APUSH Study Guide Part 1 (PDF)

APUSH STUDY GUIDE (Chapters 1-16) By Domenick Fedele and Karen Yang (With great help from Devin Carrig and Elizabeth Kratenstein) Link to Part 2: APUSH Study Guide Part 2 TEST 1 CHAPTER 1 2 CHAPT...

APUSH STUDY GUIDE (Chapters 1-16) By Domenick Fedele and Karen Yang (With great help from Devin Carrig and Elizabeth Kratenstein) Link to Part 2: APUSH Study Guide Part 2 TEST 1 CHAPTER 1 2 CHAPTER 2 6 CHAPTER 3 15 NUTS AND BOLTS 17 TEST 2 CHAPTER 4 21 CHAPTER 5 31 CHAPTER 6 41 NUTS AND BOLTS 49 TEST 3 CHAPTER 6 (Continued) 55 CHAPTER 7 59 CHAPTER 8 71 CHAPTER 9 77 NUTS AND BOLTS 86 TEST 4 CHAPTER 10 95 CHAPTER 11 105 CHAPTER 12 110 CHAPTER 13 118 NUTS AND BOLTS 128 TEST 5 CHAPTER 14 136 CHAPTER 15 149 CHAPTER 16 161 NUTS AND BOLTS 173 1 CHAPTER 1 Scholars believe all early migrations into Americas were via an ancient land bridge over the Bering Strait and caused by development of new stone spears and hunting equipment that could be used to hunt larger animals that regularly traveled between Asia and North America These land-based migrants known as the Clovis people, who established one of the first civilizations in the Americas Recent studies show not all early migrants came over the Bering Strait and may have used boats Evidence suggest the early population of the Americas was diverse and scattered Most important farm crop was corn, and then other crops such as beans and squash were also planted - agricultural areas create the basis for larger civilizations The Americas Before the Arrival of the Europeans: The South: South and Central America as well as Mexico The Incas: ○ Peru - create the largest empire in the Americas ○ Begin as a small tribe in Cuzco and led by Pachacuti ○ Empire created by persuasion and force ○ Many local leaders allied with Incas ○ Innovative administrative systems as a result of a large network of paved roads Meso-Americans: ○ Mexico and Central America ○ Complex society of the Olmec people ○ Sophisticated culture in the Yucatan peninsula - Maya ○ Mayan civilization developed written language, numeric system, accurate calendar, advanced agricultural system, and important trade routes ○ Collectively, tribes known as the Aztec ○ Mexico builds a city - Tenochtitlan, on a large island in a lake in central Mexico ○ Created large public buildings, schools for all male children, an organized military, a medical system, and an enslaved workforce from conquered tribes ○ Religion based on a belief in human sacrifice The North: United States and Canada Did not develop empires as large or political systems as elaborate Hunting, gathering, and fishing Many groups east of the Mississippi River linked by common linguistic roots Some of the largest groups were the Algonquin and the Iroquois 2  Alliance between various Native American societies were fragile Europe: Unaware of the existence of the Americas before the 15th century Not an adventurous civilization during the Middle Ages Incentives: Commerce: ○ Significant population growth in 15th century Europe after the Black Death (which wiped out more than a third of the population and debilitated its economy) ○ Population growth causes rise in land values, reawakening of commerce, and a general increase in prosperity ○ New merchant class emerges to meet the demand of affluent landlords eager to purchase goods Nationalism: ○ Rise of new, more united and powerful, governments ○ Authority of distant pope and distant Holy Roman Emperor was weak ○ Strong new monarchs emerge and create centralized nation-states, with national courts, national armies, and national tax systems ○ Kings and queens wanted to increase their wealth and were eager to enhance the commercial growth of their nations ○ Trade limited by the difficulties of the long journey to Asia ○ Talk of a faster, safer sea route to Asia ○ First to finance voyages of exploration was the Portuguese ○ Prince Henry the Navigator dreamed of establishing a Christian empire to aid against the Moors of northern Africa and to find gold ○ Explores the west coast and southern tip of Africa and reaches India and Brazil Christopher Columbus: Italian man Wants to reach Asia by going west instead of east (believed the world was much smaller than it actually is and believed the Atlantic was narrow enough to be crossed - didn’t occur to him that there was anything in between Europe and Asia) Fails to win support for his plan from Portugal and gets approval from the Spanish rulers, Ferdinand and Isabella Reaches the Bahamas on his first voyage; assuming it was Japan he continued on until he reached Cuba, which he thought was China Brings captured indigenous people back to Spain as evidence of his success Tries again and lands in the Caribbean On third voyage he realizes it’s not China but a separate continent Was a deeply religious man, believed his voyages were fulfilling a divine mission Spain begins to devote greater resources and energy to exploration De Las Casas: 3  ○ Friend and admirer of Columbus ○ Priest who wrote extensively about the voyages of Columbus and the West Indies, and became a crusader for the rights of the Arawak natives ○ Trusted primary source due to his critical view of Columbus (especially in regard to treatment of natives) despite their close friendship ○ Las Casas’ father sailed with Columbus in 1492; in 1502 Las Casas himself moved to Hispaniola as a landowner. He soon witnessed the treatment of natives and vowed to take up their cause for life ○ Acquired all of Columbus’s records from his son and successor, which he befriended ○ Was a bishop in Mexico for 3 years; returned to Spain in 1547 and became a permanent monastery member. ○ Began his history of the West Indies in 1527 Conquistadores: Spanish claims the whole of the Americas except for a piece (present day Brazil) on the basis of Columbus’s discoveries First Spanish colonists brought on Columbus’s second voyage in the Caribbean try to enslave indigenous people and find gold Hernando Cortes: ○ Leads a small military expedition into Mexico ○ Meets strong resistance from Aztecs and their emperor Montezuma ○ Cortes and his army infect the Aztecs with smallpox which decimates the population ○ Spanish succeeds at their conquest - Cortes establishes reputation as the most brutal Spanish conquistador News that silver was in Mexico attracts other Spaniards Wave of conquistadores to the mainland Conquistadores in some areas almost exterminate the indigenous populations through disease and warfare Catholic missions Northern Outposts: First permanent European settlement in the United States Military outpost, administrative center for Franciscan missionaries, and headquarters for unsuccessful campaigns against natives Don Juan de Onate claims some of the lands of the Pueblo Indians Harsh treatment of natives causes Pueblos to revolt in 1680 Native American religious leader named Pope leads uprising that kills hundreds of Europeans, captures Santa Fe, and drives Spanish temporarily from the region Spanish eventually return to seize the lands once again 4 Africa and America: Most African men and women who were forcibly taken to the Americas were from Guinea, a large region in west Africa below the Sahara Desert Europeans and white Americans portray African society as primitive and uncivilized Market for enslaved people grew dramatically in the 16th century when the European demand for sugarcane increased African kingdoms war with one another to capture enslaved people to exchange for European goods At first slave traders were mostly Portuguese and some Spanish In the 17th century Dutch had won control of most of the slave market In the 18th century the English dominate the market 5 CHAPTER 2 The Pull to America: Word of mouth Recruitment Land and economic opportunities ○ Merchants form chartered companies - acquires charters from the monarch to give the company a monopoly for trading in a particular region ○ Mercantilism - nation as a whole is the principal actor in the economy (goal is to increase nation’s total wealth) Abundance of land Desire to join early migrants Religious freedom ○ Protestant Reformation - Martin Luther challenges practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church ○ Calvinism - introduces doctrine of predestination (God elected some people to be saved and condemned others to damnation and this destiny was determined before birth) ○ English Reformation - King Henry VIII wants to divorce his wife and breaks England’s ties with the Catholic Church when they don’t let him; establishes himself as the head of the Christian faith in the country ○ Puritans - Protestants that believed the reformation didn’t create enough changes in theology and wanted to “purify” the church ○ Separatists - Puritans who wanted to worship as they pleased in their own independent congregations Opportunity to convert natives The Push Away from Europe: Escape persecution Uncertainty with the Crown Political change Economy (Enclosure Movement: privatized English farm land, resulting in farmers losing their jobs) Desire for adventure Relief from personal adversities English in Ireland: First experience with colonization Native population of Ireland (1 million people loyal to the Catholic Church who spoke Gaelic and had their own culture) was assumed to be wild, vicious, and ignorant savages 6  English believed natives could not be assimilated into English society and should be suppressed, isolated, and destroyed Treat native Irish viciously Plantation model - tried to build a separate society that would exist within an area separated from the Irish to preserve the “purity” of English culture French and Dutch in America: Forged close, direct ties with natives Coureurs de bois developed trade that became important to the French colonial economy Partnership with Algonquins and Hurons essential Samuel de Champlain, founder of Quebec First English Settlements: Sir Humphrey Gilbert ○ Obtains patent from Elizabeth ○ Leads expedition to Newfoundland ○ Storm sinks his ship, lost at sea Roanoke - Sir Walter Raleigh ○ Obtains grant from Elizabeth and explores North American coast ○ Island Native Americans called Roanoke (present day North Carolina) ○ Recruits his cousin, Sir Richard Grenville to lead a group of men to establish a colony ○ When Raleigh returns the island was deserted The Settlement of the Chesapeake: Virginia: Charter for the Virginia Company: ○ Colonists would have the same rights they would have had if they stayed in England ○ Late 1606 → Virginia Co. sends out 3 ships (Godspeed, Susan Constant, Discovery) with 144 MEN on board ○ 1607 → land at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay, are attacked by natives and move on ○ May 29, 1607 → about 104 colonists land at Jamestown along the banks of the James River (40 died on the way from scurvy and other ailments); area is easily defended but infested with disease-causing mosquitoes ○ 1609 → another ship from England loses its leaders and supplies in a shipwreck off Bermuda ○ Settlers die by the dozens - “gentlemen” don’t do work, colonists don’t catch game or fish, and settlers waste time looking for gold ○ River Settlement Pattern: large plantations ( > 100 acres) and widely spread apart ( > 5 miles) ○ No sense of society - lack of women, large plantations, lack of households 7 ○ New colonists settle more inland, causing conflict with natives ○ Colonists living inland have less economic and political power ○ John Smith - takes leadership; imposes work and order on settlement and creates a shaky relationship with the natives ○ Starving Time: 1607 → 104 colonists Spring 1608 → 38 survived 1609 → 300 more immigrants arrive Spring 1610 → 60 survived 1610-1629 → 10,000 immigrants arrive 1624 population: 1200 Adult life expectancy: 40 years Death of children before 5: 80% ○ Widowarchy: high mortality in men leaves women with an unusual autonomy and wealth ○ Clash with Natives: Powhatan Confederacy: A few dozen small tribes in James River area The English called all the natives in the area Powhatans Chief Powhatan probably saw the English as allies Relations between natives and English get worse Mistrust between the two parties due to different culture and language, and also the English keep raiding native food supplies 1610-1614 → first Anglo-Powhatan War: villages are raided, houses and cornfields are burnt, and supplies are stolen 1614-1622 → relative peace when Pocahantas marries John Rolfe 1622 → natives attack the English, kill 3347 Virginia Co. calls for a “perpetual war” 1644-1646 → second Anglo-Powhatan War: natives defeated again Peace Treaty of 1646: removes Powhatans from their original land ○ Early Colonial Tobacco 1612 → John Rolfe begins experiment with a harsh strain of tobacco natives have been growing - gives Virginia a firm economic footing 1618 → Virginia produces 20,000 lbs 1622 → produce 60,000 lbs despite losing almost a third of the population 1627 → 500,000 lbs produced 1629 → 1,500,000 lbs produced Tobacco prices decrease 8 ○ Indentured Servitude: Headright System: get 50 acres of land for each person’s passage you pay for Indenture contract: 5-7 years, promised “freedom dues”, can’t marry, 1610-1614 → only 1 in 10 live past their contracts Ideal master: have a certain skill so it’s more like an apprenticeship ○ Tobacco’s effect Puts VA on a firm economic footing Terrible for the soil Chained VA’s economy to a single crop Need for cheap, abundant labor (plantation system) ○ 1619 → House of Burgesses assumes the role of the House of Commons (control over finances, militia, etc.) Able to initiate legislation Council appointed by royal governor (Berkeley); functioned like the House of Lords (mainly made of up of leading planters) ○ James I grew hostile to Virginia due to his hatred of tobacco and distrusting the VA Co. ○ 1624 → charter of the bankrupt VA Co. is revoked, making VA a royal colony ○ 1619 → first African slaves arrive to Jamestown: status unclear, not that important until the late 17th century ○ The Middle Passage ○ Colonial Slavery As the number of slaves increase, the white colonists reacted to put down the perceived racial threat Slavery transforms from economic to economic and racial institution Early 1662 → “Slave Codes” made Africans property for life of white masters, was a crime to teach slaves to read and write in some places, and conversion to Christianity did not qualify a slave for freedom ○ Late 1600s → many young, poor, discontented men (little access to land or women for marriage) ○ 1670 → the Virginia Assembly disenfranchised most landless men ○ Bacon’s Rebellion: Bacon: a wealthy Cambridge graduate, had a large farm in the Piedmont area, and was a “backcountry” person who had a seat on the governor’s council Piedmont was vulnerable to native attacks; in 1675 attack in Doeg, Berkely cautious in response Berkeley: Oxford educated, put down 1644 native uprising and signed a treaty with natives, limited voting rights to landowners 9  Bacon retaliates against natives, is removed from the council, and starts the Bacon Rebellion Causes: Population increase Tidewater vs Piedmont Results: Resentments between inland frontiersmen and landless former servants against gentry on coastal plantations Socio-economic class: rural vs urban Upper class planters search for laborers less likely to rebel → African slaves Maryland: Royal charter granted to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore Proprietary colony created in 1634 Healthier location than Jamestown - tobacco main crop Planned to govern as absentee proprietor in a feudal relationship - huge tracts of land granted to his Catholic relatives Formed as a haven for Catholics African slaves began to be imported in late 1600s Conflict between farmers and barons Baltimore permitted a high degree of freedom of worship High number of Protestants threatened because of overwhelming rights given to Catholics Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 ○ Supported by the Catholics in Maryland ○ Toleration to all Christians ○ Death to all who denied the divinity of Jesus (Jews, atheists, etc.) The Settlement of New England: Separatists vs Puritans: Puritanism: ○ Calvinism - predestination ○ Puritans: want to totally reform the Church of England ○ Grew impatient with slow process of Protestant Reformation in England Separatist Beliefs: ○ Puritans who believed only “visible saints” should be admitted to church membership ○ Since Church of England enrolled all King’s subjects, thought they were sharing churches with the “damned” ○ Believed in a total break from Church of England Mayflower Compact: 10  Boarded the Mayflower - negotiated with Virginia Company Plymouth Bay - became squatters Written and signed on the ship Not a constitution, but an agreement to form a crude government and submit to majority rule Led to adult male settlers meeting in assemblies to make laws in town meetings Covenant Theology Covenant of Grace ○ Between Puritan communities and God Social Covenant ○ Between members of Puritan communities with each other ○ Required mutual watchfulness ○ No toleration of deviance or disorder ○ No privacy First Year Winter 1620-1621 → 44/121 survive More chose to return to England Fall 1621 → First “Thanksgiving” Colony survives with fur, fish, and lumber Plymouth stayed small and economically unimportant 1691 → 7,000 people Merged with Massachusetts Bay Colony William Bradford Self-taught scholar Chosen governor elected over 30 times Worried about settlements of non-Puritans springing up nearby and corrupting Puritan society Massachusetts Bay Colony 1629 → non-Separatists get royal charter ○ Wanted to escape attacks by conservatives in Church of England ○ Didn’t want to leave the Church, but wanted to leave its impurities ○ Great Migration of the 1630s John Winthrop Well-off attorney and manor lord in England Wrote A Model of Christian Charity First governor of Massachusetts (19 years) ○ Believed he had a “calling” from God to lead there Characteristics of New England Settlements Low mortality → average life expectancy was 70 years old Many extended families 11  Average 6 children per family Average age of marriage: women - 22 men - 27 Patriarchy ○ Authoritarian male father figures controlled household ○ Patriarchal ministers and magistrates controlled church congregations and household patriarchs Puritan “Rebels” Roger Williams: ○ Wanted full break from Anglican church ○ Condemned MA Bay Charter for not giving compensation to natives ○ Found guilty of preaching new and dangerous opinions and exiled in 1635 ○ Wrote The Bloody Tenent of Persecution ○ Flees to Rhode Island ○ Remarkable political freedom in Providence, RI Universal male suffrage Freedom of opportunity for all ○ RI becomes known as the “Sewer” to dump any unbelievers and religious dissenters Anne Hutchinson: ○ Intelligent, strong willed, well spoken ○ Threatened patriarchal control ○ Antinomianism (direct revelation) “Against the law” Carried to logical extremes Puritan doctrine of predestination ○ 1638 → confounds Puritan leaders ○ Says she received her beliefs directly from God ○ Direct revelation more serious than the heresy of antinomianism ○ Puritan leaders banish her → RI later to NY Killed in native attack in Westchester Thomas Hooker: The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut Puritans vs Native Americans Natives weak due to epidemic Befriends settlers (Squanto and Samoset) 1621 → Chief Massasoit signs treaty with settlers Autumn 1621 → first Thanksgiving Pequot Wars: ○ Pequots - powerful tribe in CT river valley ○ 1637 → Pequot War Whites with Narragansett native allies attack Pequot village on Mystic River 12  Whites set fire to homes and shoot fleeing survivors Pequot tribe virtually annihilated , leads to uneasy peace that lasts for 40 years ○ King Philip’s War Only hope for Natives to resist white settlers was to unite Metacom (King Philip to white settlers) unites natives and attacks white settlements throughout New England Frontier settlements forced to retreat to Boston War ends in failure for natives The Restoration Colonies: Charles II handed out grants to faithful courtiers and issued charters for 4 additional colonies: Carolina, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (all proprietary ventures) Carolina: Welcomed any settlers they could get ○ Incentives: guaranteed religious freedom to everyone who would worship as a Christian and a certain measure of political freedom (laws made by representative assembly) John Locke and the Earl of Shaftesbury draw up the Fundamental Constitution for Carolina in 1669, creating an elaborate system of land distribution and an elaborate rarely designed social order Northern and southern regions had tensions between small farmers in the north and wealthy planters in the south The Quaker Colonies: Purpose was for English Protestants to find a home for their own religion and their own distinctive social order The Society of Friends (Quakers) Rejected concepts of predestination and original sin Believed all people have divinity within themselves and all who cultivate that divinity can attain salvation Most anarchistic and democratic Protestant sectarian Not welcome anywhere in New England besides Rhode Island Wanted colony of their own William Penn received a grant of territory when he inherited his father’s claim to a large debt from the king after his father’s death Pennsylvania was never profitable Believed land belonged to natives and they should be reimbursed for it Good relations with natives Georgia: Established as military buffer between Carolinas and Spanish Florida General John Oglethorpe 13  Accepted debtors and convicts from England Initially strict laws (no slavery, Catholics, rum, native interactions, limits on land size, etc) for fear of compromising the military purpose After several failed raids into Florida and growing dissent, the laws had to be rolled back Least developed and economically successful of all the colonies -- settled last Evolution of the British Empire: Mercantilism ○ Colonies provide market for England’s manufactured goods and a source for raw materials ○ England excludes foreigners from its colonial trade to promote mercantilist goals ○ Some colonial goods not suitable for export to England, so trade still develops between English colonies and non-English markets Navigation Acts ○ Designed to regulate colonial commerce even more strictly ○ 1st act: closed colonies to all trade except that carried in English ships ○ 2nd act: all goods being shipped from Europe to the colonies had to pass through England on the way, so England could tax them ○ 3rd act: imposed duties on coastal trade among the English colonies and provided the appointment of customs officials to enforce the acts Dominion of New England ○ King Charles II stripped Massachusetts of control over New Hampshire and later revoked the charter over their refusal to enforce the Navigation Acts ○ James II combined the governments of Massachuseets with the rest of New England, New York, and New Jersey and established a Dominion under Sir Edmond Andros ○ Andros rigidly enforced the Navigation Acts and dismissed the colonial claims of equal rights as Englishmen The Glorious Revolution ○ When James II was deposed in England’s Glorious Revolution, the colonists overthrew and arrested Andros as he attempted to flee ○ The Dominion was dissolved in 1691, but Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies were merged ○ Revolts also occurred in New York and Maryland following the Glorious Revolution ○ These efforts legitimized the colonists’ claims to rights within the empire and strongly rejected colonial unification 14 CHAPTER 3 Indentured Servitude: Young men and women bind themselves to a contract holder for a fixed term of servitude and in return receive passage to America, food, and shelter Some indentured servants were convicts dumped in America to be sold into servitude or prisoners taken in battles or victims of kidnapping Indentured servitude system helped with the labor shortage Most male former indentures found themselves without land, employment, families, or prospects Indenture system became less attractive since landowners were troubled by instability former servants created or threatened to create - one reason African slavery increased so greatly Slavery: Demand for enslaved Africans to meet demand for labor Native African chieftains captured members of enemy tribes in battle, tied them together in long lines, or “coffles”, and sold them in the flourishing slave marts on the African coast Victims packed into dark, filthy holds of ships for the “middle passage” - the journey to America Prisoners chained in the bowels of slave ships, many would die, women raped and sexually abused, minimal food and water, dead thrown overboard, overall terrible terrible experience Turning point of African population in North America when Royal African Company’s Monopoly was broken Number of enslaved Africans increased significantly Role of enslaved Africans unclear at first since their status was to be different from that of white indentured servants Slave codes ○ Limits rights of enslaved people in law ○ Ensures almost absolute authority to slaveholders ○ Skin color alone determines if a person is subject to slave codes Africans develop their own elaborate family structure Attempt to construct nuclear families, but efforts in constant jeopardy due to possibility of a member being sold Developed their own languages and religions Stono Rebellion - South Carolina 1739 15  ○ About 100 slaves rose up, seized weapons, killed several white people, and attempted to escape south to Florida ○ White community quickly stops uprising and executes most participants ○ Most frequent form of resistance was running away, but there was nowhere to go Salem Witch Trials: Widespread hysteria over supposed witchcraft in NE in 1680s-1690s Salem ○ Most famous instance of witchcraft accusations/trials ○ Accusations against several young Indian servants soon spread to larger and larger numbers of women ○ Soon reflected social, political, and economic conditions in Salem, especially the divide between Salem Town and the farmers of Salem village ○ Most accused women were other of low social standing and previously accused of crimes, but others were women that owned business or stood to inherit property ○ 19 executions before trials were called off Great Awakening: Rising concerns about declining piety, rising secularism, westward expansion, immigration, and the influence of the enlightenment 1730s-1740s Appealed particularly to women and younger sons that stood to inherit little land George Whitefield - tours through the colonies Jonathon Edwards - powerful messaging in Massachusetts that attacked salvation for all Conflict between “New” and “Old” Light ○ New Light - proponents of the ideas of the Great Awakening ○ Old Light - Orthodox members of the clergy Led to the founding of Ivy League schools, rise in religious affiliation, especially among previously underrepresented groups, and the genesis of separation of church and state One of the first true shared experiences throughout the colonies Education: 1647 - Mass. Education Act - required every town to support a public school Apprentice schools in cities White male Americans attained higher literacy rates (over 50% by the revolution) than much of Europe, but women lagged significantly behind Enslaved Africans had zero access to education, and most Native Americans abstained by choice, although small numbers were educated by missionary schools and became fluent in English Establishment of six colleges by 1763, 4 of them by religious groups ○ Despite religious ties, significant scientific influence ○ Harvard, 1636, first American university was established as a training center for ministers 16  ○ Close to a secular, liberal arts education ○ King’s College (Columbia) was the first college with zero religious affiliation and was dedicated to the spread of secular knowledge NUTS AND BOLTS Christopher Columbus: See Chapter 1 section Conquistadores: Spanish explorers and soldiers, most notably Hernando Cortes, who brutally conquered South and Central America in search of wealth and power Mayas, Incas, and Aztecs: Three powerful, complex native civilizations located in Central and South America John Cabot: Italian explorer who sailed to the northeastern coast of North America in search of the northwest passage on English-sponsored voyage; England’s first documented contact with the New World Hernando Cortes: Most notorious of the conquistadores, conquered the Aztecs primarily through the spread of disease; longtime governor of Cuba Francisco Pizarro: Conquered Peru from the Incas in 1538, and opened South America to further European colonization Joint-stock Company: Companies formed by groups of merchants to acquire royal charters and create a trading monopoly in a certain region; made up of shareholders (most important for us to know is the Virginia Company) Virginia Company: Group of London merchants that received charter rights to southern North America from Walter Raleigh and established Jamestown, guaranteeing colonists the same rights as Englishmen Tidewater: Coastal regions of Virginia that were settled first; more established, had greater political and social power, more favorable soil Piedmont: Interior regions that were settled later as more immigration to Virginia occurred; less favorable soil, less political power, poorer felt isolated from rest of Jamestown Puritanism: Christians in England that were influenced by Calvinism, sought to purify the Anglican Church. Charles I incited civil war and oppression against Protestants, driving them to Holland and later America Invisible Saints: Comprised of all living, dead, and unborn chosen by god for salvation; completely pure; model for Puritans Covenant: Agreement between God and people Jamestown: See Chapter 2 (very important) Coureurs de bois: French fur traders that crafted economic relationships with the natives in the interior of North America Samuel Champlain: Founded Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in North America 17  Sir Walter Raleigh: Received the most wide-ranging charter in English history, led failed Roanoke colonization, named Virginia Roanoke: Disastrous first English settlement that “disappeared,” located on an island off of Carolinas John Smith: Took control of Jamestown, organized and attempted to stabilize colony; “saved” by Pocahontas, initiated attacks on natives, soon recalled “Starving Times:” Initial period of incredible suffering and death in Jamestown, life expectancy 40 years John Rolfe: Married Pocahontas, brought Tobacco to Virginia “Head right:” Virginians were given 50 acres for each passage paid for; indentured servitude Freeman: Adult Puritan men, could vote Salem Witch Trials: Wave of hysteria that reflected socioeconomic, religious, and political tensions in Salem, Mass. 19 hanged as witches Halfway Ordinance: Partial membership for persons who had not yet converted to the Puritan Church, lessened divide, more women representation Mass. Education Act of 1647: First public school system in America, heavily based in religion, increased literacy rates William Bradford: Governor of Plymouth 30 times, worried about nearby non-puritan settlers Enclosure movement: Eviction of small farmers in England, fenced-in common area, pushed people to New World Non-Separatist Puritans: Did not want to totally separate with Anglican Church, did want Reform Mayflower Compact: 1620 agreement that created a crude democratic government for Plymouth; general assemblies, covenant of grace, and social covenant Plymouth: Mass, Settled by separatists, later merged with Mass Bay Mass Bay Colony: Non-separationists, 1629 charter, settled heavily in Great Migration, 1st governor John Winthrop John Winthrop: A model of Christian charity sermon, 1st governor of Mass Bay (19 years), calling from God, wanted to create City on a Hill Prince Henry the Navigator: Prince of Portugal, navigation school, Portuguese exploration Montesuma: Aztec leader conquered by Spanish Hernando de Soto: Spanish Conquistador who discovered Miss. River in search of gold Francisco de Coronado: Conquistador, explored north of Mexico into the current U.S Jacques Cartier: French explorer, St. Lawrence river, claimed Canada John Calvin: Predestination, strict moral standards Seasoning: “acclimation” of indentured servants to conditions in North America, high death rate 18  1618 Reform progress of VA company: headright system introduced in desperate attempt to make VA profitable House of Burgesses: 1619, first meeting of elected legislature, council appointed by royal governor, James I did not trust Great Migration 1630-43: Mass exodus of Protestants from England to Mass in 1630’s Pilgrims: Separatists that settled in Plymouth “City upon a hill:” Vision of John Winthrop for Mass Bay Anne Hutchinson: Puritan rebel, charged with antinomianism for preaching extreme version of predestination, banished to RI after bragging she got beliefs directly from god Fundamental Order of Connecticut: 1639, first written constitution in America for Hartford legislature and governor King Philip's War: Natives united against settlers in NE, forced retreat to Boston but ultimately huge failure, natives never again a threat, Bacon’s Rebellion: Led by Bacon, piedmont settlers attack natives after gov’t inaction; Berkely driven from Jamestown, collapses after Bacon died and Berkely returns Political Deference: Responsibility for governance rested with royal governors Toleration Act of 1649: granted toleration to all Christian in Maryland, backfired when Protestants began oppressing Catholics; death to those not Christian NE Colonies: Mass, New Hampshire (Maine), Connecticut, RI - rocky soil, short growing season, economy based on fishing and shipbuilding Middle Colonies: NY, NJ, Penn - fertile soil, moderate winters - farming, mining, manufacturing and trade Southern Colonies: VA, Maryland, Carolinas, Georgia - fertile soil, tobacco in tidewater region, divide between coast and backcountry Royal Colony: Directly ruled by UK monarch, all but Penn, Maryland, and Delaware became royal Corporate Colony: VA, Plymouth (initially), settled by joint stock companies, quickly became royal after bankruptcy in VA Proprietary Colony: Initial type for almost all colonies, granted to individual or family William Penn: Founded Pennsylvania in 1682, religious experiment, extremely tolerant (Quaker safe haven) Quakers: Broke from Church of England, pacifism, inner divinity and equity Patroonship: Dutch plantations along Hudson River Mercantilism: (really important) wealth measure in gold and silver, favorable balance of trade with colonies, manty acts to enforce Navigation Acts: Good must be shipped on English ships, english crew, encouraged shipbuilding Woolens Act: Woolen goods not exported from colony of manufacture Hat Act: No trade of beaver hats from colony of origin; apprentice limits Iron Act: Iron produced but could not construct furnaces for finished goods 19  Dominion of NE: England combined NE colonies into one under Andros, failed during Glorious revolution Sir Edmund Andros: governor of Dominion of NE, changed many colonial laws without legislative consent, overthrown by colonists Glorious Revolution: William and Mary ousted in England, allowed for removal of Andros Lower House of the Legislature: the elected bodies throughout the colonies (ex House of Burgesses) “Triangular Trade:” Exchange of products, slaves, crops, ideas, disease, etc between North America, Africa, and Europe Great Awakening: Caused by loss of piety, westward expansion, immigration, reaction against enlightenment, commercial development. Old and new lights, popular with women and blacks, separation of church/state, first shared experience, colleges, missionary work, increased religiousness Jonathon Edwards: Great Awakening preacher, Sinners in the hands of an Angry God John Peter Zenger: libel case led to basis of free speech in America George Whitefield: English preacher who spread the Great Awakening through colonies, talented inflection, New Light Baptists: Local churches, individual interpretation of Bible, no Church Creeds, popular in middle colonies, rural areas Quitrent: Fee paid to farm on land not owned Indentured servants: 5-7 year voluntary work agreement, often to repay for passage to America, 90% died, almost all white initially Freedom Dues: Paid to indentured servants at conclusion of their contract Redemptioners: Families/persons that were granted passage on promise to work off debt in America, 4 years, contracted separately Chattel slavery: lifelong slavery, treated as property, children automatically slaves Middle Passage: Terrible conditions endured by slaves en route to America Slave Codes: Laws that controlled lives of slaves, could not be educated, Christianity did not grant freedom Established Churches: tax supported Anglican churches Old and New Lights: Old - orthodox members of clergy; New - modern thinking members leading the Great Awakening. Founding of Ivy League schools “Saving grace:” Grace of god brings people to salvation Visible Saints: Those who publicly proclaimed conversion, expected to live godly lives George Calvert: Lord Baltimore, Maryland charter - haven for Catholics, no starving time due to healthier location, St. Mary’s Stono Rebellion: Only major slave rebellion, 1739, Carolinas, killed several whites but quickly crushed… main form of rebellion was running away James Oglethorpe: Founded Georgia as military buffer, debtor and convicts 20  Charter of Liberties: 1701 Constitution for Pennsylvania, freedom of religion, unlimited immigration Fundamental Const. For Carolina: John Locke, social order and property distribution Test 2 Study Guide CHAPTER 4 Initially, there was little effort to tighten direct control over the colonies in the wake of the Glorious Revolution. NJ (1702), North and South Carolina (1729), and Georgia (1754) all became royal colonies. Additional Acts were passed that strengthened the mercantilist system, but interference was largely limited until the conclusion of the French and Indian War as the policy of salutary neglect continued. As an aside, England and Scotland were brought into a union as Great Britain in 1707; the government is now officially “British.” A Tradition of Neglect: Following the Glorious Revolution, Parliament exercised greater and greater power over English Monarchs -- prime minister and parliament became the real executives No agency specifically focused on enforcing colonial laws, and early prime ministers were reluctant to strictly enforce any regulations as they felt it would harm commerce Many British royal officials in America were corrupt and ineffective (many did not even reside in America themselves) By the 1750s, local assemblies claimed the right to make appointments, levy taxes, and pass laws, and acted as de-facto sovereigns as did Parliament in England. The Privy Council and colony governors seldom intervened The Colonies Divided: Colonies largely viewed themselves as loyal to England and often had closer ties with the European motherland than the other colonies ○ Colonists often viewed citizens of other colonies as near foreigners Continuous settlement along the coast up and down North America did lead to the construction of roads and trade between the colonies, however -- postal service eventually ran all the way to Georgia from Mass. Albany Plan - Ben Franklin's proposed “union” between the colonies for purposes of governing all native relations, rejected by all colonies present at the Albany conference in 1754 The Struggle for the Continent: French and Indian War -- part of larger 7 Years War that cemented England’s position as the world’s greatest power ○ Final stage in long struggle between France, England and the Iroquois for control of North America, resulting in precarious English dominance New France and the Iroquois Nation: 21  Large-scale expansion of the French Empire in America’s interior up until 1750s, claimed nearly the entire interior by 1743 France enjoyed much more favorable relations with “middle ground” Native Americans due to their more accepting policies and tolerance, while the English attempted to impose their own social norms Iroquois formed commercial alliances with the English and Dutch while also trading with France, playing the two sides against each other Ohio Valley became the center of tension as France, England, the Iriqious, and other native tribes all laid claim to the area Anglo-French Conflicts: Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose French King William’s War (1688-1697), Queen Anne’s War began 1701, brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended conflicts, and gave much land to the English Conflict over trade between Spanish and English merged with conflict between French and English over Prussia + Austria territorial dispute. Resulted in King George’s War 1744-1748 Afterwards, relations in America between English, French, and Iroquois deteriorated. The Iroquois granted concessions to the British, French built new fortresses in the Ohio Valley, and the British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated 1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge the French, and assaulted Fort Duquesne. French counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrender The Great War for the Empire: French and Indian War lasted 7 years in America (1754-60) and had three distinct phases: ○ 1754-1756: Primarily North American conflict at this point Minor British support provided but had little impact due to stunning incompetence Virtually all non-Iroquois natives in the Ohio Valley aligned themselves with France Little action after initial defeat of Braddock in 1755, Iroquois feared antagonizing France and most settlers fled the conflict region ○ 1756-1758: Formal hostilities began in Europe and complex alliance system led to the first truly global conflict William Pitt (UK Foreign Minister) took control of the war effort in America and brought it fully under British control 22  Impressment - forcible enlistment Seized supplies and equipment from colonists led to high tensions between the colonists who had become quite accustomed to running their own affairs (1757 NYC riots) ○ 1758-1760: Pitt relaxed control as war effort threatened to halt due to conflict between England and colonists Poor harvests in French colonies and influx of British troops led to a significant numerical advantage for England England conquered French outpost after French outpost, although often resorted to brutal tactics, especially against natives Quebec fell in 1759, formal surrender at Montreal in 1760 marked end of North America’s war ○ War’s Conclusion and Impact: Ascension of King George III and resignation of Pitt allowed for peace Peace of Paris signed 1763; France ceded islands in the West Indies, most of their Indian colonies, and Canada/ all territory east of the Mississippi to England. Spain received land west of the Mississippi War greatly expanded English territory in America but also increased debt and English resentment over the colonies for perceived ineffectiveness during the war Colonies were forced to work together, strengthened dislike of English interference in North American affairs Devastating for Native American in the Ohio Valley; Iroquois began to disintegrate The New Imperialism: Seven Years War left England in significant debt, which the colonies were highly resistant to paying for Debate between “commercial” vs “territorial” imperialists that argued land had great value and shifted the attitude of the British Empire, which doubled in size through the 1763 annexations Struggles to manage the vast new expanses of land -- where does jurisdiction lie? How to regulate Western settlement? George III took the throne in 1760 and inherited an empire terribly in debt, with great dissatisfaction over high taxes in England itself George Grenville - prime minister, no sympathy for the American view; began imposing new system of control over the colonies The British and the Native American Nations: 23  English settlers quickly moved into the Ohio valley but soon inspired retaliation from native tribes led by Ottawa chieftain Pontiac Proclamation of 1763 sought to prevent further conflict by prohibiting settlement beyond a border drawn in the Appalachian mountains ○ Led to positive developments in English-native relations and was beneficial for the mercantilist British empire, but deeply dissatisfied colonists and settlers ○ Enforcement of the Proclamation line proved near impossible The Colonial Response: Regular British troops permanently stationed in America for the first time; Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in maintaining the army Naval patrols, customs service enlarged, etc in enforcement of previously ignored Acts Sugar Act (eliminate illegal sugar trade to French/Spanish Indies, strengthened enforcement), Currency Act (colonial assemblies must stop printing money), and Stamp Act (tax on most printed documents) Measures were initially highly effective and colonists had little ability to effectively resist as conflict with the colonies (primarily East-West) were as strong as resentment for English laws ○ “Paxton Boys” demanded relief from colonial, not British taxes in 1763 Pennsylvania ○ Small-scale civil war in North Carolina initiated by Western farmers against local taxes (Regulator movement) After 1763, new British Acts created common grievances that began to outweigh the local conflicts and led to Revolution ○ Grenville's program antagonized everyone: Northern merchants believed they would suffer from restraints on commerce, Settlers in the west resented closing of fur trade, Southern planters feared additional taxes and end of land speculation, Small farmers feared taxes and lack of paper money, workers opposed restraints on manufacturing. Professionals that relied on these groups shared their concerns New restrictions additionally came at a time of economic depression, as the bubble created by British wartime spending burst Despite rising anxieties, the colonists generally either circumvented the new British policies or found a way to live with increased regulation Political consequences were much more important than economic ones in dictating America’s future: Britain vowed to tighten its administration of the colonies and the colonists believed deeply in their longstanding (de facto) right to home rule The Stamp Act Crisis: 24  Tax affects all Americans and many powerful members of the population, such as merchants, lawyers, tavern owners, and printers were opposed to it Stamps were not actually expensive, but the Stamp Act sent a message to the colonies: Britain would continue to use the colonies to raise revenue without the consent of the colonial assemblies Virginia: ○ House of Burgesses wished to challenge the power of tidewater planters ○ Patrick Henry: fame from fiery oratory and defiance of British authority ○ Virginia Resolves: Patrick Henry introduces a set of resolutions stating that colonies should have the same rights as the British and Virginians should only pay taxes that have been voted on by the Virginia assembly - House of Burgesses defeats them but they are printed and circulated October 1765 → Stamp Act Congress meets in New York after James Otis persuades members from 9 colonies to petition the king and the two houses of Parliament Sons of Liberty: riots break out, stamp agents are terrorized, stamps are burned, houses are pillaged, and pro-British “aristocrats” are attacked England changes their attitude since colonists have been boycotting English goods in protest of the Sugar Act and Stamp Act Marquis of Rockingham convinces King to kill the Stamp Act and it is repealed by Parliament The Declaratory Act is passed by Parliament and asserted Parliament’s authority over the colonies “in all cases whatsoever” Internal Rebellions: Internal rebellions with roots in the class system in New York and New England Hudson Valley ○ Small farmers rent land from large estates and demand ownership of the land they work ○ Stop paying rent, but this challenge to ownership fails Vermont ○ Rebel farmers challenge landowners, demanding ownership of the land they work, and take up arms ○ Ethan Allen takes up the cause of the Green Mountain farmers, and succeeds in making Vermont into a separate state, breaking up some large estates The Townshend Program English landlords opposed Rockingham government’s policy of appeasement since they were afraid the government would start to tax them more heavily King dismisses the Rockingham ministry and calls on William Pitt Pitt is old and ill so acting leadership is Charles Townshend Mutiny Act 25  ○ Required colonists to provide quarters and supplies to British troops in America ○ Colonists felt like this was an attack on another of their liberties and considered it taxation without consent once again ○ Massachusetts Assembly and the New York Assembly refused to vote the mandated supplies to the troops ○ Townshend’s 2 inflammatory measures: Disbands the New York Assembly until colonists agree to obey the Mutiny Act Townshend Duties - levies new taxes on goods imported to the colonies from england (lead, paint, paper, tea - “external” taxes) ○ Massachusetts Assembly circulates a letter urging colonies to stand up to Parliament, circular evokes little response, Lord Hillsborough issues his own circular threatening that assemblies that endorse the Massachusetts circular will be dissolved, Massachusetts reaffirms its support for their circular, other colonies support Massachusetts ○ Townshend establishes a new board of customs commissioners - ends smuggling in Boston ○ Boston merchants lead the organization of another boycott of British goods subject to the Townshend Duties ○ When Townshend dies, Lord North repeals all Townshend Duties except the tax on tea The Boston Massacre: 4 regiments of regular troops placed inside Boston as a result of the harassment of the new customs commissioners Presence of “redcoats” reminded colonists of British oppression and competed for jobs March 5, 1770 Boston Massacre → “liberty boys” throw rocks and snowballs at sentries, Captain Thomas Preston lines men up against building to protect it, in the scuffling British soldiers shoot and kill 5 people Samuel Adams - most successful radical in the colonies and leads in public outrage over Boston Massacre Proposes creation of a “committee of correspondence” to publicize grievances against England The Philosophy of Revolt: Ideas for revolt came from religious sources, political experiences, from abroad, and “radical” ideas of those in Great Britain who stood in opposition to their govt English constitution long considered the best system bc of its 3 elements of society: the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the common people King and his ministers were becoming too powerful to be checked 26  American slogan “no taxation without representation” Colonies did not have representation in Parliament America believes in a division of sovereignty, British believe there must be a single, ultimate authority The Tea Excitement: Despite the repeal of the Townshend Duties, resentment continued to rise in the early 1770s as harsh enforcement of the Navigation Acts continued Revolutionary sentiment was spread through leaflets, pamphlets, and books, and meetings in churches, schools, and critically, taverns, were commonly held Several overt acts of rebellion: seizure of British revenue ship on Delaware River, boarding and burning of the Gaspee off of Rhode Island → British extradited the colonists responsible via special commission Tea Act of 1773 gave the failing East India Company the right to directly export to the colonies and ignore navigation duties, which severely hurt American merchants Colonists, who Lord North believed would welcome the the tax due to the lowered final cost of tea, responded with a boycott, representing the first major, unified protest that linked the colonies Women, including Mercy Otis Warren, played a large role in encouraging colonial resentment → Daughters of Liberty Efforts throughout colonies to boycott BEIC tea: in Philadelphia and New York, colonists prevented the tea from leaving company ships, in Charles Town the tea was stored in a public warehouse Boston Tea Party: most dramatic protest against Tea Acts; December 16, 1773, colonists dressed as Native Americans board three ships in Boston Harbor and dump thousands of pounds of tea, an act soon echoed in other ports British respond in 1774 with 4 Coercive Acts (soon known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts) that targeted Mass: closing the port of Boston, dramatically limiting self-government, permitted officers accused of crimes to be tried in England, and provided for quartering of troops in barns and empty houses Quebec Act: granted civil government to French speaking Roman Catholics in Canada and Illinois, seen as threat by colonists who feared increased influence of the Anglican Church amid by rumors of the planned appointment of an Anglican bishop for America Coercive acts singled out Mass but inspired resolutions across the colonies Cooperation and War: Starting in 1765, colonial leaders developed organizations to use colonial dissent for direct action 1768: Samuel Adams calls convention of delegates from towns in Mass to replace the General Court, which had been dissolved Sons of Liberty, also organized by Adams, became powerful and enforced boycotts 27  Committees of Correspondence began in Mass in 1772 and soon spread throughout the colonies, soon morphing into what would eventually become the First Continental Congress September 1774: Continental Congress with delegates from all but Georgia meets in Philadelphia ○ Narrowly rejects a plan from Joseph Galloway for a colonial union under Britain ○ Issued a conflicting statement of grievances that addressed the King as “Most Gracious Sovereign” but demanded the repeal of oppressive acts ○ Passed resolutions that called for military preparations for defense against British troops in Boston ○ Agreed to non-importation, exportation, and consumption to boycott all British trade ○ Made plans to reconvene in the following Spring Colonies reaffirmed autonomous status and declared close to economic war Britain debated its response to the Continental Congress throughout the winter: Lord Chatam urged withdrawal of UK troops from NA, Edmond Burke called for repeal of Coercive Acts In the end, Lord North offered a series of measures known as the Conciliatory Propositions, seeking to divide the colonies by establishing locally-legislated taxes at the demand of parliament -- his proposal did not reach the colonies until after the first shots of the Revolution Lexington and Concord: Following the Continental Congress, colonists in Mass had been preparing and training as “minutemen,” ready to fight at a moment’s notice General Thomas Gage, who commanded British forces in Boston, was aware of the colonists’ preparations but had too little a force to respond before reinforcements Gage hesitated to take action to arrest Sam Adams and John Hancock but eventually acquiesced upon learning of a large stockpile of ammunition in Concord. 1000 soldiers were sent in what was intended to be a surprise attack Patriots in Boston got wind of the plans, however (Paul Revere and William Dawes’ night rides) and most of the ammunition was removed and the minutemen laid a successful ambush on British forces returning from Concord to Boston, killing almost 3 times their losses Which side fired the first shot is disputed, but the colonial version of British atrocity quickly circulated through the colonies and rallied additional support. That this would lead to full scale revolution, however, was still not clear 28 Purple Pages Supplemental Section: The First Global War (pg 114): French and Indian War was a small part of the much larger Seven Years’ War, one of the longest, most widespread, and important wars in modern history (it is often considered the “true” first World War) Result of a “diplomatic revolution” in Europe in which well-established alliances between Britain and Austria-Hungary and France and Prussia collapsed and were replaced by new alliances that put Britain/Prussia against France/Austria-Hungary ○ Austrian-British alliance collapsed because the British saw Austria as weak following several defeats to Prussia ○ Britain allied with the rising powers of Northern Germany, pushing Austria to ally with France for protection; Russia allied with Prussia and Britain against Austria in fear of domination in central Europe Much like the WWI of the 1900s, the Seven Years’ War was a result of these complex alliances, primarily driven by conflict between Prussia and Austria that spilled over due to the alliance systems The war soon spread throughout the colonial world as the British navy attacked French, and later Spanish holdings War was primarily fought over economic power, and cemented Britain as the premier world economic and military power due to their overwhelming victory and huge acquisition of territory from Spain and France One of the last great wars of religion: expanded dominance of Protestanitsm in Europe and stripped the Vatican of more power (they had been relying on Spain, France, and Austria-Hungary for military influence) Weakened France, strengthened Britain and Germany but provided no lasting solution to the rivalries Tea Parties (pgs 129-30): 21st century Tea Party movement rose to prominence in 2009; not an official political party but tends to endorse Republican candidates Borrowed name and most of the grievances from the 1773 Boston Tea Party: hostility to authority (Washington today, London then), and resentment of taxes, that although are no longer without representation are still seen as illegitimate “Tea, Destroyed by Indians:” poem honoring the Boston Tea Party, Dec. 1773 No centralized leadership of the Tea Party; TeaParty.org claims to be the “official” home of the party Core beliefs provided by TeaParty.org: 29  ○ Grassroots movement [context added by me: this has been disputed heavily and has often been labeled as astroturf] that calls awareness to issues that challenge the United States; voice of the true owners: “WE THE PEOPLE” ○ Uphold Constitution and Bill of Rights, building on legacy of 1773 ○ (I won’t list all of the specific platforms, read page 130 or the Wiki if you are a nerd like me :) but basically they are quite fiscally conservative, “America First,” pro-citizens’ rights, and anti-government; somewhere between libertarian, populist, and conservative) Tea Party movement basically no longer exists after 2016, mostly due to its platforms being embraced by the Republican Party at large under Donald Trump Taverns in Revolutionary Massachusetts (pg 131): In Massachusetts and many other places in colonial America in the 1760-70s, taverns were crucial to the development of popular resistance to British rule Puritan culture resisted taverns and there were efforts to regulate or close them, but taverns became a central institution nevertheless as the commercial life of the colonies expanded Besides the obvious appeal of alcohol, tavern offered one of the few locations were people could talk openly and were seen as the most democratic experience available; taverns were mostly attended by men as politics was mainly seen as a make concern Taverns became essential to the spread of information as the groundwork for revolution was being laid, especially among men that were illiterate due to the discussions and speeches Tavern owners were often trusted informants and worked closely with the Sons of Liberty; in one instance a local man that was continuing to sell tea despite the boycott in Danvers, Mass was brought to the Bell Tavern and made to sign a confession and apologize to the crowd Politicians saw it as essential to spend time in taverns to engage with the public, chiefly among them Samuel Adams 30 CHAPTER 5 Despite anticipation of conflict for some time, the colonies were quite unprepared for war when hostilities broke out in 1775. A divided nation with vastly inferior economic and military resources, America faced the unprecedented challenge of fighting the world’s premier military power: Great Britain. Defining American War Aims: The Second Continental Congress met three weeks after Lexington and Concord, and agreed to support the war but greatly disagreed on its purpose ○ John and Samuel Adams and Richard Henry Lee led a group that favored full independence from Britain ○ John Dickinson of Pennsylvania led the moderate side who hoped for modest reforms that would lead to early reconciliation with Britain ○ Most delegates tried to find some compromise between the two poles “Olive Branch Petition:” last conciliatory appeal to George III that was rejected “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms:” submission to tyranny or resistance by force Initially, the war was seen by much of the general public as a redress of grievances with Britain; as fighting continued, Britain enacted the “Prohibitory Act” (blockading all colonial ports) and losses mounted, however, attitudes soon shifted Support for independence was largely unspoken until the January 1776 publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine, in which he argued that the true issue was the British system itself, not simply specific oppressive acts of parliament. It would sell over 100,000 copies The Decision for Independence: Despite rising support for independence, the Continental Congress moved slowly toward a full break with Britain, declaring American ports open to ships of all nations besides Britain, entering into communication with foreign powers and encouraging colonies to establish new governments July 2nd: resolution that the colonies “are, and of right, out to be free and independent states” July 4th: approval of the Declaration of Independence, which laid out the justification for the resolution ○ Mostly written by Thomas Jefferson, with assistance from Benjamin Franklin and John Adams 31  ○ Largely based on various local declarations of independence that had been circulated in previous months, along with the familiar ideas of John Locke and a myriad of grievances against the king and parliament ○ “All men are created equal” became a rallying cry not just for the American revolution but movements around the world ○ Declaration of sovereignty allowed for foreign aid and prepared for France’s intervention, and encouraged patriots to reject peace that was short of independence ○ Heavily divided society, however Responses to Independence: Declaration of Independence inspired celebrations in Boston and Philadelphia but was far from universally met with rejoice, especially among those that had supported the war as long as it did not conflict with their loyalty to the king Substantial minority of loyalists, or tories as they were called by supporters of independence Colonies began to refer to themselves as states, and soon wrote formal constitutions as colonial assemblies continued to meet after their formal suspension by Parliament Nationally, the issue of government was more complex: there was doubt as to if a national government was even needed, and the now-states were seen as the real centers of authority Articles of Confederation adopted in November 1777, confirming a weak, decentralized system that was already operation to coordinate the war effort, with very limited authority over the states Struggle to balance state and local autonomy versus centralized government would continue; the war was fought under a weak and uncertain government that was unsure of its own legitimacy Mobilizing For War: Colonies faced substantial challenges to raising and organizing an army, providing them with supplies and equipment, and funding it all, without the access to British markets The colonies largely relied upon captured British weapons and French imports, due to their extremely limited domestic manufacturing capacity Extreme struggle to finance as Congress had no authority to directly levy taxes and local governments had little ability to actually collect taxes; attempts to sell long-term bonds proved largely unsuccessful Eventually the government was forced to print large quantities of paper money, which resulted in massive inflation and caused many farmers and merchants to prefer doing business with the British and contributed greatly to severe food shortages in the winter of 1777-78 The war ended up being largely financed by heavily borrowing from other nations 32  After 1775’s initial surge, volunteering for military service became quite rare and states had to resort to persuasion and force (bounties and drafting) In 1775, the state-based system was reorganized as the Continental Army under George Washington, selected due to his high position of respect and military experience in the French and Indian War (despite suffering a major defeat) Washington proved to be a highly capable leader and kept the war effort alive despite momentous struggles, insufficient resources, and Congressional interference With assistance from the Marquis de Lafayette and Baron von Stueben, Washington led an army of less than 10,000 to victory against the greatest military power in the world, and held the fledgling nation together The War For Independence: Britain: strongest navy, best equipped army, resources of an empire, strong command structure The United States had several major advantages that were not immediately apparent, however, most notably the homefront advantage and high level of (general) commitment to the cause, which was far from mirrored in Britain, along with substantial aid from France and other powers several years into the war Most importantly, the British committed several egregious blunders at the start of the war that turned what should have been a winnable conflict into a new kind of conflict that the British had no ability to succeed in The First Phase: New England: Initially, England did not view the conflict as a war, rather an anti-insurgency operation centered around Boston; colonial offensives would soon shatter this delusion April 1775: Battle of Bunker (Breed’s) Hill → American forced sieged Boston and despite eventually being driven from the hill, inflicted a massive number of casualties on British forces that would remain their greatest loss of the entire war May 17, 1776 “Evacuation Day” → British realize Boston is a poor place to wage war from, retreat with hundreds of loyalists to Nova Scotia February 22, 1776, patriots crush loyalist uprising in North Carolina, quash British plans to invade southern colonies with substantial loyalist support Invasion of Canada launched in 1775-76; fails alongside a civilian commission led by Ben Franklin. Canada would not join the new nation Evacuation of Boston less a victory than a British restructuring and realization that they will be fighting a much larger and longer conflict The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region: 1776-78: British were in best position to win, as war transitional to a conventional conflict in which the colonists were woefully overmatched Summer of 1776: hundreds of British ships and 32,000 soldiers arrive in NYC, largest military force ever sent abroad by Britain 33  William Howe, commander of British forces, attempted to submit the colonies to royal pardon and had no particular hostility toward the Americans George Washington raised poorly equipped force of 19,000 with no navy to oppose British, a force that was soon driven from Long Island, Manhattan, New Jersey, and into Pennsylvania British stopped fighting for winter, Washington assaulted Trenton (occupied by Hessians) and Princeton but was unable to hold either British plan in 1777: cut colonies in half by capturing NY from North and South; Howe partially abandons plan to attack capital of Philadelphia, leaving a smaller force under John Burgoyne to carry out the two-pronged NY attack. The British easily conquered Philadelphia and the Continental Congress relocated to York After seizing Fort Ticonderoga, the British forces suffered massive defeats at Oriskany, NY, Bennington, VT, and most famously Saratoga, which spelled the end to the offensive in NY Victory at Saratoga became a massive turning point as it directly led to the alliance with France and marked the end of the period in which the British had the ability to achieve a decisive victory Much of the blame for the failure was placed on Howe, who weakened the NY plan, displayed incompetence in Pennsylvania and was even accused of sympathizing with the colonies The Iroquois and the British: Despite declaring their neutrality as a confederacy in 1776, the Mohawk (pushed by Joseph and Mary Brant), Seneca and Cayuga allied themselves with the British in hopes that a victory would help limit settlement on tribal lands The Confederacy continued to unravel as the Onieda and Tuscarora backed the Americans and the Onondaga split into factions; the war proved detrimental to all of the tribes Securing Aid From Abroad: Even before the Declaration of Independence was signed, Congress sent representatives to negotiate commercial agreements with European powers Most important partner became France, who was eager to weaken the British and supplied the colonies with large quantities of military supplied through fictional trading firms and secret agents to obscure their true commitment Following the victory at Saratoga and Benjamin Franklin’s negotiations in Paris, France formally recognized the United States in 1778 and secured naval and expeditionary support Spain the the Netherlands soon drifted into another war with Britain and also provided direct and indirect support to America; France was by and large the most critical ally, however The Final Phase: The South: 34  Following the defeat at Saratoga, the British government grew even less united behind the war effort and imposed limits on their commitment to the war; strategy soon shifted to undermining the war from within through what they believed to be a loyalist majority (they were a minority) Believing loyalist support to be highest in the south, the British suffered three years of dismal failure as they attempted to neutralize territory throughout the region The British massively overestimated the number of loyalists that would actively support their efforts in the south and alienated many southerners by recruiting slaves that they rewarded to desert Southern conflict became revolutionary in the sense that it introduced a new style of fighting and mobilized large swathes of the population that were now forced to involve themselves, resulting in further increased support for independence Sir Henry Clinton replaced William Howe and ordered the army back to NYC, where it remained for almost a year and engaged in virtually zero fighting Benedict Arnold became a traitor and conspired to surrender West Point to the British, a plan that was discovered before it could be executed and forced him to flee to the British lines Despite several significant successes in the south, notably the capture of Savannah and Charles Town and victory at Camden, the British continued to suffer greatly from the guerrilla tactics of patriots in the region Nathanael Greene became the commander of American forces in the south and soon inflicted such losses on the British that they were forced to end the Carolina campaign British forces took up position in Yorktown, VA to await ships to carry them to NY or Charles Town; George Washington and the French expeditionary force along with the French navy surrounded the city The Americans and French coordinated their operations and trapped the British between land and sea; after a few attempts at resistance Cornwallis surrendered on October 17, 1781 War did not formally end, the French fleet was soon defeated in the West Indies, and the British still held NY, Savannah, Charles Town, and Wilmington, and although there was no significant fighting for the next year fears lingered of renewed combat and the prospect of an American loss Winning the Peace: Lord North resigned amid British outage over the defeat in Yorktown John Jay, Ben Franklin, and John Adams led the American delegation in Paris to negotiate with the British, were instructed to defer to the French America began working on a separate settlement, with an initial agreement signed in November 1782 when it became clear that France would not agree to a settlement until Spain achieved its objective of reconquering Gibraltar (which seemed highly unlikely) 35  Franklin worked to pacify the French over their break in negotiations and the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, ending hostilities between Britain, France, Spain, and the newly-recognized United States, which was granted recognition of its independence and a large concession of territory from Canada to Florida and to the Mississippi The last British troops left in the fall of 1783 as George Washington returned to NY War and Society: Continued debate over whether the American revolution was social as well as political → some argue that the fight was also over who should rule domestically Regardless of it it was social revolution, its effects on society are indisputable Loyalists and Minorities: Roughly ⅓ of the American population was loyalist Loyalists included officeholders of the imperial government, merchants who traded with the British, minorities who wanted protection from an independent America, those who feared social instability and those that felt the British would win Loyalists were harassed and over 100,000 fled the new nation; wealthy loyalists left behind property, opening up opportunities for patrios to gain land and influence Many Anglicans were loyalists; official religion in Maryland and VA but the church was discontinued by revolutionary regimes after most ministers had already fled anyway Weakened Quakers because pacifism was unpopular, strengthened Catholic Church as many patriots, and especially their French allies, were Catholic ○ Vatican provided the U.S with a Catholic hierarchy after the war, father John Carroll named head of Catholic missions in America in 1784 The War and Slavery: Slaves in South defected to the British cause for emancipation, were exposed to the idea of liberty 1775 → Thomas Jeremiah, a freed slave, was executed in SC upon beliefs that he smuggled British weapons to slaves In the North, revolutionary sentiment and Evangelical ideas helped spread abolition In the South the church was used to rationalize slavery, believed that slavery helped protect liberty for whites Native Americans and the Revolution: Patriots initially tried to convince native tribes to stay neutral, both sides ended up attempting to recruit natives to their cause Summer 1776 → Cherokees led by Dragging Canoe attacked outlying white settlements in Carolinas and VA, whites forces Cherokees west of Tennessee River where they signed a treaty ceding even more land Four of the six Iroquois Tribes (discussed earlier in these notes) led successful attacks on patriot forces 36  An American victory meant more westward expansion; some whites wanted to conquer/punish natives while others sought to assimilate them into white society 1774 → Shawnee natives attacked white settlers moving into Kentucky but quickly lost as they had no allies (Lord Dunmore’s War); overall natives were too divided for any real success against white settlers 1782 → militia killed 96 peaceful Delaware Indians in Ohio for accusations of killing white settlers (accusations that were almost certainly false) Women’s Rights and Women’s Roles: War left women in charge of farms/businesses, although some did not have farms/shops to fall back to, leading to a high population of poor women Women protested against price increases and some attacked British officers occupying their homes Many women went to camps with patriot soldiers out of economic necessity or to escape diseases carried by British soldiers Some men were angered by the disruption of traditional gender roles but women were important for performing household tasks around camp A few instances of women directly participating in combat: Molly Pitcher taking place of her fallen husband 1779 → Judith Sargent Mary advocated for women’s education Unmarried women could hold property, married women could not, widows lost right to regain their dowries from their husbands’ estates after the war (widows being unable to support themselves increased calls for women’s education) Revolution confirmed patriarchy, but altered role of women → more emphasis on mothers to teach children ideas of republic The War Economy: Lost economic ties to British empire, but strengthened American economy in the long run Privateering was more profitable than ordinary peacetime trade (lighter, faster ships) End of imperial restrictions opened up trade, merchants in NE traded in the Caribbean and South America By the mid 1780’s there was in increase in trade with Asia (manufactured goods for furs and hides in China) More domestic trade between states, homespun movement → reliance on home economy The Assumptions of Republicanism: Americans agreed on republican government → government by the people Ideal of small freeholder (independent landholder) was important; sizable dependent workforce existed nevertheless The First State Constitutions: England’s constitution was unwritten and too vague in eyes of colonists Pennsylvania eliminated the executive branch entirely, other states limited power of executives to making appointments and vetoes (governors) 37  All states forbade governors from also holding seats in the legislature (separation of powers) Upper and lower chambers of legislature in all states but Georgia and Pennsylvania Property requirements for voting Revising State Governments: Late 1790s → little being done led states to believe the problem was “too much” democracy, led to de-democratization of power Mass. ratified its first constitution in 1780 ○ Early constitutions were written by state legislatures so they could easily be amended/violated by them, constitutional convention established instead → only met once to plan constitution ○ Executive branch became stronger and directly elected by the people, fixed salary, appointment/veto powers Other states soon followed lead of Mass. Toleration and Slavery: Americans wanted religion to play some role in politics but did not want one denomination to hold power 1786 → VA enacted Statute of Religious Liberty written by Jefferson for separation of Church and State Slavery weakened but survived in all southern and border states → people did not think slaves could be integrated into society as free men The Confederation: 1777 → Continental Congress adopted Articles of Confederation that made Congress the national authority but gave states most power During ratification small states wanted equal representation while larger states wanted population-based representation (small states prevailed); VA and NY had to give up Western land claims to national government 1781 → ratified Existed from 1781-89 and had little power Diplomatic Failures: Confederation had trouble making Britain honors its commitments in the Treaty of Paris ○ British wouldn’t evacuate Great Lakes or pay back slave owners whos slaves they had freed during the war ○ Americans wanted access to British waters but Britain refused The Confederation and the Northwest: 1790 → many settlers had moved west, Confederation had to figure out how to include them in political process 1784 → Land Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 self-governing districts that could petition Congress for statehood when their free population = that of smallest state 38  Land Ordinance of 1785 - Congress sold western lands by cutting up Ohio River Valley into rectangular townships to be sold (the grid) Ordinances favored land speculators, most settlers couldn’t afford land and priority was given to Ohio and Scioto land companies over individual settlers 1787 Northwest Ordinance → created single territory of lands north of Ohio, min. Population of 60,000 for statehood, religious freedom, no slavery South of Ohio River (Tennessee and Kentucky) received little attention from Congress and became a chaotic region Native Americans and the Western Lands: Land that Congress was dividing up was inhabited by natives 1784,85,86 → Congress attempted (and failed) to get natives to sign treaties ceding land 1786 → Iriquious went back on treaty signed in 1784 and threatened to attack white settlements Most violent clashes occurred in early 1790s: ○ 1790-91 → Miami and Shawnee led by Miami warrior Little Turtle defeated U.S forces on western border of Ohio near Wabash River (greatest native victory) ○ Miami refused to sign a treaty that would allow white settlers to go west of Ohio River ○ 1794 → General Anthony Wayne defeated natives in Battle of Fallen Timbers ○ Miami signed treaty of Greenville, ceding land in exchange for their claim to their territory Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays: Postwar depression from 1784-1787, inadequate monetary supply Congress needed to pay debt but had no authority to levy taxes Robert Morris (head of the Confederate treasury), Alexander Hamilton and James Madison called for Congress to impose a 5% tax on imported goods to pay off debt 1781 and 1783: Congress rejected plan over fears it gave Morris too much power States raised their own taxes to pay war debts Shay’s Rebellion: summer of 1786, Daniel Shay led men to disrupt government in Mass for demands of paper money, tax relief, moratorium on debts, relocation of state capital from Boston to interior, and abolishment of prison for debt January 1787 → Shay’s men took up arms but were quickly put down my militiamen Purple Pages Supplemental Section: The Age of Revolutions (pg 153): American revolution the result of specific grievances with Britain but also part of an “age of revolutions” that swept the Western world in late 18th- early 19th century Modern idea of revolution largely a product of the Enlightenment, notably the idea of popular sovereignty popularized by John Locke (*consent of the governed*) 39  Individual freedom was also a popular Enlightenment ideal, alongside political and legal equality championed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1789: revolution began in France; monarchy was abolished with the execution of the king and queen in 1793, reign of terror and Napoleon (1799) 1791: slave rebellion in Haiti inspired by American and French revolutions, led by Toussaint L’Overture, who defeated both slave owners and the French forces sent to quell the revolution, Haiti became independent in 1804 Revolution next came to the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas, especially among Creoles (people of European descent born in the Americas) Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal lessened their ability to maintain authority over their colonial holdings; Mexico became independent in 1822, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica soon followed Simon Bolivar, inspired by George Washington, led Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru to independence Revolution was not limited to the Americas, Greece rebelled against Ottoman rule and gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830 While revolutions led to many new independent nations, the ideals of the revolutions were less successful: slavery remained in the U.S and Latin America, monarchies emerged in Brazil, France, and Mexico, and women made few social or legal gains in their wake. The ideals of the age of revolution would not be forgotten, however, and eventually would shape the 19th century and beyond 40 CHAPTER 6 In the ratification of a new U.S. Constitution the Federalists wanted ratification and the creation of a stronger federal government while the Anti Federalists supported modifications to the Articles of Confederation but opposed wide-scale changes proposed by the Federalists. Disputes over domestic and foreign challenges also arose during this time and political parties were formed with differing views on these issues. After the revolution, the Confederati