IB Biology Study Guide 11.1, 11.3, 11.4 PDF

**11.1** **Define an Antigen** Any foreign molecule that can trigger an immune response is referred to as an antigen. Examples: pollen, bacteria, viruses **Challenge and response** Response: the pathogen ingesting the macrophage Challenge: antigens on the surface of a pathogen invading the bod...

**11.1** **Define an Antigen** Any foreign molecule that can trigger an immune response is referred to as an antigen. Examples: pollen, bacteria, viruses **Challenge and response** Response: the pathogen ingesting the macrophage Challenge: antigens on the surface of a pathogen invading the body **Know the difference between helper t cells and b cells** **Helper T Cells:** Activate immune cells with cytokines. **B Cells:** Produce antibodies. **What is Clonal selection** Clonal selection is the process of the body producing B and T cells to respond to infections. Those cells identify specific pathogens **What is immunity and two mechanisms of immunity** **Immunity -** is the body\'s ability to resist or fight off infections, diseases, or harmful substances by recognizing and neutralizing pathogens or toxins. **Two mechanisms -** Passive immunity: Transfer of antibodies Active immunity: Production of antibodies after exposure to antigens ( like a vaccine/infection) **Know what zoonosis is and examples of what zoonosis is (bird flu, coronavirus)** **Zoonosis** - is the transmission of a disease from animals to humans, caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, or parasites that can infect both species. Example - Covid, bird flu, ect **Zoonotic diseases and not zoonotic diseases know two of each** **Zoonotic -** rabies , ebola **Not Zoonotic -** diabetes, cancer **Allergic symptoms caused by histamines** Histamines are chemicals released by immune cells (mast cells and basophils) during an allergic reaction. They bind to receptors in blood vessels and cause them to dilate and increase permeability. Which could lead to symptoms like swelling, redness, itching, and mucus production. This is part of the body\'s inflammatory response. **Function of an antihistamine** Antihistamines are substances that block the action of histamines by binding to histamine receptors (H1 receptors). This prevents histamine from causing symptoms like swelling, itching, and mucus production. **How are Hybridoma cells made/generated (fusion of tumor cell** Hybridoma cells are created with fusing an antibody producing B cell with a myeloma cell and this fusion in the cell results in both producing antibodies and dividing indefinitely **Steps** 1. 2. 3. **Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells** Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells which are formed by fusing a B cell with a myeloma cell, which produce identical antibodies that target a specific antigen. **How monoclonal antibodies are used in diagnosis and treatment** Examples include the test for malaria that can be used to identify whether either humans or mosquitoes are infected with the malarial parasite, the test for the HIV pathogen or the creation of antibodies for injection into rabies victims. **Know what happens when someone with an A or B blood group gets blood from R and H blood group.** Getting mismatched blood can lead to **blood type incompatibility** in which the antibodies in the plasma attack the foreign antigens which can potentially destroy cells. Also if a person with RH negative blood receives blood from a RH positive, they can develop antibodies against the RH antigens and lead to a hemolytic reaction. **Know what was the first infectious disease to get eradicated by a vaccine** Smallpox **11.3** **Know the difference between osmoregulators and osmoconformers and an example of each** - EX:all land animals like cats, dogs, or elephants EX. in aquatic environments, organisms are adapted to excrete ammonia since the water can easily dilute it - EX: Jellyfish, the tissue concentration in jellyfish is the equivalent to the concentration of salts in surrounding environments. **Know which nitrogenous waste products come out of insects and mammals** Insects- uric acid Mammals -urea **Structure and function of malpighian tubules (duct system) (?) tubule system** **List 4 substances that are found in higher concentration in the renal artery than in the renal vein and why?** **Urea** - higher because its a waste product that the kidneys need to filter out **Oxygen** - Higher because it needs to be sent to the kidneys for energy production and cellular respiration **Glucose** - Higher because it needs to be delivered to the kidneys to be filtered out and reabsorbed **Ions -** Its higher because the kidneys need to filter it out and then could either be reabsorbed or excreted **Why is the composition of blood in the renal artery different than in the renal vein?** Renal Veins carry filtered blood from the kidneys to the posterior vena cava. Renal Arteries carry unfiltered blood from the aorta to the kidneys. **Outline the role of basement membrane, fenestration, and podocytes in ultrafiltration** **Basement Membrane** - it\'s like a barrier that does not allow large molecules (like proteins) to pass through the bowman\'s capsule **Fenestration** - in the endothelial cells, which are small pores that allow smaller molecules to pass but block out the large cells **Podocytes** - project and forms the filtration slits which do not allow the passing of large molecules **Know what is filtered and NOT filtered by the basement (membrane, fenestration, and podocytes in ultrafiltration)** **Filtered** - Small molecules like water, urea, glucose, ions, and amino acids. **Not filtered -** Large molecules like platelets, white and red blood cells, and proteins. **Know why there's a difference in concentration between the renal artery and renal vein.** Blood in renal vein has more concentration of nitrogenous waste than the blood in the renal artery **Know how to label the kidney and the nephron (there will be a word bank)** **Loop of Henle know the function and why some animals have a longer loop of Henle** **The function of the Loop of Henle** - Its function is for creating a concentration gradient in the kidney medulla. Its purpose is for water reabsorption. It allows the kidney to produce urine that is more concentrated than blood which helps conserve water in the body. Why animals have a longer loop is because the animals that live in drier climates need to conserve water, a longer loop helps increase the gradient for reabsorbing water. Which helps then produce higher concentrations of urine and retain water longer. **CRUM acronym when labeling kidney-** C- Cortex R-Renal Vein/Artery Pelvis, U-Ureter M- Medulla **Know the different types of treatments for kidney failure and what are some reasons for kidney failure** There are two treatment options for kidney failure: dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) and kidney transplantation.Two main causes of kidney failure are often [diabetes and high blood pressure.] **11.4** **Know the difference between Oogenesis and spermatogenesis and where it takes place** **Oogenesis** - It\'s the formation of eggs in the ovaries and produces 1 egg from the main oocyte. It is a discontinuous process. **Spermatogenesis** - It is the formation of sperm in the testes. It produces 4 sperm from each spermatogonium and is a continuous process. **What's fertilization?** When the sperm meets the egg and makes a zygote **Know what polyspermy has to do with fertilization** Polyspermy happens when more than 1 sperm fertilizes an egg and leads to a odd number of chromosomes and leads to the failure of development for the embryo **The benefits of having a high chorion surface area and selectively permeable placental barrier** **High Chorion Surface area -** the benefits are increased efficiency of nutrients and gas exchange with the fetus and mother, which can help with diffusion because it provides more surface area. This can help with ensuring an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients which can help with the removal of waste products **Selectively permeable placental barrier -** It allows the selective transport of essential substances ( like glucose, oxygen, amino acids, ect) and protects the fetus from harmful substances ( like pathogens, toxins , ect). It helps with ensuring the fetus can develop and receive the necessary nutrients while removing the harmful substances from exposure. **List the target, source, and function of estrogen, progesterone and oxytocin in the pregnancy and birthing process.** **Estrogen -** [Targets:] the uterus, mammary glands, and other reproductive tissues [Source:] the ovaries during early pregnancy and the placenta later on during pregnancy [Function] : It helps with the growth of the uterine lining and helps enhance and stimulate blood flow, while also preparing breasts for lactation. Also increases sensitivity of the uterus to oxytocin during labor **Progesterone -** [Targets:] Uterus [Source:] The corpus Luteum in early pregnancy and the placenta later on [Function]: it maintains the lining in the uterus for the embryos which inhibits the uterine contractions **Oxytocin -** [Targets:] Hypothalamus [Source:] Uterus and mammary glands [Function]: stimulates contractions during labor and facilitates milk **How the concentrative pill prevents pregnancy** 1. 2. 3. **Describe problems attributed to estrogen pollution in water.** **Booklet** **Translation**  **The generation of large numbers of plasma cells that produce specific type of antibodies** **Osmoregulators**  **Antibodies**  **Smallpox**  **True**  **Uric Acid (?)**         **\ ** **What happens when you get the wrong type of blood from someone?** If a recipient is given a transfusion involving the wrong type of blood, the result is an immune response called agglutination(particles like red blood cell clump together) followed by hemolysis where red blood cells are destroyed and blood may coagulate in the vessels **How a pregnancy test strip is used (order in when each thing happens)** Pregnancy testing 6 steps; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Image from video :) **What does an antigen do? What is it?** Any foreign molecule that can trigger an immune response is referred to as an antigen. **Symptoms caused by histamines** Histamine is a contributor to a number of symptoms of allergic reactions. Histamine plays a role in bringing on the symptoms of allergy in the nose (itching, fluid build-up, sneezing, mucus secretion and inflammation). Histamine also plays a role in the formation of allergic rashes and in the dangerous swelling known as anaphylaxis **How monoclonal antibodies are used in diagnosis and treatment** Examples include the test for malaria that can be used to identify whether either humans or mosquitoes are infected with the malarial parasite, the test for the HIV pathogen or the creation of antibodies for injection into rabies victims. ⅘ questions each chapter