Bio Unit 7 Test PDF

Textbook Chapters: Chapter 22 (all Chapters) 23.4 (Not Heterozygous advantage) 25.2, 25.4, 25.6 26.1, 26.1 (excluding molecular homologies), 26.3, 26.6 (two domains to five domains section) AP Classroom Videos: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.6 7.7 7.9 7.11 Unit...

Textbook Chapters: Chapter 22 (all Chapters) 23.4 (Not Heterozygous advantage) 25.2, 25.4, 25.6 26.1, 26.1 (excluding molecular homologies), 26.3, 26.6 (two domains to five domains section) AP Classroom Videos: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.6 7.7 7.9 7.11 Unit Overview of Topics Sorted by Darwin's Five Claims and Evidence: Claim Evidence Claim one: Species Darwin's Evidence change (original claim) - Finches developed slightly different beak structures on different islands (Video we watched in class) - Tortoises developed different shells - Iguanas were able to swim - Fossils of extinct giant sloths from mainland South America - Similarities were seen in embryos of different organisms (observed when Darwin was back from the Galapagos) -Bug Hunt Sim used for build our definition. Claim two: Natural Darwin's Evidence: selection is a mechanism - Finches survival for change - Malthus theory of competition (Video From Class) - Competition- organisms struggle others for limited resources - Ie: food, space, mates, nutrients, light - Sexual selection- women select males by reproducing with them based on the traits that they find the most attractive - Sexual dimorphism- women and male in same species have different characteristics - Such as peacocks (Peacock Video) - Artificial selection- the process by which humans influence the evolution of species (through breeding) and selecting traits that they think are favorable (carrier pigeons) (Pigeon Video) Modern Day Evidence - Grant and Grant study (Darwin was not alive for this but it proves  Darwin’s theory) (Video about this) - Modes of Selection (on Resch PPT): Natural Selection Change affects fitness of organisms - Fitness: Reproductive success of an organism (Cuddle Fish Video from class) Ingredients required for Natural Selection (VISTA…see Resch slide deck): - Variation - differences between organisms (i.e. differences in speeds in Bug Hunt Sim) - Inheritance - Traits can be passed from parents to offspring - Selective Pressure - any biotic/abiotic factors that influence survivability - Time - measured in generations (faster reproduction = faster adaptation) - Adaptation - traits that provide advantages in environment Claim three: Species Darwin's Evidence: change gradually - Lyell thinking - Pace of change is extremely slow (Video from class) Claim four: Descent with modification/Common Ancestor Claim five: Multiplication of Species: One species can split into two and the number of species has been increasing throughout life's history (everything below pertains to these two claims) Darwin's Evidence: - All present day species have changed from ancestors - Homologous structures same bone structures across different species:  - Some structures exist in embryo stage but are no longer used: (i.e. whale hip bones, tail bone in humans) Modern Evidence (not needed for this test) - DNA Evidence - Similar genetic code in all species DNA and RNA - Seen to become more different as time passes - Structural similarities such as metabolic pathways are also seen Both Claim four and five represented in phylogenetic trees and cladograms: - All species are related - Cladograms and Venn diagrams - Practice problems used in class: - Animal Kingdom Cladogram - 3 Domain Cladogram - Past FRQ #1 - Past FRQ #2 Cladograms/Phylogenetic trees changed the way that organisms were grouped (taxonomy) Binomial system (Carl Linneas)- process of delineating species based on their genus and species → arbitrary ○ Gradually became more specific to allow for more than one species in the genus  Phylogeny- evolutionary tree (branched diagram that shows evolutionary relationships amongst species) (How to read a tree used in class) ○ Tips- groups of descendents ○ Nodes- common ancestors ○ Outgroup- different group outside of group of interest ○ Root- common ancestor of all species on phylogenetic cladogram Cladogram- diagram used to show evolutionary relationships amongst species ○ Clade- any group in a cladogram sharing a common ancestor ○ Constructed based on shared characteristics Parsimony- an explanation for something with the least number of changes Relationships between species ○ Monophyletic- group with a common ancestor and descendants (THIS IS A VALID GROUPING!!!) ○ Paraphyletic- missing all descendents ○ Polyphyletic- missing common ancestor Extinctions Result in “Dead Ends of Trees” and can open up other possibilities for Natural Selection to take different species in new directions. Extinction- disappearance of a species so no future generations will naturally populate Earth ○ Naturally occurs ○ Ongoing (small scale over time) ○ Monitor for geologic time ○ Rates are faster during times of stress, wipes out large numbers of species (mass extinctions) ○ Increased rate during catastrophic events Rising sea levels Climate change Solar flares Volcanoes ○ Human activity  Climate change Habitat loss Pollution Poaching Theories (Do not need to know names other than Malthus and Lyell): Malthusian Theory: ○ Inspired Darwin in his theories ○ Said that disease, starvation, uncontrolled reproduction and more harmfully influenced population ○ Species die because of competition for limited resources Catastrophes occur when populations exceed the amount of resources ○ Used by Darwin to show his claim about reproduction and natural selection Cuvier- Catastrophism ○ He ultimately based his theory on religion Drew connections back to the “Great Flood” ○ Says that most of the features of history are characterized by giant events (such as worldwide earthquakes) Changes are done occurring Hutton and Lyell- Uniformitarianism/Gradualism ○ Hutton came up with the theory, it was popularized by Lyell Hutton is known as the father of modern geology ○ Says that the history of the world is characterized by slow, ongoing geological processes Changes are still occurring at the same rate today Important note- in reality change is characterized by a combination of both theories Definitions (Combination of Class and AP Classroom): Evolution- A change in a proportion of a species over generations due to the environment ○ Illustrated in the bug simulation, as one strain of the bug species became selected over time (one color was left at the end) Evidence for evolution (found in various sources) ○ Geological- evidence based on environmental features of the earth over time Fossils=patterns of evolution and change in genetics ○ Geographical- evidence based on characteristics of a habitat or land area ○ Physical- evidence based on the phenotypes of species ○ Biochemical- evidence based on the chemical composition of living things Comparison of biomolecules such as DNA and proteins ○ Mathematical- based on calculations and statistics Natural selection- Mechanism/process that allows for evolution, where organisms with more suitable or desirable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, creating offspring with these desirable traits- Components include: ○ Predators ○ Variation (within the species) ○ Mutations ○ Reproduction (and reproductive success) ○ Environmental conditions (impacted by factors such as climate change) ○ Genetic variability Artificial selection- the process by which humans influence the evolution of species (through breeding) and selecting traits that they think are favorable ○ Humans select desirable traits in other species and selectively breed with those traits ○ Results in new phenotypes and more or less diversity ○ Farming ○ Domestication ○ Dogs ○ Pigeons Sexual selection- women select males by reproducing with them based on the traits that they find the most attractive ○ Sexual dimorphism- women and male in same species have different characteristics Such as peacocks Binomial system (Carl Linneas)- process of delineating species based on their genus and species ○ Gradually became more specific to allow for more than one species in the genus  Phylogeny- evolutionary tree (branched diagram that shows evolutionary relationships amongst species) ○ Tips- groups of descendents ○ Nodes- common ancestors ○ Outgroup- different group outside of group of interest ○ Root- common ancestor of all species on phylogenetic cladogram Cladogram- diagram used to show evolutionary relationships amongst species ○ Clade- any group in a cladogram sharing a common ancestor ○ Constructed based on shared characteristics Outgroup- lineage least closely related to the remainder of the organisms Parsimony- an explanation for something with the least number of changes Relationships between species ○ Monophyletic- group with a common ancestor and descendants ○ Paraphyletic- missing all descendents ○ Polyphyletic- missing common ancestor Competition- organisms struggle others for limited resources  ○ Ie: food, space, mates, nutrients light Variation- genetic differences between organisms ○ Mutations and sexual reproduction cause Adaptations- traits that provide advantages in environment Fitness- ability of an organism to survive long enough to produce fertile offspring ○ Impacted by the environment- environmental changes occur making the environment more or less stable Reproductive success- production of offspring Heritability- ability to pass on adaptations to generations Genetic variation- genotypic and phenotypic differences between individuals ○ Leads to different phenotypes and adaptations ○ More variability=more change Selective pressure- any biotic/abiotic factors that influence survivability ○ Disease, predation, climate, food ○ Selective pressures change favorable traits Homologies- similarities stemming from a common ancestor (similarities may serve different functions) ○ Ex: bone structure, embryos Morphological homologies- modified shared traits among different species Homologous structures- variation in a structure that was present in a common ancestor Vestigial structure- reduced or absolute features that serve little or no purpose for the organism  Analogous structure- structures that evolved independently in different species due to similar environmental conditions and selective pressures Convergent evolution- process where separate but similar environmental conditions select similar traits in different species over time ○ Ex: Flying squirrels and sugar gliders ○ Analogous structures- traits seen similarly in different environments (common features but no common ancestor) Mutation- random change in organisms genome ○ Alteration in DNA ○ Adds to genetic changes over time in populations ○ Leads to a new phenotype that can be selected using natural selection ○ RESULTS IN A NEW TRAIT Extinction- disappearance of a species so no future generations will naturally populate Earth ○ Naturally occurs ○ Ongoing (small scale over time) ○ Monitor for geologic time ○ Rates are faster during times of stress, wipes out large numbers of species ○ Increased rate during catastrophic events Rising sea levels Climate change Solar flares Volcanoes ○ Human activity Climate change Habitat loss Pollution Poaching  Invasive species Mass extinction- when the extinction rates during a certain period of time exceed the background extinction rates Speciation- the process where organisms become reproductively isolated and new species form ○ High biodiversity- high speciation and low extinction ○ Low biodiversity- low speciation and high extinction Niche- role organism plays in an environment ○ Producer, decomposer, scavenger, consumer ○ Extinction leaves an open niche for other organisms to fill