Social Identity Theory - Psychology

Three approaches to understanding behavior Cognitive: behavior results from our way of thinking ○ Mental schemas Sociocultural: behavior...

Three approaches to understanding behavior Cognitive: behavior results from our way of thinking ○ Mental schemas Sociocultural: behavior ○ Memory results from cultural and ○ Patterns of thought social influences Biological: behavior results from our biology ○ Social factors ○ Brain function (socioeconomic status, ○ Neurotransmitters gender roles, education ○ Genetics level, etc) ○ Hormones ○ Cultural factors ○ Peers and family Menti Why might we feel attracted to someone?  Why might we feel attracted to someone? Biological Cognitive Sociocultural Neurotransmitters: Schemas: Internal "ideal Cultural Norms: Standards Dopamine and oxytocin partner" shapes attraction. of beauty and success create pleasure and bonding. influence preferences. Similarity & Familiarity: Evolutionary Psychology: We’re drawn to those like us Social Learning: Attraction Attraction to traits signaling or those we see often. modeled by family, peers, and health and reproductive media. fitness. Halo Effect: Someone’s physical attractiveness might Proximity: Being near Pheromones: Influence make us perceive other someone increases genetic compatibility. characteristics as positive, attraction. too. Hormones: Testosterone and Group Dynamics: Favoritism estrogen drive sexual Confirmation bias: Positive for in-group members or attraction. first impressions lead to societal expectations. deeper attraction through confirmation bias. Basic concepts of the sociocultural approach 1. Culture influences behavior. 2. Human beings are social creatures and have the basic need to belong. 3. Our behavior is influenced by other people, even when we think we are acting independently. 4. Our social context plays a very important role in our behavior. 5. We are all individual and social beings. Sociocultural Approach The Individual & The Group The Individual and the Group Social Identity Theory  menti Who are you? Brainstorm a few words that describe who you are Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1979) Social Identity Theory: theory suggests that a person not only has a personal "I" (e.g., I am generous) but also has several social "I's" (e.g., I am Ecuadorian). Social identity refers to the ways that people's self-concepts are based on their membership in social groups. ○ Examples include sports teams, religions, nationalities, occupations, sexual orientation, ethnic groups, and gender. intergroup conflict theory; aims to explain why conflict and discrimination occur suggests that we need to understand who we are in social contexts sometimes one social identity stands out from others, depending on the circumstances. ○ And when one identity stands out, it influences our behavior. Task: Introduction to Social Identity Theory 1. Answer the following questions: a. What are your social identities? Name at least 5 - the most important ones - and tell me a little about how each one is part of your identity and influences your behavior. b. Which of these identities stands out the most at this point in your life, and why? Has it always been this way, or is it something that has changed? 2. Read the document: Social Identity Theory a. 3 pages, PDF attached b. Take notes of the reading Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1979) It involves 4 psychological mechanisms 1. Social categorization: the process of categorizing ourselves into groups and identifying which groups we belong to and which we do not belong to. ○ Groups to which we belong: ingroup ("us") ○ Groups to which we do not belong: outgroup ("they"). Note: social categorization may occur as a result of an actual or perceived shared identity, but it may also happen randomly. 2. Social identification: after deciding that we belong to a group, we go through the process of adopting the norms and characteristics of the group.  Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, 1979) 1. hh 2. hh 3. Social comparison: process of comparing our group to other groups ○ Tendency to increase inter-group differences ○ Tendency to perceive individual differences within the in-group, but not within the out-group i. perception that everyone in the outgroup is “the same”= out-group homogeneity ○ Method of justifying our group membership 4. Positive distinctiveness: in the process of comparing our group to another group, we tend to positively compare our group on some dimension ○ Tendency to believe that our group is better (in-group favoritism) and the other group is worse (out-group discrimination) ○ Method of achieving positive self-esteem through in-group membership  How might Social Identity Theory play a role in each of these scenarios? October 2019/June 2022 Einstein Choreographies Trials protests Emergencies Conformity Soccer fans  Social Identity Theory: Chen et al (2005) Objective: to see if highlighting a social identity, in this case belonging to a specific cultural group, affects shopping behavior. Procedure: Online study with 149 bicultural participants (Singapore and USA) randomly assigned to two conditions. 1. Priming task: ○ Condition A: participants were primed to highlight their identity as Singaporeans by showing them pictures representative of Singaporean culture (issues, flags, celebrities). ○ Condition B: the same as in condition A, but to highlight their identity as Americans. ○ Then, they were all asked to write down all the elements they could remember from the photos. 2. Participants were given an online shopping scenario, in which they were to purchase a book. ○ They were told that the standard shipping cost was 2.99 Singapore dollars. ○ They were then told that it would take five business days to receive delivery, but that they could pay more to get the book in one day. Participants were asked how much they were willing to pay to receive the book in one day. 3. Finally, participants were asked to list the first three politicians that came to mind. ○ This was done to test if participants were still thinking about the cultural context that was made salient to them Social Identity Theory: Chen et al (2005) Cultural Context: Cultural Dimensions  Social Identity Theory: Chen et al (2005) Results: Evaluation People whose American cultural values became more Strengths: prominent through priming placed a higher value on ○ Experiment: shows cause and effect immediate consumption than people whose Eastern relationship; high control of variables, (Singaporean) cultural values were emphasized. randomly assigned participants. Highlighting the culture of the ○ in the United States, immediate gratification is participants caused differences in valued more than in Singapore; it is a short-term their behavior. oriented culture. ○ High internal validity ○ Priming a specific social identity played a role in Limitations their online shopping behavior. ○ Unrepresentative sample (students, all In both cases, participants listed politicians who were bicultural) relevant to the culture for which they had been primed. lowers external validity ○ It indicates that the identity that was intended to stand out was maintained throughout the study and should rule out individual differences between groups. Short Answer Questions (SAQ) - Paper 1 “Explain the use of one research method in the sociocultural approach using one study to support your answer” 1. What are you being asked to explain? Three paragraphs: A research method. 1. The description of the method. 2. What else should be in the SAQ? 2. The description of the study. A study from the sociocultural approach. 3. The explanation of why this 3. What is meant by "explain"? method is used. You should make clear how and why this research method was used in this study. SIT: Drury et al. (2009) & Hilliard & Liben (2010) Your task: 1. Separate yourselves into 6 groups 2. Read the study that was assigned to you a. You may do additional research about the study if you need/want to 3. Create a presentation (google slides, prezi, canva) about the study, that include the following: a. Aim b. Procedure c. Results d. Conclusion - how does it relate to Social Identity Theory? e. Evaluation ( two strengths and two limitations) Hilliard & Liben presentation 4. You will then present this to a group who prepared Drury et al. presentation the other study. Graphic representation of the kinds of images presented to the children in Hilliard & Liben (2010) Practice - Evaluating Freudian Theory Freudian Theories: The trauma of birth The personality triad of id, ego, superego Defense mechanism: Projection The Oedipal conflict Freudian slips (parapraxis) Wish fulfilment (dreams) Task: In groups of 3, research one of the Freudian theories above. Then, in the attached document (Toddle) provide a short summary and use the TEACUP model to evaluate the theory that you chose. Now, use the TEACUP model to evaluate Social Identity Theory. Extended Response Questions (ERQ)- Papers 1 & 2 “Evaluate Social Identity Theory” 1. What are you being asked to evaluate? Social Possible structure Identity Theory. 1. Introduction & explanation of the 2. What is meant by "evaluate"? Consider theory. strengths and limitations; for theories, use the 2. Evidence #1 TEACUP method. 3. Evidence #2 3. What else should be in the ERQ? Two studies 4. Evaluation on the theory - that help you make your argument, and evidence of TEACUP method critical thinking. 5. Conclusion The Individual & The Group Stereotypes Shopping while Black Stereotype vs. prejudice vs. discrimination Stereotypes These are organized beliefs or ideas about the characteristics associated with different social groups: physical appearance, interests, occupations, etc. They are often acquired indirectly from other people and social norms rather than from personal experience. They can be positive or negative. They are schema (mental representations) that help us understand the world around us. ○ Serve as tools to simplify things - we can’t know every single person, so we use stereotypes to “think” that we know something about a person, based solely on their social identity. The person is that way until proven otherwise. They tend to be very general in nature; we usually recognize that they cannot be applied to everyone in the group. Prone to confirmation bias - that is, we tend to see examples - whether on the street, in the press or on television - that confirm our stereotypes and tend to ignore examples that contradict them. Prejudice are the positive or negative (but usually negative) feelings and emotions one has about a social group and its members. When we judge individuals with very little information about them, except for their group membership. Discrimination is the differentiated behavior towards a social group or its members on the basis of race, sex, political ideas, religion, etc. It comes from the stereotypes and prejudices we have about a person or a group.  The Origin of Stereotypes Grain of truth hypothesis - Campbell 1967 ○ Suggests that stereotypes come from one or both of these factors: Personal experiences with people and groups Gatekeepers (cultural and societal influences - peers, family, media, etc) ○ Suggests that stereotypes normally have a “grain of truth” (i.e. they are true to some extent), but we generalize our experiences with a a few individuals to the entire group The Origin of Stereotypes Social Identity Theory ○ We have a tendency to categorize people into in-groups and out-groups ○ We tend to compare the in-group to the out-group, and tend to think that they are very different (and that the in-group is better) We also tend to think that all the members of the out-group are very similar to each other - out-group homogeneity ○ All of this contributes to the formation of stereotypes about the out-group The Origin of Stereotypes Illusory correlation ○ People perceive a relationship between two variables when in fact there is no relationship We think there is a relationship between group membership and a certain characteristic/behavior ○ Then, we tend to only see or remember the information that supports this supposed relationship. confirmation bias The Origin of Stereotypes Hamilton and Gifford simulation: https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1ZKDt w16ARs_aZKWHFrYqdZg8EhIKcXS3/edit#slid e=id.p42 Results: But in reality… Group A Group B # of people % of positive % of negative traits traits Positive Characteristics 5.13 4.63 Group A 26 70% 30% Negative Group B 13 70% 30% Characteristics 2.82 3.90 So, is Group A really better than Group B? Worksheet Why did you think this? The Origin of Stereotypes: Studies 1. 2. TODAY: 1. I will give you an article about Hamilton & Gifford 3. Now think about Hilliard and Liben (1976) (in print). (2010), which we discussed when 2. In your notebook, you should take notes (i.e. bullet learning about Social Identity Theory. In points that are understandable) about the following your notebook, respond to the following components: questions: Aim: What does this study tell us about Procedure: the origin of stereotypes? Results: What theory of the origin of Conclusion (What does this tell us about the stereotypes does this study origin of stereotypes? What theory of the support? origin of stereotypes does this support?). Evaluation (including two strengths and two limitations)  Testing Stereotypes One of the difficulties that social psychologists face in studying attitudes toward groups is that research participants may be unwilling or unable to report their actual attitude toward the group. ○ They may lie to the researcher to avoid reporting a negative attitude toward a social group because doing so may be considered inappropriate. ○ They may simply not know what their attitude is The Implicit Association Test was developed to explore unconscious beliefs and preferences and is one of the most widely used tools. ○ although we may not be aware of all of our beliefs and preferences, they may actually influence our behavior  Implicit Association Test 1) Go to the site Implicit Association Test a) Complete the registration form if prompted b) Read the "Preliminary Information" page and click on "I wish to proceed" at the bottom of the page 2) Choose a test to take a) Read the instructions carefully and complete the activity with full attention and without distractions (it only takes 10-15 min). b) Read the results at the end 3) Read the document: How the IAT Works and Why It Reveals Bias. 4) Respond to reflection questions on Toddle.  The Effect of Stereotypes Stereotype Threat Watch the video posted under the material “Stereotype Threat: Steele & Aronson” on Toddle and respond to the following questions as best as you can: 1. What does “stereotype threat” mean? What does it tell us about the way stereotypes affect behavior? 2. About the study Steele & Aronson (1995), a. Aim: b. Procedure: (make sure you explicitly include what were the two independent variables, what was the dependent variable) c. Results: (describe and draw a bar graph to visualize results) d. Conclusion: e. Evaluation: (at least one strength and one limitation. They can be ethical or methodological considerations) 3. Do you experience and/or witness stereotype threat in your own life? Provide a few examples. Stereotype Threat 1. What does “stereotype threat” mean? What does it tell us about the way stereotypes affect behavior? ○ Stereotype threat is the fear that you will confirm a negative stereotype about a group that you belong to. When people are faced with a stereotype threat, they often get nervous and perform worse, thus confirming the stereotype. Steele & Aronson make it clear that individuals do not have to believe in the stereotype for it to affect their behaviour. It is simply an awareness of this stereotype that leads to anxiety that impairs performance. 2. Steele and Aronson (1995) ○ Aim: to see if stereotype threat would affect the performance of African Americans on a test of abilities ○ Procedure: The sample was made up of 76 male and female, African American and white undergraduates from Stanford University. The participants were given a standardized test were told either that it was a test to diagnose their intellectual ability or that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. One IV is thus what they were told about the test. The other IV is the race of the participant (white or African American). The dependent variable was their results on the test. ○ Results: There was no significant difference between male and female participants. However, African Americans did worse than white Americans when they believed that the test was a test of their intellectual ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills. ○ Conclusion: Stereotypes about the intellectual ability of African Americans led to spotlight anxiety which meant that African Americans performed worse on the test when they thought it was measuring this kind of ability.. This shows that stereotypes can have a negative effect on performance even if the individual does not believe in the stereotype himself. ○ Evaluation: Strength: experiment; establishes cause and effect; is controlled and replicable Limitation: sampling bias (leads to low external validity), ethical considerations (maybe some participants were harmed?) Debate about stereotype threat https://drive.googl e.com/file/d/1Vs2i pdfTH5EijcXBoLFy jhh_50jAX173/vie w?usp=sharing The Effect of Stereotypes …What about positive stereotypes? The overall consensus in research suggests that positive stereotypes are still harmful, despite their seemingly complimentary nature. Here’s why: Link 1. Reinforce stereotyping by reducing individuals to group-based generalizations. a. Reinforce negative stereotypes and systemic inequalities. 2. Create pressure to conform to unrealistic or narrow expectations. Link 3. Dehumanize and objectify, overlooking individuality. 4. Cause stress and harm, including anxiety, low self-esteem, and intergroup tensions. Link The Effect of Stereotypes Martin and Halverson (1983) Memory Distortions Aim: study the effect of gender stereotypes on children’s memory Procedure: Participants were 5-6 year old boys and girls Each child was shown 16 photos of another child performing an activity ○ Half of the photos showed a child doing something consistent with gender stereotypes (e.g., a girl playing with a doll). - stereotype-congruent photos ○ The other half of the photos showed a child doing something inconsistent with gender stereotypes (e.g., a girl playing with a tractor). - stereotype-incongruent photos A week later, they asked the children what they remembered about the photos.  Martin and Halverson: Photo examples Stereotype-congruent photos Stereotype-incongruent photos The Effect of Stereotypes Martin and Halverson (1983) Memory Distortions Results: The children more easily remembered photos that were congruent with gender stereotypes (e.g., a girl playing with a doll). In the case of stereotype incongruent-photos , the children tended to distort their memories to make the scene consistent with the stereotypes (e.g., they reported remembering seeing a boy playing with a tractor, when in fact they had seen a girl). Conclusion/link to the theory: This study shows that stereotypes (specifically, gender stereotypes), can cause memory distortions as our memory changes to fit the stereotype Evaluation: Strength: : experiment (cause and effect), highly controlled, replicable Limitation: artificial, low ecological validity, may not be generalizable to adults (sampling bias) The Effect of Stereotypes: Conclusion Stereotypes influence our behavior, even if we are not aware of them. They can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Effects that have been investigated include even less obvious ones such as: ○ Stereotype Threat (Steele & Aronson) studies on this have not been very reliable (i.e., the results have not always been the same); so the issue is debated. ○ Memory Distortions (Martin & Halverson) The Individual and the Group Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)  How do we learn? How does the boy learn undesirable behaviors (in the first half of the video)? How does the boy learn desirable behaviors (in the second half of the video)? Do you think this video is realistic in showing how kids learn? What lessons or insights about human Watch this clip from the film "Big Daddy" learning can be seen from this video? Social Cognitive Theory: Background Before 1960’s dominant belief was that we learn only through our own experience. Theories of conditioning ○ Classical conditioning learning by association - putting two stimuli together to create a new response. ○ Operant conditioning learning behaviors from their consequences - rewards and punishments And then, in the 1960's Bandura suggests that we don't need to experience everything personally to learn, you can learn by watching other people! = Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory: Main concepts Theory developed by Albert Bandura, which suggests that behavior is learned from our environment through observation and imitation, based on the consequences of the observed behavior for the model. The model may be intentionally trying to influence the behavior of others (e.g., a teacher), or may do so unintentionally and unconsciously (e.g., a parent). We look at the consequences of the behavior for the other person to see if we should imitate that behavior or not, as this saves us time and protects us as a species ○ this is called vicarious reinforcement. Example: if I see someone getting burned by touching a pot, I learn that I shouldn’t touch that pot. It is not necessary for me to personally touch the stove for me to learn that.  Social Cognitive Theory: Main concepts To reproduce an observed behavior, observers must meet certain conditions: 1. Attention: they must pay attention to the modeled behavior. 2. Retention: they must be able to remember the behavior. 3. Reproduction/Potential: they must have the physical/mental capabilities to perform the behavior. 4. Motivation: they must want to reproduce the behavior and expect a certain result. Social Cognitive Theory: Main concepts These factors increase the overall likelihood of this social learning happening: The model stands out/distinguishes themselves from other models. The model's behavior is consistent. The observer likes and/or respects the model. The observer perceives similarities between him/her and the model (in group member). The model's behavior is reinforced (it receives either a positive or negative consequence) The observer believes that that they are capable of performing this behavior (self-efficacy). SCT applied to violence: Bandura et al (1961) Social Cognitive Theory has been used to explain various behaviors, in particular the learning of violent behaviors. Complete the SCT: Bandura et al. activity on Toddle Bandura et al: Aim & Procedure EXPERIMENT Aim: to determine whether children learn aggressive behaviors by observing an aggressive adult. Procedure: sample: 72 children between 3-5 years old (36 boys and 36 girls) First assessed to determine their level of aggression (by asking parents and teachers). Then divided into 3 balanced groups (matched pairs design) ○ each group randomly assigned to one of the following conditions: Condition 1 (aggression condition): would observe an adult model acting aggressively with an inflatable doll. Some would watch a woman, others a man. Condition 2 (non-aggression condition): would observe an adult model act peacefully with the doll Some would see a woman, some would see a man Control group: would not observe any adult. Then, each child was taken individually to a room with toys. The toys were then taken away. This was meant to arouse frustration in the children. Then, each child was taken to another room with toys, this time including the inflatable doll. Their behavior was observed. Bandura et al: Results 1) There was some aggression in all groups, but it was the highest in the group that saw a violent model, and lowest in the group that saw a peaceful model. 1) 2) Children were more likely to imitate the behavior of a model of the same gender. Girls imitated more verbal violence Boys imitated more physical violence Bandura et al: Evaluation Limitations artificial; little ecological validity Small sample and all children of Stanford staff - difficult to generalize Strengths Experiment - establishes a cause and effect relationship Shows how violence can be learned, between the observed behavior and the behavior of the but does not study whether children. aggression is innate (does not contradict the theory that Results support Social Cognitive Theory aggression has biological origins) ○ we learn socially Ethical problems with exposing ○ we are more likely to imitate the behavior when we children to violence - children may identify with the model. have felt stress, and effects may be long term Uses a matched-pairs design ○ controls for the level of aggression of children in different groups  SCT & television How does Social Cognitive Theory apply to television? television's influence is not always negative there is evidence that children's shows such as Sesame Street help children learn positive behaviors such as generosity, empathy and academic curiosity. Social Cognitive Theory has been used to develop television and radio programs aimed at preventing unwanted pregnancies, reducing HIV transmission, promoting literacy, and empowering women. SCT & 16 and Pregnant Watch a segment of an episode here. Follow the instructions on the Toddle task called “Social Cognitive Theory & television: 16 and Pregnant”. SCT: Kearney and Levine (2015) Aim: Assess the impact of the show "16 and Pregnant" on teen sexual behavior and the rate of teen pregnancy Procedure: Identified geographic areas (ex. particular cities) where the TV show "16 and Pregnant" was particularly popular Measured whether these geographic areas had greater decreases in teen pregnancy compared to other areas where the show was less popular Analyzed Google searches immediately following a new episode of "16 and Pregnant" Text from ibpsychmatters.com SCT: Kearney and Levine (2015) Findings Geographic areas where "16 and Pregnant" was particularly popular had greater decreases in teen pregnancy compared with other areas After a new episode of "16 and Pregnant" was shown, there was a spike in Google searches Listen to Melissa Kearney for terms like "how to get birth control" explain the results herself. Conclusion: The show "16 and Pregnant" had a positive impact in reducing the rate of teen pregnancy. Text from ibpsychmatters.com SCT: Kearney and Levine (2015) Evaluation This study supports social cognitive theory, particularly the role of reinforcement (whether the consequence for the behavior is positive or negative). By observing negative outcomes of teenage pregnancy (financial problems, difficulty completing school) teens are less likely to have unprotected sex This study measured actual rates of teen pregnancy, so we know that the decrease in teen pregnancy was actually going on in reality; it is not just a part of this study. As this was a correlational study, it is difficult to establish with certainty that it was "16 and Pregnant", and not other factors, that led to decreases in teen pregnancy. There may have been other differences in the geographical areas compared which might explain the decrease in teen pregnancy Text from ibpsychmatters.com Social Cognitive Theory: Biological Support Mirror neurons