unconscious experiences, especially in early childhood, shape meanings. how a person feels and behaves throughout life. ○ Archetypes: Primordial images reflecting Consciousness: universal themes present in the unconscious. ○ Definition: The awareness of the self in space and Anima: Represents the unconscious time, including internal and external stimuli. female component of the male psyche. ○ Types of Conscious Experience: Animus: Represents the unconscious male Phenomenal: In the moment awareness. component of the female psyche. Access: Recall of experiences from Self: Symbolizes the totality of personality, memory. striving for unity and integration. Levels of Consciousness: Persona: The mask or image a person ○ Conscious Level: All things we are aware of, presents to the world. It is designed to including knowledge about ourselves and make a particular impression on others, surroundings. while concealing the true nature or a ○ Preconscious: Things we could pay conscious person. attention to if we desired; where many memories Shadow: The side of a personality that a are stored for easy retrieval. person does not consciously display in INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY public; it may have positive or negative - Normality vs. Inner Nature: Jung believed that societal qualities. norms and expectations often pressure individuals to Dreams: Specific expressions of the conform to a standard idea of what it means to be unconscious that have a definite “normal.” He thought that this pressure could be purposeful structure indicating an damaging because it might force people to suppress or underlying idea or intention. The general deny their true selves, desires, and feelings. In this sense, function of dreams is to restore a person’s trying too hard to fit into societal norms can disrupt a total psychic equilibrium. person's natural state and lead to internal conflict. Complexes: Unconscious and repressed - emotionally toned symbolic material that Story: Jung concluded that every person has a story, and is incompatible with consciousness. when derangement occurs, it is because the personal Complexes can cause constant story has been denied or rejected. Healing and integration psychological disturbances and symptoms come when the person discovers or rediscovers his or her of neurosis. With intervention, they can own personal story. become conscious and greatly reduced in Symbol: A symbol is a name, term, or picture that is their impact. familiar in daily life but for Jung, it had other connotations Individuation: Jung believed that a human being is besides its conventional and obvious meaning. To Jung, a inwardly whole but that most people have lost touch with symbol implied something vague and partially unknown or important parts of themselves. Through listening to the hidden and was never precisely defined. Dream symbols messages of our dreams and waking imagination, we can carried messages from the unconscious to the rational contact and reintegrate our different parts. mind. Mandala: For Jung, the mandala (which is the Sanskrit Unconscious Types: word for “circle”) was a symbol of wholeness, ○ Personal Unconscious: This aspect of the psyche completeness, and perfection, representing the self. does not usually enter an individual’s awareness Mystery: For Jung, life was a great mystery, and he but instead appears in overt behavior or in believed that humans know and understand very little of dreams. it. He never hesitated to say “I don’t know” and always ○ Collective Unconscious: This aspect of the admitted when he came to the end of his understanding. unconscious manifests in universal themes that Neurosis: Jung had a hunch that what passed for run through all human life. The idea of the normality often shattered the personality of the patient. collective unconscious assumes that the history of He proposed that trying to be “normal” violates a person’s the human race back to the most primitive times inner nature and is itself a form of pathology. In the lives on in all people. psychiatric hospital, he wondered why psychiatrists were Word Association Test: This is a research technique Jung not interested in what their patients had to say. used to explore the complexes in the personal INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY unconscious. It consisted of reading 100 words to Briggs-Myers. Having studied the work of Jung, they someone one at a time and having the person respond began creating the indicator during World War II. quickly with a word of his or her own. Dreaming and Psychodynamic Psychology: Psychological Types: ○ Freud showed great interest in interpreting human ○ According to Jung, people differ in certain basic dreams. His theory centered on repressed ways even though the instincts that drive us are longing—the idea that dreaming allows us to sort the same. Jung distinguished two general through unresolved wishes. attitudes (Introversion and Extraversion) and four ○ Latent Content: Relates to deep unconscious functions (Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuitive): wishes or fantasies, while Manifest Content is Introvert: Inner-directed; needs privacy superficial and often meaningless, obscuring and space; chooses solitude to recover latent content. energy; often reflective. Theories Emerging from Freud’s Work: Extravert: Outer-directed; needs ○ Threat-Simulation Theory: Suggests dreaming sociability; chooses people as a source of serves as an ancient biological defense energy; often action-oriented. mechanism. Thinking Function: Logical; sees cause ○ Expectation Fulfillment Theory: Posits that and effect relations; cool, distant, frank, dreaming discharges emotional arousals not and questioning. expressed during the day. Feeling Function: Creative, warm, Other Neurobiological Theories: intimate; has a sense of valuing positively ○ Activation-Synthesis Theory: States that dreams or negatively. don’t actually mean anything. Sensing Function: Sensory; oriented ○ Continual-Activation Theory: Proposes that toward the body and senses; detailed, dreaming results from brain activation and concrete, and present. synthesis. Intuitive: Sees many possibilities in situations; goes with hunches; impatient with earthy details; impractical; sometimes Behaviorist Psychology (Slides 25-32) not present. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): The MBTI Definition: Behaviorism focuses on observable behavior assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to as a means to study the human psyche. The primary tenet measure psychological preferences in how people is that psychology should concern itself with observable perceive the world and make decisions. The original behaviors, not unobservable mental processes. developers of the Myers-Briggs personality inventory were Ivan Pavlov: Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY ○ Known for his work on classical conditioning. As ○ Extinction: Involves removing something in order we learn, we alter how we perceive and interpret to decrease a behavior. incoming stimuli, which affects how we interact or behave. 1. Reinforcement ○ Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus (like a bell) becomes associated Definition: Reinforcement is any stimulus or event that with a meaningful stimulus (like food) through strengthens a behavior or increases the likelihood that it repeated pairings. will occur again in the future. ○ We develop responses to certain stimuli that are Purpose: The primary goal of reinforcement is to not naturally occuring encourage the repetition of a desired behavior. Operant Conditioning: ○ A type of learning that refers to how an organism 2. Positive Reinforcement operates on the environment or responds to what is presented to it. Definition: This occurs when a pleasant stimulus is added ○ Basic Idea: Operant conditioning is a type of after a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that learning where behaviors are influenced by the behavior being repeated. consequences that follow them. It focuses on how Example: If a student studies hard and gets praised by a organisms operate in their environment and how teacher, the praise acts as a positive reinforcement. The they respond to stimuli based on past experiences. student is more likely to continue studying hard in the ○ Key Concept: In operant conditioning, behaviors future because they want to receive that praise again. that are followed by rewards (positive outcomes) Key Point: Positive reinforcement involves giving are likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed something enjoyable or rewarding. by punishments (negative outcomes) are less likely to occur. ○ Reinforcement: Refers to any stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response. 3. Negative Reinforcement 1. Positive Reinforcement: Adding something to increase a response. Definition: This involves removing an unpleasant stimulus 2. Negative Reinforcement: Taking after a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that something negative away in order to behavior being repeated. increase a response. Example: Imagine a person takes pain medication to ○ Punishment: Refers to adding something aversive relieve a headache. The removal of the headache (the in order to decrease a behavior. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY unpleasant stimulus) reinforces the behavior of taking the Key Point: Extinction involves the removal of medication, making it more likely that the person will take reinforcement, which leads to the reduction of the medication again in the future when they have a behavior. headache. Edward Thorndike: Key Point: Negative reinforcement does not mean ○ Key Contributions: punishment; it means that something negative is removed 1. Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by to encourage a behavior. satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by 4. Punishment annoyance are weakened. 2. Incremental Learning: Learning occurs Definition: Punishment involves adding an aversive gradually through reinforcement. (unpleasant) stimulus or consequence after a behavior to 3. Trial and Error Learning: Animals will try decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. multiple responses until they find one that Example: If a child touches a hot stove and feels pain, the leads to success. pain is a punishment that discourages the child from ○ Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: touching the stove again in the future. Similarly, if a 1. Learning is incremental. teenager is grounded for breaking curfew, the grounding 2. Learning occurs automatically. is a punishment intended to reduce the likelihood of 3. All animals learn the same way. breaking curfew again. 4. The Law of Effect: If an association is Key Point: Punishment aims to reduce or eliminate followed by satisfaction, it will be unwanted behaviors. strengthened; if it is followed by annoyance, it will be weakened. 5. The Law of Use: The more often an association is used, the stronger it 5. Extinction becomes. 6. The Law of Disuse: The longer an Definition: Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced association is unused, the weaker it behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in becomes. that behavior over time. 7. The Law of Recency: The most recent Example: If a dog is trained to sit for treats and then the response is most likely to reoccur. owner stops giving treats for sitting, the dog will 8. Multiple Response: An animal will try eventually stop sitting on command because it no longer multiple responses (trial and error) if the receives reinforcement (the treat). Over time, the behavior first response does not lead to a specific fades away. state of affairs. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 9. Set or Attitude: Animals are predisposed would be to draw a line five inches long to act in a specific way. with closed eyes. 10. Prepotency of Elements: A subject can Burrhus Frederic Skinner: filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem ○ Developed radical behaviorism, which seeks to and focus on significant elements. understand behavior as a function of 11. Response by Analogy: Responses from a environmental histories of reinforcing related or similar context may be used in a consequences. new context. 12. Identical Elements Theory of Transfer: The more similar the situations are, the greater the amount of information that 4. Humanistic Psychology (Slides 33-42) will transfer. 13. Associative Shifting: It is possible to shift Definition: Humanistic psychology emerged as the third any response from occurring with one force in psychology after psychodynamic and behaviorist stimulus to occurring with another psychology. It holds a hopeful, constructive view of stimulus. human beings and their capacity for self-determination. 14. Law of Readiness: A quality in responses Key Figures: and connections that results in readiness ○ Carl Rogers: Introduced client-centered therapy, to act. Behavior and learning are emphasizing empathy, acceptance, and influenced by the readiness or unreadiness self-direction. of responses as well as by their strength. ○ Abraham Maslow: Developed a hierarchy of 15. Identifiability: Identification or needs, culminating in self-actualization. placement of a situation is a first response ○ Rollo May: Brought European existential of the nervous system which can recognize psychotherapy into the field, emphasizing choice it. Then connections may be made to one and the human experience. another or to another response and these ○ Fritz Perls: Developed gestalt therapy, focusing connections depend on the original on awareness of feelings and experiences. identification. Therefore, a large amount Core Concepts: of learning is made up of changes in the ○ Client-Centered Therapy: A supportive identifiability of situations. environment for clients to re-establish their true 16. Availability: The ease of getting a specific identity. Central to this thinking is the idea that the response. For example, it would be easier world is judgmental, and many people fear that if for a person to learn to touch his or her they share with the world their true identity, it nose or mouth with closed eyes than it would judge them relentlessly. People tend to INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY suppress their beliefs, values, or opinions because Definition: Cognitive psychology is the study of mental they are not supported, not socially acceptable, or processes such as attention, memory, perception, negatively judged. problem-solving, and language use. ○ Unconditional Positive Regard: A central Key Contributor: technique in client-centered therapy that fosters ○ Ulric Neisser (1928-2012) is credited with formally trust and acceptance. coining the term cognitive psychology and ○ Existential Therapy: Focuses on the individual’s defining it as “all processes by which the sensory experience and freedom to make choices. input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, ○ Gestalt Therapy: Emphasizes awareness of the recovered, and used” (1967, page 4). present moment and understanding what patients Memory: are feeling. ○ Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: actions, often subconscious (e.g., riding a bike). ○ Bottom four levels: Deficiency Needs ○ Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts. (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem) ○ Episodic Memory: Personal experiences tied to must be met before achieving the higher-level specific times and events. need of self-actualization, which is the growth Attention: The focused awareness on a subset of available need. perceptual information. Positive Psychology: Perception: The interpretation of sensory information, ○ Developed by Martin Seligman, it emphasizes forming our understanding of the world. understanding and building human strengths. Language Use: Exploring how cognitive processes involve ○ Learned Optimism (ABCDE Model): language comprehension and production. Adversity: Facing a challenge. Problem Solving and Metacognition: Thinking about Belief: Interpreting adversity. one's own thinking; involves self-awareness of cognitive Consequence: Resulting emotional or processes. behavioral response. Disputation: Challenging negative beliefs. Energization: Forming a new belief and taking positive action. 6. Evolutionary Psychology (Slides 46-48) Definition: Evolutionary psychology seeks to understand psychological traits and behaviors through the lens of 5. Cognitive Psychology (Slides 43-45) evolution and natural selection. Core Premises: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY ○ The brain functions as an information-processing Laws – principles that are so general as to apply to all device responding to internal and external inputs. situations in a given domain of inquiry ○ Adaptive Mechanisms: Evolved to address Theory - an integrated set of principles that explains and recurring challenges in the environment. predicts many, but not all, observed relationships within a ○ Many mental processes are unconscious, with given domain of inquiry. complex solutions to problems that seem simple on the surface. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD THEORY ○ Human psychology consists of specialized mechanisms designed to solve specific problems General --summarize many different outcomes. faced by our ancestors, influencing modern Parsimonious - provide the simplest possible account of behavior. those outcomes. Provide ideas for future research. Falsifiable - variables of interest can be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables L3: PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND RESEARCH that are predicted by the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect BASIC RESEARCH VS APPLIED RESEARCH THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS Basic research answers fundamental questions about behavior. Applied research investigates issues that have A specific and falsifiable prediction about the implications for everyday life and provided solutions to relationship between or among two or more variables, everyday problems where a variable is any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across PSYCHOLOGISTS’ GUIDE TO THEIR RESEARCH different times or places. Conceptual variables are abstract ideas that form the SCIENTIFIC METHOD basis of research hypotheses. Sets of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research Objective, or free from the personal bias or emotions of Measured variables, which are variables consisting of the scientists numbers that represent the conceptual variables. Replicate - that is, to repeat, add to, or modify-previous research findings OPERATIONAL DEFINITION LAW AND THEORIES AS ORGANIZING PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Refer to a precise statement of how a conceptual Seeking Justice variable is turned into a measured variable - Researchers must conduct their research in a just manner Respecting People’s Right and Dignity - Researchers must respect people’s right and dignity as human beings - Autonomy, informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, anonymity FROM MORAL PRINCIPLES TO ETHICAL CODES HISTORY OVERVIEW Nuremberg Code - set of 10 principles written in 1947 MORAL FOUNDATIONS OF ETHICAL RESEARCH with the trials of Nazi physicians accused of shockingly cruel research on concentration camp prisoners during ETHICS World War II Declaration of Helsinki - created by the World Medical Branch of philosophy that is concerned with Council in 1964. Research with human participants should morality–what it means to behave morally and how be based on a written protocol—a detailed description of people can achieve the goal the research—that is reviewed by an independent committee. Belmont Report –justice, respect for persons, beneficence. Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects — that apply to research conducted, supported, or regulated by the federal government. Federal government must establish an ethical review board (ERB) or an institutional review board (IRB)—a committee that is responsible for reviewing research protocols for potential ethical problems Weighing Risks Against Benefits - Scientific research in psychology can be ethical only if its *Exempt research, Minimal risk research, At-risk research risks are outweighed by its own benefits Acting Responsibly and With Integrity APA ETHICS - Carrying out their research in a thorough and competent manner, meeting their professional obligations and being first published in 1953 and has been revised several times truthful since then, most recently in 2010. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY includes about 150 specific ethical standards that psychologists and their students are expected to follow —STANDARD 8— —PUTTING THE ETHICS INTO PRACTICE—