Brain and Cognition (Core 2) PDF

Discussion Leader Scribe Week 1 Task 1 Jette Dorian Task 2 Lara Weronika Week 2 Task 3 Serena Malia Task 4 Weronika Jette Week 3 Task 5 Petra Drishti Task 6 Dorian Kai Week 4 Task 7 Drishti Lara Task 8 Noémie Petra Week 5 Task 9 Malia Naomi Task 10 Kai Serena Wee...

Discussion Leader Scribe Week 1 Task 1 Jette Dorian Task 2 Lara Weronika Week 2 Task 3 Serena Malia Task 4 Weronika Jette Week 3 Task 5 Petra Drishti Task 6 Dorian Kai Week 4 Task 7 Drishti Lara Task 8 Noémie Petra Week 5 Task 9 Malia Naomi Task 10 Kai Serena Week 6 Task 11 Gytauté Noémie Task 12 Naomi Lara Week 7 Task 13 Drishti Gytauté **IMPORTANT!!!!1111!: COURSE MANUAL = PEBBLEPAD TASKS** **MC questions:** TASK 1: What psychological concept did the patient Tan case support? **A)** cerebral lateralization of language B\) universal grammar theory C\) preserved procedural memory TASK 2: In what phase of an action potential does the relative refractory stage take place? A\) depolarisation **B)** hyperpolarisation C\) resting TASK 3: How do antidepressants (SSRIs) influence serotonin transmission? A\) produce more serotonin **B)** prevent serotonin reabsorption C\) make receptors more responsive to serotonin TASK 4: Which neuroimaging method has higher temporal resolution than spatial resolution? A\) PET B\) fMRI **C)** EEG TASK 5: What is the order of the cells in the retina that the signal from the light travels through **A)** photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells B\) ganglion cells, bipolar cells, photoreceptor cells C\) photoreceptor cells, ganglion cells, bipolar cells TASK 6: If the magnocellular pathway (M pathway) were impaired, which visual function would most likely be affected? A\) recognizing the fine details and color of objects **B)** detecting motion and change in depth C\) identifying complex shapes and patterns TASK 7: What type of attention is performed in the cocktail party effect? A\) executive B\) divided **C)** selective TASK 8: What is chunking? **A)** a strategy to improve memory by grouping smaller units together into a larger unit B\) the tendency to recall items/words/numbers from the end of the list rather than those from the middle C\) information that is encoded with meaning or linked to existing knowledge is easier to remember TASK 9: What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia? A\) anterograde amnesia describes memory loss before brain damage while retrograde amnesia describes memory loss after brain damage **B)** anterograde amnesia describes memory loss after brain damage while retrograde amnesia describes memory loss before brain damage C\) None of the above TASK 10: What is disinhibition syndrome? **A)** trouble with controlling impulses and behavior B\) struggle to plan for the future and making goals C\) repeating the same action and thought TASK 11: Parkinson's disease results from the impairment of which region: A\) Primary Motor Cortex **B)** Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta C\) Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata TASK 12:. A) B) C) TASK 13:. A) B) C) **TASK 1** Learning Goals: Single and double dissociation -\> What is the "function X\|Y" for each of them and which "lesion region A\|B" would result in a deficit? What impact did the three cases have on our research of the brain Which region of the brain is responsible for which function (the three regions) (localization of function) Post-discussion Single Dissociation: When damage to a specific brain region (e.g., Region A) impairs one cognitive function (e.g., Function X) but not another (e.g., Function Y) Double Dissociation: Demonstrated when two patients have opposite deficits due to lesions in different regions, providing stronger evidence that two cognitive functions are independent -\> must be 100% comparable tasks Three cases (and their impact): H.M and Gage -\> single-dissociation; Broca (Tan Tan)-\> also double-dissociating Gage -\> Pioneered ideas of frontal lobe involvement in personality and executive functions, shifting views on the brain's role in complex behaviors Brain-mapping techniques, evidence of localization of functions in the brain Tan Tan -\> Supported the localization of language production, marking one of the earliest findings linking a specific brain region with a specific cognitive function -\> Broca realized, that he is limited by the possibilities of his time H.M. -\> Showed the critical role of the hippocampus in memory formation, sparking extensive research on memory systems and leading to the discovery of distinctions between procedural and declarative memory. Paradigm shift Localization of Function: Key Brain Regions and Their Functions Broca's Area (left frontal lobe): Function: Responsible for language produc tion and syntactic processing. Lesion Deficit: Expressive aphasia (difficulty in producing language). Wernicke's Area (left temporal lobe): Function: Language comprehension and meaningful speech processing. Lesion Deficit: Receptive aphasia (difficulty in understanding language, fluent but nonsensical speech). Hippocampus (medial temporal lobe): Function: Formation and consolidation of new declarative memories (episodic and semantic). -\> part of the limbic system Lesion Deficit: Anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories), as seen in H.M. Frontal lobe: decision-making -\> higher executive function -\> evaluates importance -\> links our actions with our goals, values and feelings, navigates through social interaction -\> damage may cause anti-social behavior -\> impulse control Occipital lobe: visual perception -\> color, form and motion Limbic lope: sensory input from the eyes, ears, mouth and skin Parietal lobe: senses like smell, hearing, sight and touch Motor cortex: Motor control -\> all other movement control Cerebellum: Fine movement control Brain stem: basic life functions like breathing Temporal lobe: managing emotions and processing information and retrieving memories \*Forebrain; mid-brain and high brain (important) **Navigating through the Brain**   **TASK 2** **STRUCTURE OF NEURON:** 1\. Cell body, dendrites, axon hillock, axon with myeline, dendrites 2\. Oligodendrocytes + Schwann cells myeline sheet 3\. Dendrites has spikes that increase number of connections between the neurons 4\. INHIBITORY AND EXCITATORY 5\. Unipolar, Bipolar, Multipolar, Pseudopolar **MEMBRANE POTENTIAL (resting potential: -70 mV):** More potassium inside than outside the cell K+ defuses through the cell membrane Outside the cell sodium and chloride Sodium-potassium pumps -55 mV point where AC starts Positive charged ions outside the cell, negative charged ions inside the cell **ELECTRICAL** neurons send the signal through ions (FASTER) **CHEMICAL** neurons send the signal through neurotransmitters **MEMBRANE POTENTIAL STAGES:** 1\. **Depolarization** -- K+ and Na+ defuse through the membrane of neuron, inside of cell negative, outside of cell positive, main role: leaking and voltage-gated channels, ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT (-70 MV) 2\. **Repolarization** -- voltage-gated channels open (-55 mV) -- sodium enters the cell, inside of the cell gets more positive because Na+ is more positively charged, potassium voltage-gated channels open and let potassium OUT = inside of the cell become more NEGATIVE \*Voltage-gated channels open ONLY when threshold is reached (-55 mV)  3\. **Hyperpolarization** -- potassium voltage-channels CLOSE SLOWLY, more potassium out, charge becomes NEGATIVE than resting levels ( -70 mV) **REFRACTORY PERIOD** -- sodium-potassium pump restores the resting level of the neuron [ABSOLUTE:] It occurs between depolarization and repolarization, time from the opening Na+ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates, neuron cannot respond to other stimulus [RELATIVE:] It occurs between the lowest point of hyperpolarization and resting potential, after the absolute refractory period, Na+ gates = closed, K+ gates = open, repolarization is occurring, only stimulus can generate AP 4\. **Resting state** (refractory period -- starts with hyperpolarization and ends with resting state) **SALTITORY CONDUCTION** - the rapid method by which nerve impulses move down a myelinated axon with excitation occurring only at nodes of Ranvier  **DIFFUSION** -- the force on molecules to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration **TYPES OF CHANNELS:** 1\. Leakage channel (always open) 2\. Voltage -- gated channels (open with the help of stimulus from ion) 3\. Mechanically -- gated (open with the help of stimulus -- change the length or pressure)  **PRE-DISCUSSION -- NEURONS 2 (NEUROTRANSMITTERS)** **PRECURSOR CHEMICALS** -- anything you need to build a neurotransmitter (specific molecules, typically amino acids, that serve as the building blocks necessary for the synthesis of neurotransmitters); they vary because each neurotransmitter has a different type of precursor chemicals **TASK 3 Neurons II** Summary notes: **What is a neurotransmitter?** - - - - - - - - - - - **Neurotransmission** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Depression and Stress in Neurotransmission** - - - - - - - **Hormones vs Neurotransmitter** - - - **Core Tutorial Week 2b** **Task 4: Methods in Neuroscience** **Prediscussion** - - - **Learning Goals:** **Human circulation balance as the basis of modern fMRI - How does it work? (Same for MRI)** - - - - - - - - - **How does EEG work and what can we measure with it?** - - - - - - **Which neuroimaging techniques are best for different purposes?** MRI - - - - - - - - fMRI - - - - - CT - - - PET - - - - - - - TMS - - - - - MEG - - Temporal resolution: - - - Spatial resolution: - - - - - - **Week 3** **Task 5 Vision 1** **What is the process of phototransduction?** **Difference of rods and cones -\> color, light** **What are receptive fields? (Function, types)** **Different types of bipolar and ganglia cells** **How does the interplay of cells in the retina work?** **How does the optical illusion in PebblePad work? -\> retina organization (look up an example if you want)** - **1.Resting state: during this state the cGMP is bound to the sodium channel causing a constant depolarization.** **2.Rhodopsin→light (retina, photopsin).** **3.Opsin: activates the g-protein transducin -\> activates second messenger cascade.** **4.Closing: sodium channels close -\> hyperpolarization potential, less neurotransmitters release.** - **-Rodes: They have high light sensitivity and don't capture with great detail. The eye has 90M rodes, almost 100M (fovea is the part which has no rodes). They are also smaller than the cones.** **-Cones: They are responsible for colour vision. We can find 3 major types (blue: s-cones, green: m-cones, red: l-cones).** - **The visual receptive field is the part of the visual field that when stimulated (by the presentation of objects or patterns in front of the eyes) will cause a neuron to respond by changing its firing rate of action potentials -\> It's an area of the eye that helps us see where one object starts and ends.**  **-Non converging: has separate ways of passing the signal.** **-Converging: accumulates those signals in the secondary sensory neurons (small and overlapping field).** - **-Horizontal cells: they connect receptors with bipolar cells.** **-Amacrine cells: they connect the bipolar with the ganglion cells.** **-Bipolar cells: on and off centered react to glutamate differently. Their release of glutamate stimulates the on and off centered ganglion cells.** **-Ganglion cells: They transport the signal to the primary visual cortex (optic nerve).** - - - - - - - -  **The illusion shows how the retinal cells handle the high contrast transitions between light and dark areas. Illusion is caused by interaction of retinal cells and lateral inhibition. There is a strong receptive field that inhibits towards the intersections.** **[TASK 6: PRE-DISCUSSION (14/11/24)]** Role of the brain and how it converges into the visual cortex and is processed there. contra-lateralization Magnocellular pathway, where there are ganglion cells that are called parasols. These are **Learning Goals:** 1. a. i. ii. iii. 1. 2. iv. v. vi. b. vii. 2. c. viii. 3. ix. 4. 5. 6. x. 3. d. e. f. xi. g. h. xii. xiii. i. j. k. l. 4. m. n. o. p. xiv. q. r. s. t. u. **TASK 7:** **[TASK 8: Memory I]** **Learning goals:** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. POST DISCUSSION **1. Define and compare short-term memory and working memory (Baddeley).** [SHORT TERM MEMORY:] - - - - - - [WORKING MEMORY:] - - - - - - [SENSORY MEMORY:] - - - - - - **MODAL MODEL** - - - - **BADDELEYS WORKING MEMORY MODEL** - - [CENTRAL EXECUTIVE] - - - - [VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPAD] (sub-system of central executive) - [PHONOLOGICAL LOOP] (sub-system of central executive) - - - [EPISODIC BUFFER] - - [COMPARISON OF STM AND WM:] - **2. How does short-term memory store information?** - - - - - - - - **Why are some things easier to remember than others?** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **3. What influences the process of memorization and recall?** - - - - - - - - - - - **Describe the experiment that records neural activity from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) in monkeys while they performed particular tasks by Patricia Goldman-Rakic and its main findings. (connect with brain anatomy)** - - - - - - **[TASK 9: Memory II]** **Learning goals:** 1. 2. 3. 4. **POST DISCUSSION** **Explain the case of H.M. - what does this case teach us about memory?** - - - - - =\> Case showed that there's a difference between STM and LTM and subcategory of STM (working memory) - - - - - - - - **What is long-term memory (declarative/non declarative)** - - - **How does the brain form, store and retrieve memories? How does time, calcium and neural communication contribute to memory formation?** Three stages: encoding, storage & retrieval - - - - - - - - - - **TASK 10 Cognitive Control** **Learning goals** - ***Definition of cognitive control*** Also known as executive function is the set of abilities for our body to be in the environment such as reason making, solving difficulties and correcting errors. In two groups: core processes (attention etc), high cognition (memory, making goals and working towards them) Proactive control: engage in the anticipation of an event and keeping the information for your goal in mind, prepares the brain for the upcoming task or events Reactive control: mobilized in response to conflicts as they occur activation of control process, make adjustment to behaviour so you can have appropriate responses ***Miller and co. Model of cognitive control*** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. **Everyday examples** - - - - - More posterior part is involved in more simple action, which can be seen in our ancestors More anterior part is involved in more complex task due to evolution PFC takes the most space of the brain in the human brain in comparison to animals Involved in decision making, processing and involved in human intelligence It\'s connected to many brain areas-\> very central role in the brain ***Four regions of the prefrontal cortex:*** - - - - **Model of organization (DMPFC)** Posterior: activates RESPONSE-RELATED control Middle: activates DECISION-RELATED control Anterior: activates STRATEGY-RELATED control Two systems, one which is goal oriented and the other one for guidance: - Three main parts that are part of the decision making -\>works in concert with more posterior regions of the cortex to constitute a working memory system that recruits and selects task-relevant information -\>involved with planning; simulating consequences; and initiating, inhibiting, and shifting behavior - -\> Medial frontal cortex (MFC) -\> guiding and monitoring behavior; signal when adjustments in control when needed ACC-\> correct the mistakes eg.Stroop test, when complication is detected it alters the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, providing feedback, monitoring early processing, holds state of activation while task is presented in case of new stimuli Two syndromes: disinhibition syndrome: people constantly have to move around without the movements having any purpose; laugh at random times; inappropriate behavior disesecutive syndrom: hard to manage daily activities - *Process* Word is written in the same color-\> congruent Word is written in the wrong color-\> incongruent Participants have to read the color instead of the word DLPF-\> activate the parts of the brain that are important for color detecting instead of the word detection; task relevant information LPFC-\> plays a role in both proactive and reactive control Cerebellum: important for processing language during the stroop task ACC-\> alerts about the error and starts the inhibition process selective detections-\> we can switch our focus between two stimuli, however during the stroop test it is inhibited, damage can delay this process (difficulty reading the word because you just focus on one thing) - First thought was that it is a sigh of disinhibition syndrome, but he could hold a job and was a good storyteller so it was debunked Unilateral lesions have mild deficits on a person personality, whilst bilateral cases show extreme deficits in a patient\'s behavior The damage in frontal lobe led to problem in inhibitory control Acquired sociopathy: connected with the lesion of frontal lobe, you can feel emotions but you step out of social situations Utilization behaviour: patients automatically use what they have in front of them without thinking about it, regardless of good decision or not;also connected to the lesions Lesion to the frontal cortex is a disability such as ADHD, OCD, Schizophrenia and due to not feeling any 'emotion' can be a cause for depression **TASK 11:** LG1: what roles do different brain areas have in motor control and how do they work together to produce adaptable and complex movements? -- (Cortical Homunculus) LG2: how does damage affect overall function? LG3: How does our brain initiate movement? LG4: how conditions like Parkinson's disease and alcohol's effects on the cerebellum impact motor function, balance, and coordination (less focus) LG5: If the pyramidal tract connects the cortex to the spinal cord to enable movement, how is the activity in the primary motor cortex then controlled? **1. Basal Ganglia** A complex system of nuclei involved in movement regulation. Two main pathways: Acts as a "volume control" for movement: Central to initiating voluntary actions and preventing conflicting commands. Bradykinesia: Slow and reduced movement. Akinesia: Inability to initiate movement. Hyperkinesia: Excessive, uncontrolled movements (e.g., chorea in Huntington's disease). **2. Cerebellum** Divided into two hemispheres and three functional regions. Vermis: Critical for maintaining balance and posture. Receives sensory input to integrate movement planning and coordination. Controls coordination, timing, and precision of movements. Unconscious role in refining and automating repetitive movements. Continuously compares intended movements with actual outcomes and corrects errors. Plays a key role in balance and postural control. Ataxia: Loss of coordination, resulting in unsteady or clumsy movements. Dysmetria: Overshooting or undershooting movements (e.g., reaching for an object). Impaired balance and difficulty with fine motor tasks (e.g., writing). · In severe cases, inability to execute smooth, controlled motions. **3. Primary Motor Cortex** Responsible for executing voluntary movements. Organized somatotopically (cortical homunculus): Areas requiring fine motor control (e.g., fingers, mouth) occupy more space. Larger body parts (e.g., trunk) occupy less space due to simpler motor needs. **4. Premotor Cortex and Supplementary Motor Area (SMA):** **5. Spinal Cord** Divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions (31 segments). Houses motor neurons responsible for transmitting signals from the brain to muscles. Controls reflexive and rhythmic movements (e.g., walking). Facilitates voluntary movement by transmitting cortical commands to muscles. Reflex arcs involve afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) pathways: Stretch Reflex: Automatic response to muscle stretching (e.g., knee-jerk). Withdrawal Reflex: Protective response to painful stimuli. Loss of voluntary motor control. Reflexes may become exaggerated or diminished. Severe injury can result in paralysis. **6. Parkinson's Disease** Degeneration of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra, disrupting basal ganglia pathways. Tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, akinesia, and postural instability. Fine motor tasks and coordinated movements become challenging. Early stages: Cerebellum compensates for basal ganglia deficits. Later stages: Cerebellar overuse leads to additional impairments. Feedback Control: Adjusts ongoing movements using sensory feedback (e.g., balance corrections). Feedforward Control: Predicts optimal movements based on experience and sensory conditions. **7. Alcohol's Effect on the Cerebellum** Enhances inhibitory GABA signals and suppresses excitatory glutamate, impairing cerebellar function. Ataxia: Uncoordinated movements and poor balance. Dysmetria: Overshooting/undershooting targets. Nystagmus: Difficulty with controlled eye movements. The cerebellum is particularly susceptible to alcohol due to its location near high blood flow areas. **Task 12 Lateralization** **Learning goals** 1. 2. 3.