EDUC 101 Module III: Language & Literacy PDF

MODULE III LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Lesson 1 Language Acquisition 1.1 Theories of Language Development: Nativist, Behaviorist and Interactionist Lesson 2 Bilingual Language Development Lesson 3 Emergent and Early Literacy, Reading Development and...

MODULE III LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Lesson 1 Language Acquisition 1.1 Theories of Language Development: Nativist, Behaviorist and Interactionist Lesson 2 Bilingual Language Development Lesson 3 Emergent and Early Literacy, Reading Development and Performance Lesson 4 Factors Affecting Development: Early Language Stimulation, Literate Communities, and Environment, Story Reading Module II  MODULE III LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Lesson 1 & Language Acquisition The Concept of Language Acquisition Before we proceed to the lesson on language acquisition, it is important at this stage to understand the concept of language as being species-specific. What does this mean? It means that language is uniquely human. Only humans have language. However, every living creature has a communication system: animals have cries and calls, while plants and some insects communicate through chemicals released from their system. Humans communicate using language. Although some higher forms of primates like the gorillas and chimpanzees can be taught sign language, it cannot be claimed that they already possess language. This is because these primates cannot speak the language. Language primarily is spoken. Animals cannot speak. Furthermore, for the primate to be qualified as having a language, the primate should be able to generate novel utterances and invent words, can even lie, and must increase vocabulary size on its own. The moment a cat is born, it meows, and until it grows old, it meows. That is its communication tool. When an infant is out of the mother’s womb, it cries. The infant does not immediately talk and curses the doctor for slapping his behind and making him cry. The infant has yet to acquire and/or learn the language. There is a distinction between language acquisition and language learning. Sometimes, these two occur in the process of language development. Simply put, language acquisition is “picking up a language” from the speakers of the language around you. The language spoken may come from immediate family, neighbors, playmates, television shows, radio, etc. The acquisition process is not a conscious “getting” of the language. It does not involve thinking about the language (grammar, structure, usage), which is among the features of language learning. So, as mentioned, unlike language acquisition, language learning is an intentional and conscious study of the language. It may involve formal or informal instruction. This usually occurs when you enroll in a language class or find yourself in a different place with people who speak a different language, like in the case of migrants. There are two types of language acquisition: First language (L1) acquisition which happens as a result of language development, and there is Second language (L2) acquisition, when the individual already possesses a language but is exposed to a different speech community. Module III When it comes to language acquisition among children, the following are predominant characteristics of the phenomenon. Mostly, children are not taught to speak their native language. They learn it through exposure to people who talk to them. (That is why it is important to use only one language when addressing the child, or else it will confuse the child and cause a speech delay, particularly when you use any of the Philippine Languages and English, which belong to two different language systems/families.) Motherese language is the term used for the way how caregivers like mothers, aunts, grandmas, and yayas talk to babies and toddlers. For example, in the Iloco language, instead of saying uminom ka, meaning to drink, the caregiver would say mom mom, or am am for eating instead of saying mangan. Children pick up the language around them with little effort and often with little input. Children are provided with poor examples of correct speech as adults talk to them in motherese language or “baby talk.” Yet by the age of two or three, most children usually communicate well enough for parents and others to understand them. The first step an infant take is finding some way to learn the phonological system. To reproduce the speech sounds of any particular language when they begin to talk, infants must learn to discriminate among sounds that may be quite similar. (Like bill, pill or thin, etc.) Some tests established that infants are born with the ability to differentiate between even closely similar sounds, but this ability diminishes or disappears by about one year in favor of perceiving only the differences crucial to the native language. The acuity or keenness of voice perception in newborn babies has also been attested. It has been established that three-day-old infants can distinguish their mothers’ voices from other female voices. And it has also been shown that newborns prefer to listen to their mother tongue rather than another language. Although the rate of speech development in normal children varies somewhat, it is possible to generalize about the stages that characterize language acquisition. o 1st eight to ten weeks - Only Reflexive (basic biological) noises such as burping, crying, and coughing are produced. These are supplemented by cooing and laughing during the next 12 or so weeks o 6 Months – Vocal Play, producing a fairly wide range of sounds resembling consonants and vowels, becomes noticeable. o 6mos – 12mos. The second half of an infant’s first year is characterized by babbling. Babbling appears to be largely instinctive because even Module III  children who do not hear go through the babbling stage. In general, even before the onset of babbling, infants show eagerness to communicate and process the information they receive through various channels. It also appears that regardless. It also appears that regardless of the language they are acquiring, children learn to use the maximally distinct vowel sounds of their language (usually a, i, and u) before other vowels, and the consonants articulated with the help of the lips and teeth (commonly p, b, m, t, and d) before those produced farther back in the mouth. (Although subsequent research has indicated that the order in which the sounds of languages are acquired is not universal o Intonational contours (such as the sound or intonation done at the end of a question) begin to appear around the end of the first year, at about the same time as the one-word stage (for example, mama, cup, and doggie). o Two years old – Multiword stage. At first, the child combines two words (ex. See doggie, baby book, nice kitty, daddy gone), but soon expands to phrases and too-short sentences. On average, the spoken vocabulary of two-year-olds amounts to two hundred words or more, although they understand several times that many. o By the age of five years old or so, all normal children can ask questions, make negative statements, produce complex sentences (consisting of main and subordinate clauses), talk about things removed in time and space, and in general carry on an intelligent conversation on topics they can comprehend. Even though much of the speech to which children are exposed is quite variable and casual, they gain command of the many sounds, forms, and rules so well that they can say, and do say, things they have never before heard said- and all of this without the benefit of formal teaching. The following table shows a summary of the stages of language development. Stage Typical Description age Babbling 6-8 Repetitive CV patterns months (ex. Nana, dada , mimi, mama) One-word stage 9-18 Single open-class words or word stems (better one- months (ex. Daddy could mean “where is daddy?” morpheme or one- or “Daddy is here.” unit) or holophrastic stage Two-word stage 18-24 "mini-sentences" with simple semantic months relations Module III  Telegraphic stage 24-30 "Telegraphic" sentence structures or early multiword months of lexical rather stage than functional or grammatical morphemes (better multi- morpheme) Later multiword 30+ Grammatical or functional structures stage months emerge Lesson 1.1 Theories of Language Acquisition There are different theories of how language is acquired. At this point, we are referring to the first language (L1) acquisition. These are behavioral approaches, nativist approaches, and functional approaches. Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states that all behaviors are learned through interacting with the environment through conditioning. This process involves the strengthening or weakening of a response to a stimulus through reinforcement or punishment. A reinforced behavior becomes a habit. Regarding language acquisition, behaviorists see language as a fundamental part of human behavior (linguistic behavior). The behavioral approach focused on the observed responses and the relationships or associations between them and the events in their surroundings. A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to produce correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned. For example, mothers usually teach their children to say ‘please’ when asking for something. Reinforcement can be in the form of reward like praising (saying very good) the child for saying ‘please’ or by repeated action: when the child forgets, the mother will remind the child to “say please” before giving what he or she wants. In this manner, children produce linguistic responses that are reinforced. A behavioral model of linguistic behavior has been thoroughly discussed in B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (1957). Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism (in this case, the human being) emits a response (the operant in the form of a sentence or utterance); that such operant is maintained (learned) by reinforcement (for example, a positive verbal or nonverbal response from another person). If a child says ‘want milk’ and a parent gives the child some milk, the operant is reinforced, and as the response is repeated over a period of time, it becomes conditioned. According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior, is controlled by its consequences. When consequences are rewarding, behavior is maintained and increased in strength and frequency. When consequences are punishing, or there is a total lack of reinforcement, the behavior is weakened and eventually extinguished. Module III  For instance, positive reinforcements can be the granting of what is asked for or giving praises like ‘good job’ or ‘very good’. Negative reinforcements are punishments or anything that inhibits behavior. For instance, when a child speaks bad words, he gets scolded for doing so. The punishment prevents him from doing it again (speaking bad words) for fear of getting the same negative response (being scolded). Verbal behavior that does not get reinforced also is extinguished. For instance, if you want to talk and call the attention of someone and this person ignores you instead of listening or talking to you, soon, the desire to speak to that person is extinguished - (It is useless to talk to him, he wouldn’t listen anyway.) - something to this effect. The Nativist Theory The term native in this context refers to a person's innate, inherent, or inborn characteristics. In the case of language development, the nativist approach insists that language acquisition is innately determined and that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. Simply put, we are born with a capacity for language. That is why it becomes natural for an individual to perceive, pick up and use language. Among the supporters of the innateness hypothesis is Eric Lenneberg (1967), who proposed that language is a ‘species-specific’ behavior and that certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities, and other language- related mechanisms are biologically determined. This implies that animals cannot have language because they do not have the biological and genetic makeup. (This was discussed at the introduction of the lesson.) Noam Chomsky (1965) claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the child’s mastery of a native language in such a short time despite the highly abstract nature of language rules. This innate knowledge, according to Chomsky, is embodied in the brain, which Chomsky labels the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Mac Neill (1966) described the LAD as having four innate linguistic properties. 1. The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment. 2. The ability to organize linguistic data into various classes can later be refined. 3. Knowledge that only a certain linguistic system is possible and other kinds are not. 4. The ability to constantly evaluate the developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input. The idea that individuals have an innate (inborn, natural) inclination to acquire language supports the generative theories of language, which dictate that children have innate abilities to generate a potentially infinite number of utterances. This theory also accounts for (or could explain) aspects of meaning, abstractness, and creativity in the language of individuals from infancy to maturity. Module III  The LAD, however, is not a cluster of brain cells in the physical sense of the brain that could be isolated and neurologically located. But is believed to be there as a function within the neurological mass we call the brain. The research on this neurological aspect of language acquisition and functions is carried on in the field of psycholinguistics, where experts research the cognitive side of the linguistic-psychological continuum. Lenneberg’s innate hypothesis suggests that only humans have the capacity for language. Animals cannot have language because they are not biologically created to have that capacity or capability. In the case of chimpanzees and gorillas, like the celebrated Koko, who learned sign language, it cannot be said that they have language because they cannot produce it orally or vocally since their oral features are not built to articulate the sounds. Deaf and hearing-impaired people who use sign language can articulate the sounds if only they were not incapacitated by hearing loss. Remember that language is primarily spoken. Interactionist Theory If to the nativist, language acquisition is an innate capacity of man because it is biological in nature, being a function of the human brain referred to as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), the behaviorist views language acquisition as learned behavior from processes of conditioning and reinforcements of responses to events in the social environment. To the interactionist, language acquisition is a combination of both perspectives. Language is acquired from the interaction of innate biological capabilities with exposure to language in the social environment in which the child is developing. Therefore, the interactionist theory of language development is a compromise between the nativist theory and the behaviorist theory of language acquisition. It recognizes the importance of biological and environmental factors in the child's language development. Although some interactionist theorists are more inclined to one end of the extreme than the other (i.e., they give more importance to the environment than biological and vice versa), all of these interactionist theorists believe that language acquisition occurs as a result of the natural interaction between children and their environment, more specifically, their parents or caregivers. This means that the environment that a child grows up in will heavily affect how well and how quickly the child will learn to talk. To recap the lesson: There are two types of language acquisition: L1 and L2 acquisition. First language acquisition results from language development, where the child acquires the language in the home, while L2 acquisition happens when the individual already possesses a language but is exposed to a different speech community. There are different theories in language acquisition. One theory recognizes language as a learned behavior – behaviorist theory. This approach sees language as an interplay of stimulus-response actions. Nativists, on the other hand, view language acquisition as innate or inborn, that individuals have a biological built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brains that enables them to acquire language. Finally, interactionist theory is a compromise between nativist and behaviorist theories with a view that Module III biological capacities and social environment affect a child's language development. Module III Lesson 2 & Kick-off Activity: Bilingual Language Development Watch this video of a polyglot, a person who speaks many languages. This girl, however, has acquired seven languages. Youtube File name: Show «The Incredible people». Bella Devyatkina. Polyglot Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXGmt0dusdo Bilingualism Defined Bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages proficiently in everyday life. This is common in countries where more than one language is used in different social transactions. In the Philippines alone, bilingualism is common. We speak our native language at home and the official languages (Filipino and English) in school. We also use the National Language (Filipino) to communicate with other Filipinos from other ethnolinguistic groups since Filipino is the common language (lingua franca) where different ethnolinguistic groups can understand each other. In the field of linguistics, however, bilingualism is complex to define. Although its derivative “bi” means two, bilingual speakers are those who regularly use more than one language- not just two. The context by which one can classify bilingualism is the frequency of use. If you have learned a foreign language in school and can use it well, but it is not a part of the languages used in society, the learned language is not a part of your bilingualism. However, knowledge of more than one language can be termed multilingual. In the case of a person who knows more than one or two languages may be called a polyglot, one who speaks many languages but is not a linguist- a linguist studies language without necessarily speaking or learning it. As was discussed in the previous lesson, the acquisition is of two forms: L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition. This lesson focuses on the acquisition of L2 among bilingual children- children exposed to two or more languages in their environment. Stages of Language Development among Bilingual Children Although some experts consider bilingualism a specialized case of language development, language acquisition among bilingual children proceeds similarly to monolingual children (those with only one language). Bilingualism occurs in households where there exists more than one language. This can result from intermarriage between two different ethnolinguistic groups, or the household is in a different speech community (a community that speaks a different language from that of the household). Bilingual children usually follow two types of language development patterns: simultaneous bilingualism, in which the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of three (3) years, and sequential bilingualism, in which the child acquires a second language by age 3 after having acquired the first language (L1). Simultaneous bilingualism. The following table shows the stages of language development in simultaneous bilingualism. Module III  AGE STAGE MILESTONE Birth to 2 Undifferentiated (contains cooing months elements from both languages) 2 – 6 months undifferentiated babbling 6-15 months undifferentiated First words (age of appearance might be later than with monolingual speakers but is still within normal range) 1-2 years undifferentiated Language blend (parts of words in both languages are blended in the same word) 2-3 years undifferentiated Language mixing (words of different languages are used in the phrase or adapted to the other language’s grammar). 4 years and differentiated Uses each language as a separate older system The first stage in the simultaneous bilingual acquisition is an undifferentiated “single-language” system composed of elements from both languages. In this stage, the bilingual child goes through the same language developmental processes as a monolingual child – single words, increased vocabulary, the emergence of two-word combinations, use of verb tenses, and so on. The only difference is the two language systems in the bilingual child. For instance, a child may know the object's name in one language but not in the other. Another case may be language mixing or code-mixing where words from both languages are used in one sentence: but not the kind you hear among college socialites back in the 80s and 90s (we refer to them before as the kolehiyala language, which mangles the language of Filipino and English): Kolehiyala : “hala stop na kasi your making tukso of Arielle , she will pukpok your ulo sige ka”. Bilingual child: “Mama, si papa is nabartek again.” (quoting my balikbayan friend’s son who just got back from Las Vegas) “Mama kyat ko egg plist”. (My son at 3 does not use itlog for egg, I guess it is easier to say because it is only one syllable, and I conditioned him to always say please when asking for something. Another case may be the instance where the child does language blending. This is the use of words stemming from one language and the prefixes or suffixes of the other language. Example: Adult: Where is your lola? Bilingual child: She is plantsing. (quoted from my professor’s 3-year-old granddaughter. The adults in their household speak to her in English, but the adults use Ilocano when speaking to each other. The child obviously had acquired the progressive “ing” to denote an ongoing action. However, she obviously hasn’t been exposed to the word “flat iron,”; instead, the adults Module III  call the object plantsa. So instead of saying agplanplantsa (ironing), she used the word “plantsing”- a blend of Iloco and English.) The second stage occurs when a child begins to differentiate the two language systems, using each one as a separate system for distinct purposes. There may be instances where one language is associated with a particular person (babysitter vs. parents), age group (playmates vs. adults), or situation (home vs. playground). In this case, the child develops the ability to use the language depending on the situation alternately. For instance, the child may use Iloco with the family members and use Filipino, which is Tagalog-based, with playmates. Sequential Bilingualism. The following table shows the stages in sequential bilingualism. STAGE MILESTONE First language Normal acquisition sequence Second language Interactional period Use of nonverbal communication and fixed phrases Inference period Grammatical rules of the first language are applied to the second language. Silent period Selective mutism ( can be longer in anxious children) Code-switching Switches between languages in the same conversation In sequential bilingualism, the first stage is the acquisition of the 1st language, with which the bilingual child draws knowledge and experience in the process of acquiring a second language. The length as to how long or how soon a child passes through the phases of language development or, in this case, second language acquisition would depend upon the child’s disposition and motivation. A more socially oriented child may quickly learn fixed phrases that help him interact with other children and adults. A less outgoing child may have a “silent phase” with people who speak his or her second language. Another factor that may affect the language acquisition of a bilingual child is the child’s exposure to the first language compared to the second language. Suppose the child hears and uses both languages equally. In that case, his language developmental pattern will more likely resemble patterns of language development of monolinguals, but this is unusual because bilingual children have “majority” and “minority” languages. The majority language is the language the child feels more comfortable using. It does not necessarily refer to the first language or mother tongue. For instance, a child from a Filipino-speaking family who then enters and begins functioning in an English-speaking society may ultimately use English as his majority language. This is much like the situation among Filipino immigrants in other countries. How to Raise Bilingual Children To successfully raise bilingual children, it is helpful to remember these guidelines provided by pediatricians and linguists alike: 1. Be consistent. Experts suggest that the best way to maintain bilingualism is to compartmentalize the languages, separating how and with whom Module III  each language is used. A child with a normal language development pattern should be able to master multiple languages regardless of their exposure to the language (both parents speaking both languages and one parent speaking one language), as long as the exposure pattern is clear and consistent. For instance, the child of a Filipino mother and an American father could use only Filipino with his mother and English with his father. Like the general case among Filipino children, it could also be the use of first language at home like Iloco or Pangasinan and Filipino in school. Clear boundaries for where each language is spoken should be established. The child should soon be able to differentiate these situations and speak the appropriate language in each case. 2. Do what feels natural. Parents are more likely to maintain consistency if they choose a pattern of language exposure that feels natural to them. Suppose a parent feels more comfortable speaking in Tagalog and the other parent is more comfortable speaking in Mandarin. In that case, it may be more natural for the child to hear one language exclusively from one parent. This means the mother should address the child only in Tagalog and the father only in Mandarin. Maintaining a particular language pattern should not impose undue stress on the family; instead, enjoying the languages as a family will help promote the child’s language progress. Parents who want their child to develop a language they have not mastered should have a strong commitment to learning and speaking it routinely to provide a good model of that language. This is probably why it is difficult for most Filipino children to acquire English as a second language (ESL) because most Filipino adults at home and in school are not at ease with the English language. Thus, they provide poor language input to the child. Other strategies that can be employed to help in the acquisition of a second language are to have a child-care provider or playmates. They are fluent in the second language, and by having a second language, children’s books and videos. 3. Keep the language developmentally appropriate. When speaking to a child, simplifying the language’s grammar (form, structure, vocabulary) should be appropriate for their age. Parents (and adults) should also build on the attempts of the child to communicate by demonstrating grammar and vocabulary. If the child says “me juice,” the parent might respond with, “Do you want a glass of juice?” The language that the parents use in responding to their child depends on how they are teaching the child. Tools that are used when a child is developing the first language should also be used in the acquisition of a second language. Music, rhymes, games, and videos help the child learn the language and appreciate the culture in which he is being raised. Module III  4. Keep your child interested. It is important that the child keeps motivated to learn the second language. Learning the language should be fun and interesting for the child. One way to diminish a child’s interest in learning the language is when he is made to “perform” or “show off” his second language. This might be embarrassing for the child. Encouragement and praise for spontaneously using a second language can go a long way toward enhancing the “language ego” – the feeling of pride in using the language. Advantages of Bilingualism Being bilingual or even multilingual has its benefits. These are just some of them: 1. Cognitive development. Regarding cognitive development, bilingual people and bi-literate (literate in both languages) switch between two language systems. Their brains are very active and flexible. According to several studies, compared to their non-bilingual peers, bilingual people have an easier time: Ø understanding math concepts and solving word problems Ø Developing strong thinking skills Ø Using logic Ø Focusing, remembering, making decisions Ø Thinking about language Ø Learning another language 2. Social-emotional Development. Being bilingual supports children in maintaining strong ties with their family, culture, and community. All of these are key parts of a child’s developing identity. Bilingual children can also make new friends and create strong relationships using their second language—an important skill in our increasingly diverse society. Research has found that babies raised in bilingual households show better self-control, a key indicator of school success. 3. Learning Success. School readiness and success for dual or multi-language children are tied directly to mastery of their home language or first language. Bilingual and multilingual children benefit academically from knowing more than one language in many ways. Because they can switch between languages, they develop more flexible approaches to thinking through problems. The ability to read and think in two (or more) different languages promotes higher levels of abstract thought, which is important in learning. Current research shows that people who use more than one language appear better at blocking out irrelevant information, a benefit that may exist as early as seven months. Children who learn to read in their home language have a strong foundation to build upon when they learn a second language. They can easily apply their knowledge about reading to their second language. 4. Long–Term Success. One-half to two-thirds of adults around the world speak at least two languages. In today’s global society, they have many advantages. Globally, bilingual and bi-literate adults have more job opportunities than monolingual adults. Bilingual and bi-literate individuals can participate in Module III  the global community in more ways, get information from more places, and learn more about people from other cultures. Module III Lesson 3 & Emergent & Early Literacy, Reading Development & Performance Defining Emergent Literacy The term emergent literacy was coined by Marie Clay in 1966 to refer to the behaviors of very young children, which reflected an understanding of reading and writing when children were not yet actually reading and writing. Teale and Sulzby (1986) developed Clay’s concept of emergent literacy, where they refer to literacy as comprising of reading and writing, while emergent refers to the process of becoming literate. In general, what children learn about reading and writing before they are considered readers and writers are referred to as emergent literacy knowledge. The ways that children demonstrate that knowledge (i.e., the observable behavior) are referred to as emergent literacy skills. Emergent Literacy Knowledge as a Continuum of Development Experts believe that emergent literacy is the beginning of a continuum of literacy development in children. Teale and Sulzby (1986) reviewed early research on reading and came up with the following conclusions: 1. Literacy development begins early in life and long before formal literacy instruction in elementary school. Ø Young children with normal vision and hearing are regularly exposed to printed and spoken words through their daily activities. They listen to stories, and songs, watch educational shows for children like Sesame Street or Peppa Pig or Barney and Friends and frequently observe others reading and writing. We have seen parents, adults, or older children in the home teach the young ones words, songs, and nursery rhymes. So even before they enter school to receive formal instruction, they already possess the beginnings of literacy. 2. There is an interrelationship between oral language skills (listening and speaking) and written language skills (reading and writing) such that the skills develop concurrently and interrelatedly rather than in some sequence (e.g., oral language development preceding written language development, etc.). In addition, children’s cognitive development during early childhood is important to their literacy development. Ø Oral language skills are interrelated with written language skills. It is not sequential; you have to learn one skill before learning the other. You cannot read a word if you have no orientation to pronouncing the sounds within the word. You do not know how to write a word if you do not know how to represent the written code for a certain sound. Also, it is logical that literacy development aligns with a child’s cognitive development. 3. The functions of literacy (e.g., ordering a meal from a menu at a restaurant, obtaining information on an event, inviting friends to a birthday party) are as Module III  important as the forms of literacy (e.g., letters, words, sentences) to the child’s literacy development in early childhood. Ø Literacy development should not only emphasize the reading and writing as to form but must be in the context of functions like greeting, introducing, asking permission, etc. 4. Children’s active exploration of print within their environment and their social interactions with adults (particularly their parents) within reading and writing contexts (e.g., reading books together, making a sign to show support for a favorite football team, following a cookie recipe) provide important opportunities for adults to model literacy behaviors for children to learn. Ø Children who do not see their parents reading will not have the drive to read. The presence or absence of reading materials in the home matters too. Storytelling to children, or better yet story reading to children, helps a lot in not only getting familiarization with the sounds of the words, but the visual representation of the sounds are introduced to the child, and the meanings, of course, are associated with the pictures and the story as told or narrated by the adult. 5. There is variability for typically developing children in the age and sequence of acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills across the continuum of literacy development. Ø Every individual is unique. Some young children develop faster than others. Timing of the Emergent Literacy Stage Most experts believe that the concept of emergent literacy as a stage or a phase in the literacy development continuum is challenging because it is difficult to delineate the stages or phases. Furthermore, it is difficult to identify the endpoints: when will emergent end and when does early literacy begin and end as well as that of conventional literacy. You cannot pinpoint the stages by age levels or by phases. Thus, the phrase “emergent literacy stage” refers to the period during which children acquire a variety of emergent literacy knowledge and skills. Despite the challenges in defining the emergent literacy stage, there is considerable agreement on the approximate timing of the stage for typically developing children. This agreement was based on the concept of “reading readiness,” which emerged in the 1920s. the concept of reading readiness suggests a period during the preschool years in which children developed skills necessary for reading and writing. Although the exact age to when the emergent literacy stage begins has not been empirically determined, there was a general agreement among experts that the stage begins long before children can read and write. Some experts believe that the emergent literacy stage begins at birth since emergent literacy is closely related to early language acquisition. In the United States and perhaps others with preschool curricula, experts consider the emergent literacy stage for typically developing children to end at 5 years, or at least when the child enters preschool where the children receive formal instruction in reading and writing. Perspectives on the Emergent Literacy Stage Module III  The field of emergent literacy is still a work in progress as more and more research is being conducted. However, recent research through the decades has provided different perspectives, with some experts constructing their own frameworks regarding the emergent literacy stage. A. Developmental Perspective. A common assumption among these frameworks is that understanding the relationship between print and meaning occurs first, followed by understanding print form. There are different frameworks under this perspective. The Goodman Framework. Goodman’s framework (1986) outlines five areas in which children’s knowledge and skills progress in developing the “roots of literacy.” The progression through these “roots of literacy,” according to Goodman, enables children to acquire emergent literacy knowledge and skills. Evidence of these areas is shown as follows: 1st area: print awareness in situational contexts Ø This is observed when the child begins to learn and recognize print in the environment, such as logos for restaurants and food companies. 2nd area: print awareness in discourse Ø This happens when the child is exposed to print media. Through experiences with different print media, the child learns that each serves a particular purpose. For example, an individual can read a newspaper or online websites to find out about the weather for the day or several days, events that occurred locally, or events that have occurred worldwide. After being introduced to these media, the child learns how to manipulate them. Learning how to “read” a book by turning the pages from the front to the back of the book and reading from left to right (in English) are examples of ways to manipulate print media. 3rd area: functions and forms of writing Ø The child begins to write by scribbling or drawing lines to represent letters or typing strings of letters using a computer. 4th area: oral language to talk about written language Ø This is observed when the child begins to understand and talk about the functions of print. For example, the child may describe a book as something that tells a story using words and pictures. 5th area: metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness about written language Ø This is observed when the child begins to understand the meanings of literacy terms, such as “letter” and “page,” and uses words to describe what they read. The McCormick and Mason (1986) Framework. Another framework in the developmental perspective is that of McCormick and Mason (1986), who Module III  suggested that children progress through a “hierarchy” of knowledge and skills when learning to read. According to this framework, the child’s success at the higher levels of the hierarchy is dependent on the successful development of the preceding level or levels. 1st level: functions of print Ø Children’s understand print in the context of the environment where the print occurs (context-dependent). They begin to read environmental print such as street signs, yet they may not be able to read those same words in different situations like when it is written on an address book. Within this level, children learn that meaningful words can be represented in print form (meaning they understand that print has a function). 2nd level: form of print Ø At this level, children learn about grapheme-phoneme correspondence ( or the correspondence between letter and sound). They begin to experiment with this understanding through increased reading exposure and invented spelling. Here they can apply phonetic analysis to printed words because their attention to print shifts from function to form. The children begin to learn about the structure of printed words via their letter-sound understanding. They no longer rely on the contextual clues provided by pictures or environmental situations, which were the dominant clues in the previous level. 3rd level: coordination of the form and function of print Ø This time, children apply their understanding of the print function and print form simultaneously. Since children develop clearer and more efficient ways to decode printed words, such as by noting orthographic redundancy and phonologic patterns, they are able to give more attention to word meanings. In this last stage, children learn to use their skills for both print function and form in order to read, just as conventional readers do. The Strommen and Mates Framework. An output of a longitudinal study conducted, Strommen and Mates (2000) based their developmental framework on emergent literacy directly on the developmental progression of children’s understanding of becoming a reader. Strommen and Mates observed six concepts about reading during the emergent literacy stage. The developmental progression through these different conceptual processes illustrates the ways that children learn the functions, content, and purpose of print materials. 1. Reading is one aspect of an interpersonal routine Ø Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book itself has a minor role. The book is viewed as a tool for social interaction. 2. Readers focus on the book Ø Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book is the focus of the routine. This time the central activity is the reading of the book. 3. Readers construct a sequenced account Module III  Ø They rely on illustrations rather than print to build a meaningful story. 4. Readers reconstruct a specific account Ø They recognize that the content of a story is unique to each book; in reconstructing a story, the words can change, but the meaning must stay the same. 5. Readers refer to print to reconstruct texts Ø Printed text is needed to reconstruct a story; however, the relationship between decoding print and reading is not always understood. 6. Readers reconstruct texts by using multiple strategies to interpret the language encoded by print Ø There is the understanding that they must accurately interpret written language using various language and decoding strategies (e.g., graphophonemic, semantic, and syntactic information), in addition to the illustrations, to be able to read. The van Kleeck Framework. Van Kleeck (1998) suggested two general stages of emergent literacy during which children acquire their literacy knowledge and skills. 1st stage (3 to 4 years old) Ø children discover that print is meaningful through their exposure to print and terms related to reading, such as “book” and “page.” Ø Children in the first stage also begin to retell stories in their own words while looking at pictures in books and may begin to learn to rhyme and name letters. Further, the emphasis on the “print–meaning” relationship is evident in the behavior of both the adult and the child during shared book reading. For example, adults tend to convey the meanings associated with pictures in the books via strategies such as labeling objects and people and describing objects or events during book sharing with infants and toddlers. 2nd stage (older preschool children) Ø They begin to learn about print form and early form–meaning correspondences while learning about print meaning across various literacy environments. Adults make more specific and direct references to the form of printed text using print- related terms such as “capital” (letter) and “word” during book sharing. Ø Also, during this stage, children learn how to write letters and match letters with their associated sounds, create more detailed stories, and strengthen their ability to predict events in stories that are orally read to them. B. Components Perspective. The frameworks developed under this perspective attempted to identify the “components” of the emergent literacy stage. As opposed to the developmental frameworks, which describe a general sequence in the acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills, the primary focus of the components frameworks is on the specific knowledge and skills that characterize the emergent literacy stage. The following are the developed frameworks from the components perspective. Module III  The Storch and Whitehurst Framework. Storch and Whitehurst (2002) based their framework on the perspective that children gain literacy knowledge and skills throughout the stage that influence later literacy development. key ideas in this framework are: Ø The framework identifies children’s emergent literacy knowledge and skills as code-related skills and oral language skills Ø Components or code-related skills include: o conventions of print (e.g., the directionality of reading or the direction of eye movement, or the sequence of turning pages when reading) o beginning forms of writing (e.g., writing one’s name), o grapheme knowledge (e.g., identifying letters of the alphabet), o grapheme–phoneme correspondence (e.g., the knowledge that the letter m makes the /m/ sound, and phonological awareness (e.g., the knowledge that the word “book” begins with the /b/ sound). Ø Components of oral language skills include: o semantic knowledge (word knowledge, expressive and receptive vocabulary), o syntactic knowledge (knowledge of word order and grammatical rules), o narrative discourse (e.g., telling a story), and o conceptual knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the world). Ø The oral language and code-related skills acquired during the emergent literacy stage constitute the foundation for conventional literacy. Ø The code-related and oral language skills are related and have a reciprocal effect on each other (they affect each other). These skills also affect early reading development during preschool and kindergarten years. Ø After kindergarten, code-related and oral language skills become independent of each other concerning reading development; that is, the code-related skills continue to influence a child’s reading development in the first and second grades but no longer influence the child’s oral language skills. Ø Additionally, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) claim that oral language skills have little or no direct influence on reading development in the first and second grades and indirectly affect reading comprehension in the third and fourth grades. Instead, they state that code-related skills learned in kindergartens, such as phonological processing and print concepts, heavily affect a child’s ability to read (but there is contradictory evidence in the study of van Kleeck & Norlander (2008). Ø However, it is important to noter, that the early interaction of code-related and oral language skills provides a foundation for reading achievement, at least in the early grades of school. Module III  Ø For example, Storch and Whitehurst (2002) found that 38% of kindergarten code-related skills were drawn from the code-related skills in the preschool period (e.g., phonological processing and orthographic representation), which also significantly predicted reading achievement in the first and second grades. These code-related skills enabled children to convert printed words to their spoken counterparts, thus resulting in reading comprehension. Ø Although the influence of code-related skills on emergent literacy is apparent, Storch and Whitehurst stress that oral language skills and code- related skills should not be taught in isolation or should not be taught separately. They emphasize the coordination and interaction of oral language and code-related skills throughout preschool and kindergarten. They also explain that these skills continue to develop and influence conventional literacy acquisition. Like Storch and Whitehurst (2002), van Kleeck (1998, 2003) offered a framework describing the knowledge and skills children develop throughout the emergent literacy stage. The van Kleeck Framework. This framework illustrates the interrelationship among four components: the context processor, the meaning processor, the orthographic processor, and the phonological processor. a. context processor Ø enables children to comprehend and interpret the text being read to them before they can read and that they will read themselves later in their literacy development. Ø Context processor skills include world knowledge (e.g., concept development), syntactic knowledge (e.g., knowledge of grammar and word order), narrative development (e.g., knowledge of story grammar), book conventions (e.g., knowledge of how to use books), abstract language (e.g., inferential language), and functions of print (e.g., to share information). b. The meaning processor Ø This is important to children’s ability to apply lexical knowledge to the meanings of individual words. Ø The meaning processor skills are comprised of word awareness (a form of metalinguistic awareness), which involves the understanding that words are units of language, and vocabulary development (a semantic language skill). c. The orthographic processor Ø involves recognizing individual letter units that enable the child to identify individual letters and sequences of letters. Ø Orthographic processor skills are those that pertain to print conventions and letter knowledge (print conventions pertain to how the words are written, like capitalization, spelling, and punctuation conventions. d. Phonological processor Module III  Ø This enables the child to use phonological awareness skills to convert printed letters to sounds and sound sequences (i.e., words). Ø The phonological processor skills include syllable segmentation, rhyming, and phoneme segmentation. Syllable segmentation is the ability to divide a word into separate syllables. For example, the word “mother” is divided into two syllables: moth-er. Rhyming involves the ability to isolate and change one consonant or consonant cluster at the beginning of a word to create a new word with a similar sound (e.g., isolating and changing the first consonant in the “hat” to create “rat”). Phoneme segmentation occurs when a word is divided into phonemes or sound units. For example, “bus” is divided into three units: b-u-s. C. Child and Environmental Influences Perspective. Frameworks under this perspective emphasized the interplay between the child and the immediate environment. These frameworks look into the child and environmental influences that may positively or negatively affect emergent literacy development. Ø Child influences can include : 1) the child’s participation in literacy-related activities 2) language proficiency 3) cognitive abilities 4) interest in literacy 5) attention 6) overall health. Ø The environment includes : 1) the physical settings in which the child typically functions (e.g., home, day care, preschool) 2) the people with whom the child interacts somewhat regularly (e.g., parents, siblings, day care providers, preschool teachers) 3) the literacy materials to which the child is exposed consistently (e.g., books, magazines, signs, crayons, pencils, paper) 4) the literacy experiences and opportunities provided within the child’s environments (e.g., joint book reading with an adult, group book reading with a teacher, ordering from a menu, drawing a picture of a favorite activity). The McNaughton Framework. This framework is based on McNaughton’s (1995) socialization model of child development. This model considers the influence of a child’s environment on the acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge, skills, and processes. Key points to the framework are: Ø A child’s emergent literacy development is structured within initial family experiences. The framework suggests that the activities in which the family engages with the child and the resulting learning and development system are based on four distinct and identifiable components of family literacy practices. These are: o family practices o activities (child and family) Module III o systems for learning and development, leading to expertise, o relationships between settings. Ø Family practices are how children are socialized through these interactions that create ways of thinking, acting, and using language considered appropriate by the various cultural and social communities with which the family identifies. For example, a general social and cultural expectation of families in developed countries is that their children will become literate. As a result, families expose their children to various functions of written language within different contexts. Very young children’s experiences range from observing the different uses of written language (e.g., watching a sibling read a book) to be directly involved in such events (e.g., book sharing with a parent). Ø A family’s literacy practices can be observed in the routine reading and writing activities for that family. These activities have goals and rules that are followed. The child can accomplish the activities alone, with siblings, or with the entire family. For example, a family might celebrate friends’ and relatives’ birthdays by sending birthday cards that the family members have signed. The goal of the activity is to acknowledge and celebrate someone’s birthday; personal notes might also be written that share additional information. Such an activity requires that certain conventions be followed, such as signing the card below the text and writing from left to right and top to bottom, including mailing and return addresses and a postage stamp on the envelope. Ø There are two systems of learning and development. The first occurs when the family is directly involved in activities with the child, such as book sharing. The second occurs when the child explores writing and reading alone. Ø Through both systems, the child develops expertise in the areas introduced by participating in various activities. For example, through book sharing with a parent, the child becomes an expert on what a book is, how it is read, and the purpose of reading. The child learns how to turn the pages and understands that the pictures represent the text being read. Ø Literacy practices, activities, and systems can be found in settings other than the family environment, such as day care centers, preschools, church events, playgroups, and other community settings. Ø The child’s experiences in the family are brought to the outside social environment. For example, if a child learns how to interact with books during book-sharing experiences with a parent, he or she then can use the same book- sharing knowledge and skills in play with another child and with books in a preschool classroom. The Wasik and Hendrickson Framework. Wasik and Hendrickson (2004) formed this framework based on their studies on family literary practices with children from infancy to preschool. They organized analysis of major variables that were present in the observed literacy practices and that such practices may be influential in the literacy development in very young children. Four major variables are involved in the framework: Module III  (1) parental characteristics (2) child characteristics (3) home literacy environment (4) parent-child relationships Parental characteristics. Wasik and Hendrickson identified three types of parental characteristics. These include culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and socioeconomic status. Ø Culture and ethnicity affect areas such as the expectations for education, the patterns for language use in bilingual families, the preferences for types of literacy activities (e.g., storytelling, book sharing), and the structure of tasks (e.g., question-asking, task routines, and parental teaching strategies). Ø Parental beliefs include the family’s beliefs about the educational system's importance and role in their children's literacy development. Ø The family’s socioeconomic status affects factors such as the amount of time spent in literacy-related activities, financial resources available for literacy- related materials and experiences, the underlying purpose of family literacy activities (e.g., literacy to perform functions of daily living, literacy to entertain), and other factors that support children’s literacy development. These variables might include parents’ educational background and the quality of parent-child interactions. Culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs, and socioeconomic status are especially important to consider because of the variability among families in terms of these parental characteristics. Child characteristics. These include the child’s level of engagement and social interaction in literacy-related activities, as well as language proficiency, cognitive abilities, developmental achievements, motivation, attention, and health conditions that might affect language and literacy development. Each of the child’s characteristics can influence the extent to which a child can use the support that the environment provides for early literacy learning. Home literacy environment. This includes such aspects as book sharing between parents and children, parents reading aloud with their children, print materials being available to the children, and parents’ positive attitudes toward literacy activities. The home literacy environment is comprised of both direct and indirect literacy-related events. Direct literacy-related events are those in which the child engages, such as book sharing with a parent or labeling the printed letters of the alphabet. Indirect literacy-related events are those about which the child learns through the observation of individuals as they engage in those activities (e.g., reading the newspaper, writing notes). The characteristics of the home literacy environment interact with the parental and child characteristics in influencing a child’s acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills. The last aspect concerns social-emotional and interpersonal aspects of parent-child relationships that relate to literacy practices. According to Wasik and Hendrickson (2004), parent-child literacy interactions are central to Module III  fostering a child’s emergent literacy skills. Specifically, nurturing parent-child relationships are characterized by warm, supportive, and Parent-child relationships. Parental interactions have been correlated with higher language and literacy achievement. This means the stronger and more frequent parental interaction with the child, the higher or more successful would be the language and literacy achievement of the child. Although positive parent-child relationships do not wholly account for a child’s success or failure in achieving emergent literacy skills, the absence of such relationships can be a detrimental factor in a child’s emergent literacy development. Module III Lesson 4 & Factors Affecting Development: Early Language Stimulation, Literate Communities and Environment, Story Reading Early Language Stimulation There have been several studies conducted in the study of factors affecting the different aspects of child development. When it comes to literacy development, it is apparent that literacy is interconnected with language and cognitive development. Dominant in this aspect is language acquisition and learning since language is the primary medium of communication and literacy. Furthermore, early language skills in young children lead to improved social and cognitive interactions, allowing for learning and literacy and improved brain development in childhood. As previously discussed, the child's language development is influenced by the child’s immediate social environment. In a study conducted by Herman et al. (2016), it was found that children who had higher language exposure and stimulation as three-year-olds were more likely to have adequate to better-than-average language skills in first grade; while children who did not receive adequate language stimulation early in life were much more likely to have poor language skills. This is just one of several studies proving the importance of language stimulation among young children to help them develop. Language stimulation refers to a range of techniques and strategies that parents and caring adults use to encourage children to use language. This is vital among early language users, especially during early language acquisition and learning. Language stimulation is a great way of building upon children’s attempt to communicate with adults by modeling how children can use language. Examples of early language stimulation techniques include the following: a. Imitation Imitation is one of the earliest language stimulation techniques that a parent/carer can start using with an infant. The baby will develop simple actions before he or she develops sounds. As soon as the baby starts making noises like gurgling, squealing, and cooing, the parent/carer can imitate them. By simply copying the baby’s sounds, the parent/carer teaches the basics of conversation skills - taking turns. The baby is learning that he is actually saying something and that the parent/carer is responding by saying something. This would encourage more vocalizations. In other words, the baby will expect the adult to copy the sound he makes, and this will make him happy, reinforcing the vocalization. Soon, the child will be imitating the adult, which is the beginning of how the child learns words- by imitating the adult (parent/carer). Module III  b. Running Commentary Children learn a language (words and sentences) through listening to others. The more language they hear, the more readily they are able to pick up new words and phrases. Children often have to hear a word many times before attempting to say it, which suggests that Mums and Dads need to do a lot of talking to encourage their children to learn new words. A simple way to do this is by providing a ‘running commentary throughout the day. In other words, describe all the things that your child is doing as they are doing them. Use simple language and repeat the main words. For example, when the baby is eating, while the mother is feeding him, she could just be encouraging the baby to eat by saying, “ wow my baby eats yum yum. Uhm delicious, ahm ahm yum yum, yes? Eat more yum yum. Open mouth, ah, uhm yum yum, eat more yum yum”. However, the parent/carer must remember not to talk too quickly, make their voice animated, and make sure they are commenting specifically on the child’s actions and interests. By commenting on the child’s immediate interests and actions, the parent/carer is providing the child with words and sounds that are motivating at that moment, and it is these words and sounds that they will be more likely to say. Experts recommend that parents use the running commentary technique as early as four months. While the baby does not have any words yet, he is starting to develop an interest in the world and is beginning to tune into the parent/carer’s words and sounds. c. Labelling When the child begins to use single words, one will most likely hear a lot of labels (nouns) such as kitty, puppy, milk, and ball. These are the most useful words for the child as these are the things that he can see and touch. At this stage, the adult needs to encourage the child’s vocabulary by labeling other things in their environment. The child does not know all of the words yet and may be simply pointing to different things and looking at the adult questioningly. When this happens, the adult (parent/carer) must give the child the word for whatever he is pointing at. If the child pronounces words incorrectly, the adult needs to repeat the word correctly. For example, if the child says ‘kikky’ instead of ‘kitty,’ it is important that the adult shows him the correct way to say that word, e.g., “Yes, it’s a kitty’. Children learn language from their parents, and if the error is repeated, the child will think it is correct. d. Build on the child’s words Once the child starts using single words, it is time for the adult to speak in 2-3 word sentences. Children learn how to construct sentences from Mum and Dad. Parents should simplify their language and show the child exactly how to combine 2-3 words. For example, if the child points to a cat and says ‘kitty,’ the adult could respond with ‘Oh! White kitty. Kitty is sleeping.’ In this instance, the adult has given the child a few more words that they can use to talk about the cat: a color (white) and an action (sleeping). The adult has shown the child how to combine these words to make a short sentence. These are just some of the early language stimulation techniques. There are more, and it grows in more formal ways as the child matures and attends formal school. What is important is for the child to be given opportunities to use the language. Language stimulation starts in the home with the parent. A good way to Module III stimulate and encourage the child to use language is to always talk to them, show interest in them, ask them questions, and always be curious with them as they are with you and their surroundings. Literate Communities and Environment Imagine a community in the form of a village in the densest area of the Amazon forest. There are no print nor electronic media present in the village. People in that area only live by hunting and foraging. No doubt, children in this area would acquire the tribe's language. But as to, the conventional literacy of reading and writing will obviously not be part of their development or lifestyle. But in a society such as ours, where education is both prestige and survival, it is expected that children are to be “literate.” Thus, the society provides them with opportunities to grow as literate individuals. There are agencies of the government for education, language, and even the preservation of culture. These institutions that make a literate environment affect how a child is raised and, consequently, his development. The Home. Emergent literacy is regularly associated with the home literacy environment. Therefore, it is important to note that the home literacy environment plays a key role in the success students do or do not have within the classroom setting. It goes without saying that the home literacy environment is directly linked to literacy performance in school. According to Haney & Hill (2004), holding parents responsible for a portion of their children’s learning is imperative to their development. Home literacy activities prepare students with significant skills that will assist them in their early literacy development. in other words, the quality of the home itself can have some effect on how a child performs within the classroom. The manual, A Parent’s Guide to Public Education in the 21st Century (2016) gives the following tips on how to create a literate home environment: 1. Reading is practiced by the adults in the home – When children see that the adults closest to them read, they learn that reading is an important human activity worthy of emulation. It makes little difference what the reading material is, books, magazines, newspapers, in print or digital, as long as children see those around them reading. Adults can drive home the value of the activity by stopping to read something aloud that they found interesting or remarkable or to share some information they learned from reading. 2. Writing is practiced by the adults in the home – A literate household uses writing in a variety of ways. The important thing that children learn in a household where people write is that writing is a means of communication that can inform, persuade or simply serve as a memory aid. So whether it is letters, emails, grocery lists, or post-it note reminders placed on the bedroom door or refrigerator, children should see writing being used to communicate, and they should have writing materials readily available for their own writing attempts. 3. Literacy materials are available in the home – Literacy materials should be found throughout the home. Books on shelves and end tables, magazines on the coffee table, and newspapers on the kitchen table. For children to grow Module III  as literate humans, the “stuff” of literacy must surround them. Children should be provided with pop-up story books and children’s magazines. 4. Children are included and encouraged to participate in family conversations – The greatest ally young students have in learning to read and write in school is the oral language they bring with them from home. Oral language is developed when children are seen and heard. Conversations conducted with children rather than commands directed at children help children develop the oral language they need to underpin their emerging literacy skills in school. 5. Children are read to regularly – Reading aloud is important. Children who are read to from an early age show a greater interest in reading at later ages, have superior reading comprehension skills, and have more expressive language abilities. But just as important is the talk that surrounds the read- aloud. A read-aloud should include frequent opportunities to talk with children about what has been read, to ask and answer questions, and to talk about what a story made the child feel and/or think about. 6. Family stories – All families have stories about the time the cat climbed a tree and refused to come down, when dad or mom did something silly, or how grandmother came to be called Meemaw. Sharing family stories around the dinner table or in the car is an important way for children to develop their oral language and understanding of stories' narrative structure. Family stories are also a good way to pass down an oral history of the family, an oral history that gives children a firm understanding of who they are and where they come from. 7. Share a fascination with words – All of the activities described above will help children develop a rich vocabulary, but parents can also help with vocabulary development by being on the lookout for interesting, exciting, curious words that pop up in reading or in conversation and by simply talking about words used by characters on TV or written on billboards or restaurant menus. We want to develop a “word consciousness” in children – a fascination with words and their many and varied uses. When you see interesting words, talk about them with your children. 8. Combine TV watching with talk – Television is not the enemy of literacy learning. Television viewing can be educational, whether kids are watching something that is informative or merely watching an entertaining cartoon or sitcom. The key to making TV watching a literate experience is talk. During commercials, the TV can be muted, and parents and children can talk about what they have seen and predict what will happen next. At the end of the program, the TV can be turned off, and the family can discuss what they have seen, summarize the big ideas, and each family member can share what stood out for them in the show. 9. Continue all of these practices after children begin school – Once children begin school and begin to formally learn to read and write, good home literacy practices, including reading aloud, should continue in the home. Continued emphasis on literacy in the home supports the classroom teacher's work and your child's continuing learning efforts. Module III  The School. Classrooms, in a sense, can be considered a community. Children spend six or even more hours five days a week interacting with their teachers and classmates in a specific space in the school. Literate classrooms should motivate students and emphasize the importance of speaking, reading, and writing. As a place for literacy, it is natural that the classroom should have a literate environment. Creating a literate classroom environment where pupils feel well, productive, energized, and safe requires design. 1. Prepare the physical environment. A classroom's physical arrangement and organization can be a powerful and effective support for literacy instruction. The following can be helpful in the classroom. a. Create a well-organized library of books of various genres. b. Provide students with other print resources such as magazines, newspapers, recipes, signs, posters, comics, etc. c. Set up areas with pillows and cozy chairs so the pupils can read comfortably. d. Use the walls to display labels, word walls, anchor charts, posters, and student work. e. Organize materials in colorful bins that make use and clean up easy. f. Provide pupils with various engaging materials to promote reading and writing. These may include colorful markers or pens, letter tiles, magnets, puppets, clay, learning mats, or games. g. Arrange a large rug to serve as a place for the class to gather, read, and learn together away from the desks. h. Incorporate technology. If available, consider using iPads, e- readers, computers, or active whiteboards as tools for motivating pupils about literacy. 2. Establishing effective routines. To make the most of literacy instruction, a daily routine should be established that allows for predictability for the students. The literacy practices in a daily routine should include print concepts, familiar or self-selected reading, word/letter work, and vocabulary development, guided or structured shared reading, including instruction in reading strategies, text comprehension, and writing for authentic purposes. Some routine activities may include: Ø interactive read aloud Ø Introduction to new vocabulary Ø Shared reading Ø Spelling Ø Guided reading Ø Writing 3. Effective grouping practices. Students should be able to work collaboratively with the teacher and their classmates. Group work also teaches the child social interaction. It is the teacher's task to facilitate the students' learning. With group work, the following can be done: Ø Make use of students’ various learning styles Ø Include manipulative-based activities within groups, such as pocket charts to build words, tape recorders, dry erase boards, reading games, sequence cards, etc. Ø Include open discussion within groups such as literacy groups, represented by the leveled reading groups Module III  The Community/Society (Nation). The local community and the nation as a whole provide opportunities for literacy through language and education policies, establishing community libraries, and day care centers. Story Reading Several studies over the decades have proven the value of story reading to child development. Among the benefits of reading to children include the following: a. Assist cognitive development. Cognitive development refers to how we perceive and think about our world in reference to our intelligence, reasoning, language development, and information processing. By reading to children, you provide them with a deep understanding of their world and fill their brains with background knowledge. They then use this acquired background knowledge to make sense of what they see, hear, and read, which aids their cognitive development. b. Improve language skills. Reading daily to young children, starting in infancy, can help with language acquisition, communication, social, and literacy skills. This is because reading to children in the earliest months stimulates the part of the brain that allows them to understand the meaning of language and helps build key language, literacy, and social skills. c. Improved literary skills. Reading aloud with young children, even if they can’t fully understand what you are saying, gives them the skills they need when they begin to read by themselves. It shows children that reading is something achieved by focusing from left to right and that turning pages is essential for continuing. d. More extensive vocabulary. Hearing words spoken aloud can expose children to a range of new vocabulary and phrases that they may not have heard otherwise. By reading to a child daily, they’ll learn new words every single day. e. Greater concentration. Regular and consistent reading can help to improve a child’s concentration abilities. Furthermore, it will help a child learn to sit still and listen for long periods of time, which will benefit them in their schooling. f. Higher levels of creativity and imagination. Reading a book relies on using our imagination to picture characters, visualize their settings and environment, and guess what’s coming next. We must use our imagination if we are to learn about other people, places, events, and times. In turn, this developed imagination leads to greater creativity as children use the ideas in their heads to inform their work. g. Building stronger relationships. If a parent reads with a child regularly, they will undoubtedly develop a stronger relationship with them. Reading provides parents with an opportunity to have a regular and shared event that both parent and child can look forward to. Furthermore, it gives children feelings of attention, love, and reassurance, which is critical for nurturing and wellbeing. Module III ? ASSIGNMENT #5 ISSUES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERACY DEVELOPMENT Watch the, then answer the questions below. Use the references provided and then cite using the APA 7th edition format. Albert Einstein College of Medicine. (2012). Baby and Toddler Milestones, Dr. Lisa Shulman Video link: https://youtu.be/pZSjm0drIGM?si=dA_fQY_LPCvtrsNi UW Video. (2014). The Concept of Language (Noam Chomsky) https://youtu.be/hdUbIlwHRkY?si=GoHRjCSFKWR7Wwr3 Discuss your answers to the following questions: 1. How does first language acquisition occur? 2. What are the key factors of oral language development? 3. What should you do when a child/learner give only one-word answers? 4. What are the best ways to encourage/help “emergent readers” and “emergent writers”? Module III