Contract Law PDF

Section one Offer ‫اﻟﻌﺮض‬ Chapter One Formation of a contract ‫ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ A contract begins with an offer. The offer is an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms. It allows the other party to accept the offer and provides the basis of the agreement. An offer may be defined...

Section one Offer ‫اﻟﻌﺮض‬ Chapter One Formation of a contract ‫ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ A contract begins with an offer. The offer is an expression of willingness to contract on certain terms. It allows the other party to accept the offer and provides the basis of the agreement. An offer may be defined as a clear and unambiguous statement of the terms upon which the offeror is willing to contract, should the person or persons to whom the offer is directed decide to accept. 1.‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل ﻗﺮر اﻟﺸﺨﺺ أو اﻟﺄﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻮﺟﻪ إﻟﯿﻬﻢ اﻟﻌﺮض ﻗﺒﻮﻟﻪ‬،‫ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺑﯿﺎن واﺿﺢ وﺻﺮﯾﺢ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻌﺎرض ﻣﺴﺘﻌﺪا ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻟﻌﺮض‬.‫ ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻠﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﺑﻘﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﺮض وﯾﺸﻜﻞ أﺳﺎس اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق‬.‫اﻟﻌﺮض هﻮ ﺗﻌﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺎﺳﺘﻌﺪاد ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوط ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬.‫ﯾﺒﺪأ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﻌﺮض‬-An Invitation to treat: An offer should be distinguished from an invitation to treat, which a statement is made in circumstances where it is not intended that a contract will result if the person to whom the statement is made indicates his assent to its terms. The difference is that if the other party agrees to the terms of an invitation to treat, the courts will often view this response as an offer. Offer and an Invitation to treat have been explored in a number of cases, particularly in the areas of: (a) Advertisements (b) display of goods (c) auctions (d) tenders. 1 - ‫)د( اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺼﺎت‬ ‫( اﻟﻤﺰادات‬2).‫)ب( ﻋﺮض اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬ ‫( اﻟﺈﻋﻠﺎﻧﺎت‬1) :‫ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎﻟﺎت‬،‫ ﺗﻢ اﺳﺘﻜﺸﺎف ﻣﻔﻬﻮم اﻟﻌﺮض ودﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﻀﺎﯾﺎ‬.‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺎﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ‬،‫ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺮق هﻮ أﻧﻪ إذا واﻓﻖ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوط دﻋﻮة‬.‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻘﺪم ﻋﺒﺎرة ﻓﻲ ﻇﺮوف ﻟﺎ ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ أن ﺗﺴﻔﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻘﺪ إذا أﺷﺎر اﻟﺸﺨﺺ اﻟﺬي ﻗﺪﻣﺖ إﻟﯿﻪ اﻟﻌﺒﺎرة إﻟﻰ ﻣﻮاﻓﻘﺘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوﻃﻬﺎ‬،‫ودﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺐ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻌﺮض‬ ‫دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض‬. (A) Advertisements: If goods are advertised for sale at a certain price. it is not an offer, and no contract is formed by the statement of an intending purchaser that he will take a specified quantity of the goods at that price. An advertisement is a mere invitation to enter into a bargain rather than an offer. (‫ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل ﺑﯿﺎن اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺳﯿﺄﺧﺬ آﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﻬﺬا اﻟﺴﻌﺮ اﻟﺈﻋﻠﺎن هﻮ ﻣﺠﺮد دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ ﺻﻔﻘﺔ ﺑﺪﻟﺎً ﻣﻦ آﻮﻧﻪ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ )أ‬ ‫ وﻟﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ‬،‫ ﻓﺈن ذﻟﻚ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ‬،‫إذا ﺗﻢ اﻟﺈﻋﻠﺎن ﻋﻦ ﺳﻠﻊ ﻟﻠﺒﯿﻊ ﺑﺴﻌﺮ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ‬ :‫اﻟﺈﻋﻠﺎﻧﺎت‬. B) Display of goods: The display of goods for sale can be confused as an offer when in fact it is an invitation to treat. When goods are displayed in a store this constitutes an invitation to customers to make offer to purchase the items. The offer will therefore come from the customer at the checkout. (‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻌﺮض ﯾﺄﺗﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﺎط اﻟﺪﻓﻊ )ب‬،‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.‫ ﻓﺈن ذﻟﻚ ﯾﺸﻜﻞ دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﺎء ﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻋﺮوض ﻟﺸﺮاء اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬،‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﻋﺮض اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺘﺠﺮ‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬.‫ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ هﻮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض‬،‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻔﻬﻢ ﻋﺮض اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﻟﻠﺒﯿﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻪ ﻋﺮض‬ ‫ﻋﺮض اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬. (c) Auctions: There are special rules governing auctions. At an auction, the auctioneer is making an invitation to treat, not an offer. The offer is made by the person who makes a bid for the lot. The auctioneer then accepts the bid on the fall of his hammer. (‫ ﺛﻢ ﯾﻘﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺰاد اﻟﻌﺮض ﻋﻨﺪ ﺳﻘﻮط ﻣﻄﺮﻗﺘﻪ )ج‬..‫اﻟﻌﺮض ﯾﻘﺪم ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺨﺺ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻘﺪم ﻋﺮﺿﺎ ﻟﺸﺮاء اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ‬.‫ وﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ‬،‫ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﺰاد دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺰاد‬.‫ هﻨﺎك ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﺤﻜﻢ اﻟﻤﺰادات‬. :‫اﻟﻤﺰادات‬. (D) Tenders: Companies will often invite tenders from those interested in supplying the certain goods or services. Generally, an invitation to tender will constitute an invitation to treat and not an offer. (‫ )د‬2.‫اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺼﺎت دﻋﻮة ﻟﻠﺘﻔﺎوض وﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻋﺮﺿًﺎ‬ ‫ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ دﻋﻮة ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ‬،‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺸﺮآﺎت ﺑﺪﻋﻮة اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺼﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻬﺘﻤﯿﻦ ﺑﺘﻮرﯾﺪ ﺳﻠﻊ أو ﺧﺪﻣﺎت ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺼﺎت‬-TERMINATION OF AN OFFER: There are many different ways that an offer for a contract can be terminated. Termination of offer may occur by: A-Rejection B-Lapse of Time C-Death D-Conditional Acceptance A-Rejection ‫اﻟﻘﺒﻮل اﻟﻤﺸﺮوط‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻮت‬ ‫ﻣﺮور اﻟﻮﻗﺖ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻓﺾ‬ :‫ وﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻨﻬﺎ‬،‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺤﺪث إﻧﻬﺎء اﻟﻌﺮض ﺑﻌﺪة ﻃﺮق‬ When the offerer rejects an offer, this rejection will terminate the offer. ‫ ﻓﺈن هﺬا اﻟﺮﻓﺾ ﺳﯿﻨﻬﻲ اﻟﻌﺮض‬،‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺮﻓﺾ اﻟﻤﻘﺪم ﻋﺮﺿﺎ‬ ‫ا رﻓﺾ اﻟﻌﺮض‬. B-Lapse of Time The offeree generally has a "reasonable amount of time" in which to respond to the offer after he learns of it. This amount of time may vary depending on the subject matter of the contract, as well as the prior dealings between the parties. ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬،‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ هﺬا اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬. ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﻘﺪم "وﻗﺖ ﻣﻌﻘﻮل " ﻟﻠﺮد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺮض ﺑﻌﺪ أن ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻨﻪ‬ ‫ب ﺗﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ‬. C-Death If the offeree dies before the offer is accepted, the offer will be terminated. ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻌﺮض ﺳﯿﻨﺘﻬﻲ‬،‫إذا ﺗﻮﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﺮض ﻗﺒﻞ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﺮض‬ ‫ اﻟﻤﻮت‬- ‫ج‬. D-Conditional Acceptance If the offeree makes an acceptance that is conditional (i.e., "I'll only accept this offer if I can also have a free product"), this is not viewed as an acceptance of the offer, but rather a counter-offer. ‫اﻟﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل‬...‫ ﺑﻞ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ ﻣﻀﺎد‬.‫ ﻓﻠﺎ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ذﻟﻚ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﺎ ﻟﻠﻌﺮض‬،("‫ ﺳﺄﻗﺒﻞ هﺬا اﻟﻌﺮض ﻓﻘﻂ إذا آﺎن ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻲ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﺠﺎﻧﻲ أﯾﻀﺎ‬:‫ﻣﺸﺮوط )أي‬ ‫إذا ﻗﺎم ﻣﻘﺪم اﻟﻌﺮض ﺑﻘﺒﻮل‬ ‫د اﻟﻘﺒﻮل اﻟﺸﺮﻃﻲ‬ Section two Acceptance Acceptance occurs when a party to whom an offer has been made agrees to the proposal. To create an enforceable contract, the acceptance must: 1.Be made by the person or persons to whom the offer was made. 2.Match the terms in the offer. 3.Be communicated to the offeror. ‫ ﻗﺒﻠﻐﺎ ﻟﻠﻌﺮض‬.3.‫ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﺸﺮوط اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺮض‬2.‫ ﺻﺎدرًا ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺨﺺ أو اﻟﺄﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺬﯾﻦ وﺟﻪ إﻟﯿﻬﻢ اﻟﻌﺮض‬1 :‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻘﺒﻮل‬.‫ﻟﺈﻧﺸﺎء ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻠﺰم‬.‫ﺗﺤﺪث اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻮاﻓﻖ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺬي ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻋﺮض ﻟﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺮاح‬. A-WHO CAN ACCEPT AN OFFER? 1- An offer made to one person cannot be accepted by another person. 2- When an offer is made to a particular group or to the public, any member of the group or public who knows of the offer may accept it by doing whatever is required. ‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﺄي ﻋﻀﻮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ أو ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﻤﻬﻮر ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺮض أن ﯾﻘﺒﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﻤﺎ هﻮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮب‬،‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻋﺮض ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ أو ﻟﻠﺠﻤﻬﻮر‬ ‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬- 2.‫ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻘﺪم ﻟﺸﺨﺺ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺁﺧﺮ‬- 1 ‫أ ﻣﻦ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﻪ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﺮض؟‬. B-ACCEPTANCE MUST MATCH THE OFFER: The offeror may specify precisely when and how the acceptance is to be made and the offeree must comply with the terms. To complete the agreement, the offeree must then comply with such terms. The terms in the acceptance must exactly match the terms contained in the offer. Any change by the offeree results in a counteroffer. A counteroffer ends the original offer. This is true even if the change is to the advantage of the offeror. ‫ هﺬا ﺻﺤﯿﺢ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻮ آﺎن اﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺻﺎﻟﺢ اﻟﻌﺎرض‬.‫ اﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻀﺎد ﯾﻨﻬﻲ اﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﺄﺻﻠﻲ‬..‫ أي ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﯿﺪ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻋﺮﺿﺎ ﻣﻀﺎدًا‬..‫ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﯿﺪ اﻟﺎﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺸﺮوط ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺷﺮوط اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺮض‬،‫ﻟﺈﺗﻤﺎم اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق‬.‫ وﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﯿﺪ اﻟﺎﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺸﺮوط‬،‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻌﺎرض ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﻣﺘﻰ وآﯿﻒ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل‬. :‫ب ﻗﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﺮض ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺮض‬. Silence As Acceptance The offeror may not express an offer so that silence would appear to be acceptance. In a continuing relationship, the parties may agree that silence is to be regarded as acceptance. Examples: dessert of the month club, book of the month club, CD club, magazine subscription If a supermarket has a standing order to have a wholesaler ship a certain amount of fresh produce every day unless the retailer breaks the silence with some notice, then silence can be acceptance. ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﺴﻜﻮت ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﺎ‬،‫اﻟﺴﻜﻮت ﺑﺈﺷﻌﺎر‬ ‫إذا آﺎن ﻟﺪى ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻣﺎرآﺖ ﻃﻠﺐ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻟﺸﺤﻦ آﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻄﺎزﺟﺔ آﻞ ﯾﻮم ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻘﻢ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﺑﻜﺴﺮ‬.‫ اﺷﺘﺮاك اﻟﻤﺤﻠﺔ‬،‫ ﻧﺎدي اﻟﺄﻗﺮاص اﻟﻤﺪﻣﺠﺔ‬،‫ ﻧﺎدي آﺘﺎب اﻟﺸﻬﺮ‬،‫ أﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻧﺎدي ﺣﻠﻮى اﻟﺸﻬﺮ‬..‫ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻋﻠﻰ أن اﻟﺴﻜﻮن ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﺎ‬.‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة‬.‫ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻌﺎرض أن ﯾﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻋﺮض ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﯾﺒﺪو أن اﻟﺴﻜﻮت ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻗﺒﻮﻟﺎ‬. ‫اﻟﺼﻤﺖ آﻘﺒﻮل‬ C-COMMUNICATION OF ACCEPTANCE: he general rule that acceptance must be communicated, means that it must be received. So, where the parties are in each other's presence or talking on the telephone, the acceptance must be heard. And where the parties are not in each other's presence and instead are using a long distance means of communication, like a fax, email, the contract is only complete when the acceptance is received by the offeror. ‫ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﻜﺘﻤﻠﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﻠﺎم اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻌﺎرض ﻟﻠﻌﺮض‬،‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻔﺎآﺲ أو اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬،‫اﻟﺒﻌﺾ وﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺎن وﺳﯿﻠﺔ اﺗﺼﺎل ﺑﻌﯿﺪة‬ ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺴﻤﻊ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎن ﻓﻲ ﺣﻀﻮر ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻤﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻄﺮﻓﺎن ﻓﻲ ﺣﻀﻮر ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻤﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أو ﯾﺘﺤﺪﺛﺎن ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬،‫ﻟﺬا‬.‫اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺺ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺿﺮورة إﺑﻠﺎغ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﺗﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﻪ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﻘﺒﺎﻟﻪ‬ :‫ إﺑﻠﺎغ اﻟﻘﺒﻮل‬-‫ج‬. Section three Consideration ‫اﻟﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬ In common law, a promise is not, as a general rule, binding as a contract unless it is supported by consideration. Consideration is "something of value" which is given for a promise and is required in order to make the promise enforceable as a contract. For example, payment by a buyer is consideration for the seller's promise to deliver goods, and delivery of goods is consideration for the buyer's promise to pay. It follows that an informal gratuitous promise does not amount to a contract. ‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻮﻋﺪ‬،‫ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺮﺳﻤﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﻮﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻓﻊ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻧﻲ‬.‫ﻟﺎ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻋﻘﺪًا‬ ‫ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺪﻣﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي اﻋﺘﺒﺎرا ﻟﻮﻋﺪ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﺑﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ وﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻋﺘﺒﺎرًا‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬.‫اﻟﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر هﻮ "ﺷﻲء ذي ﻗﯿﻤﺔ" ﯾُﻌﻄﻰ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ وﻋﺪ وﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻟﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﻮﻋﺪ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ آﻌﻘﺪ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻌﺎم ﻟﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻮﻋﺪ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ آﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻣﺪﻋﻮﻣًﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬. Although a promise has no contractual force unless some value has been given for it, consideration need not be adequate. Courts do not, in general ask whether adequate value has been given (in the sense of there being any economic equivalence between the value of the consideration given and the value of any goods or services received). Accordingly, nominal consideration is sufficient. ‫ﻧﯿﺔ إﻧﺸﺎء ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺎت ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬.‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر اﻟﺎﺳﻤﻲ ﯾﻜﻮن آﺎﻓﯿﺎ‬،‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬.(‫اﻟﻤﻌﻄﻰ وﻗﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻤﺔ‬ ‫ ﻟﺎ ﺗﺴﺄل اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ ﻣﺎ إذا آﺎن ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻗﯿﻤﺔ آﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ وﺟﻮد أي ﺗﻮازن اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﺑﯿﻦ ﻗﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬،‫ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ‬.‫أﻧﻪ ﻟﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮط أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر آﺎﻓﯿﺎ‬ ‫ إﻟﺎ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن اﻟﻮﻋﺪ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﻪ ﻗﻮة ﺗﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻌﻂ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻪ‬ Section four Intention to create legal relations An agreement, even if supported by consideration, is not binding as a contract if it was made without an intention to create legal intentions. That is, the parties must intend their agreement to be legally binding. In the case of ordinary commercial transactions, there is a presumption that the parties intended to create legal relations. The onus of rebutting this presumption is on the party who asserts that no legal effect was intended, and the onus is a heavy one ً‫ وهﺬا اﻟﻌﺐء ﯾﻜﻮن ﺛﻘﯿﻠﺎ‬،‫ ﯾﻘﻊ ﻋﺐء إﺛﺒﺎت ﻋﻜﺲ هﺬا اﻟﺎﻓﺘﺮاض ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺬي ﯾﺰﻋﻢ أﻧﻪ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ هﻨﺎك ﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ أي أﺛﺮ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ‬.‫ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺎت ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫ هﻨﺎك اﻓﺘﺮاض ﺑﺄن اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻗﺪ ﻧﻮت إﻧﺸﺎء‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺎدﯾﺔ‬.‫أي ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻘﺼﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺼﺎﻗﻬﻢ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺎ‬.‫ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ آﻌﻘﺪ إذا ﺗﻢ إﺑﺮاﻣﻪ دون ﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﺈﻧﺸﺎء ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺎت ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬،‫ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻮ آﺎن ﻣﺪﻋﻮﻣﺎ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎر‬،‫ﻟﺎ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق‬. Simple contracts frequently take the form of mutual promises of some future performance but not every agreement leads to a binding contract which can be enforced through the courts. You may have an agreement to go out for dinner with a friend but generally the parties to such an agreement do not intend to be legally bound. There needs to have been an intention by the parties that the agreement should be legally binding. The absence of such an intention is fatal to the existence of the contract; while the agreement may exist in fact, it will not be recognised by the law, nor will it give rise to legal obligations or consequences. In deciding whether the parties had the intention to enter into a legai relationship, the court will consider the nature and context of the negotiations and the law draws a distinction between social and domestic agreements and agreements made in a commercial context.. ‫ وﯾﻤﯿﺰ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺎﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﯿﺔ واﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﻤﺒﺮﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬،‫ ﺳﺘﻨﻈﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ وﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻔﺎوﺿﺎت‬،‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ إذا آﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻗﺪ ﻧﻮت اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺔ‬.‫ وﻟﻦ ﯾﻨﺸﺊ اﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎت أو ﻋﻮاﻗﺐ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬،‫ إﻟﺎ أﻧﻪ ﻟﻦ ﯾﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﻪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺎ‬،‫ ﻏﯿﺎب هﺬﻩ اﻟﻨﯿﺔ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻗﺎﺗﻠﺎ ﻟﻮﺟﻮد اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻮﺣﺪ اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﯿﺔ‬،.‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن هﻨﺎك ﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﺑﺄن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺎ‬،.‫ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻘﺼﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻓﻲ ﻣﺜﻞ هﺬا اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق أن ﯾﻜﻮﻧﻮا ﻣﻠﺰﻣﯿﻦ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎ‬،‫ وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم‬،‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﯾﻚ اﺗﻔﺎق ﻟﻠﺨﺮوج ﻟﺘﻨﺎول اﻟﻌﺸﺎء ﻣﻊ ﺻﺪﯾﻖ‬.‫ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﯿﺲ آﻞ اﺗﻔﺎق ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻠﺰم ﯾﻤﻜﻦ إﻧﻔﺎذﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ‬،‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻄﺔ ﺷﻜﻞ وﻋﻮد ﻣﺘﺒﺎدﻟﺔ ﻟﺄداء ﺷﻲء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬. The court makes use of the device of a 'rebuttable presumption'. A presumption is a supposition that the law allows or requires to be made. 'Rebuttable' in this context means that the supposition will give way to evidence to the contrary. ‫ "ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺪﺣﺾ" ﻓﻲ هﺬا اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن هﺬﻩ اﻟﻔﺮﺿﯿﺔ ﺳﺘﺘﺨﻠﻰ أﻣﺎم اﻟﺄدﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺒﺖ ﻋﻜﺲ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫اﻟﺎﻓﺘﺮاض هﻮ ﻓﺮﺿﯿﺔ ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﻬﺎ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن أو ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺒﻬﺎ‬."‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﺟﻬﺎز "اﻟﺎﻓﺘﺮاض اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺪﺣﺾ‬. Section five Form The general rule is that contracts can be made informally; most contracts can be formed orally, and in some cases, no oral or written communication at all is needed. Thus, an informal exchange of promises can still be as binding and legally valid as a written contract. There are statutory exceptions to this rule. For example: Most contracts for the sale or disposition of an interest in land must be "made in writing": Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989, s 2; s 4. 1 4 ‫ اﻟﻤﺎدة‬2 ‫ اﻟﻤﺎدة‬1989 ‫ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ أﺣﻜﺎم ﻣﺘﻔﺮﻗﺔ‬:"‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺒﯿﻊ أو اﻟﺘﺼﺮف ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﻠﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺄرض "ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ‬:‫اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ‬.‫ هﻨﺎك اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءات ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة‬،‫وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬.‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﺗﺒﺎدل ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻮﻋﻮد ﻣﻠﺰﻣًﺎ وﺻﺎﻟﺤًﺎ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ آﺎﻟﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮب‬،‫ ﻟﺬا‬.‫ﻟﺎ ﺗﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ أي ﺗﻮاﺻﻞ ﺷﻔﻬﻲ أو آﺘﺎﺑﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺈﻃﻠﺎق‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺎت‬ ‫ وﻓﻲ‬،‫اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ هﻲ أﻧﻪ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ إﺑﺮام اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻏﯿﺮ رﺳﻤﻲ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺸﺨﯿﻞ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﺷﻔﻬﯿﺎ‬ Chapter two (Terms of a contract) ‫ﺷﺮوط اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬. A contractual term is "Any provision forming part of a contract". Each term gives rise to a contractual obligation, breach of which can give rise to litigation. The contents of a contract are known as terms or clauses, and even the simplest of contracts will have terms stating the rights and obligations of the parties.. The main terms usually consist of the price paid and the subject matter of the contract - for example, the goods or services provided. It is not a requirement that terms are in written form in simple contracts - the terms may be either wholly oral, wholly written, or partly oral and partly written - although writing is required in certain types of contract such as contracts for the sale of land. Contractual Terms are divided to express terms and implied terms. ‫ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺷﺮوط ﺻﺮﯾﺤﺔ وﺷﺮوط ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ‬.‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن اﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻣﺜﻞ ﻋﻘﻮد ﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﺄراﺿﻲ‬- ‫ أو ﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎ ﺷﻔﻮﯾﺔ وﺟﺰﺋﯿﺎ ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ‬،‫ ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬ ‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﺸﺮوط ﺷﻔﻮﯾﺔ‬- ‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت أن ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﺸﺮوط ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻜﺘﻮب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻄﺔ‬ (‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل اﻟﺴﻠﻊ أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ‬- ‫ﺗﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻌﺮ اﻟﻤﺪﻓﻮع وﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬.‫ وﺣﺘﻰ أﺑﺴﻂ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﺳﺘﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوط ﺗﻨﺺ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻘﻮق واﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎت اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬،‫ﺗﻌﺮف ﻣﺤﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺮوط أو اﻟﺒﻨﻮد‬.‫ وﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺆدي ﺧﺮﻗﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﺿﻲ‬،‫آﻞ ﺷﺮط ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺰام ﺗﻌﺎﻗﺪي‬.‫اﻟﺸﺮط اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪي هﻮ أي ﺑﻌﺪ ﯾﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﺰءا ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬. Section one (Express terms) ‫اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺼﺮﯾﺤﺔ‬ Express terms are words, provisions and conditions that have been specified, mentioned and agreed by both parties at the time the contract is made. Where the terms of a contract are disputed, the courts will have to decide whether a particular term is incorporated into the contract. Courts generally try to look at what the parties intended objectively. Where a contract is oral the judge has to determine what the parties said while if it is in writing, the document will be strong evidence of the parties' intentions and will assist the court to ascertain the precise terms. ‫ﻗﻮﯾﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻮاﯾﺎ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف وﺳﺘﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ‬ ً‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻮﺛﯿﻘﺔ ﺳﺘﻜﻮن دﻟﯿﻠﺎ‬،‫ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ إذا آﺎن ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺎ‬.‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺷﻔﻬﻨﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﺎﺿﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻟﻪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬.‫ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﺗﺤﺎول اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺼﺪﻩ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻲ‬.‫ﻧﺰاع ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ أن ﺗﻘﺮر ﻣﺎ إذا آﺎن ﺑﻨﺪ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ إدﺧﺎﻟﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﺷﺮوط اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻣﺤﻞ‬.‫اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺼﺮﯾﺤﺔ هﻲ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت واﻟﺒﻨﻮد واﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪهﺎ وذآﺮهﺎ واﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ آﻠﺎ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﻋﻨﺪ إﺑﺮام اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬. Section two Implied terms ‫اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ‬ Contractual relationships between people are often not just about the written words or terms the parties have used, but are also about the spaces in between: the silences, the things not said. Contractual Implied terms are devided to Terms implied by custom, Terms implied by law, and Terms implied in fact. A-Terms Implied by Custom Some terms are generally known to be included in contracts in a particular trade or locality. Amongst bakers, for example. 'one dozen' means thirteen - they do not have to include term in every baker's contract specifying that. Whether the parties can be taken not to have expressed in writing the whole of the contract by which they intended to be bound, but to contract with reference to the custom: (i) The custom must be so well known. (ii) It must be certain. (iii) It must be reasonable. (iv) It must be clear. (v) It must not be contrary to an express term of the contract. ‫( ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻌﺮف ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﯿﺪ‬1 ) ‫ وﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﻌﺎﻗﺪت ﺑﺎﻟﺈﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺮف‬،‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻋﺘﺒﺎر أن اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ آﻞ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻘﺪ آﺘﺎﺑﯿًﺎ واﻟﺬي آﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﻨﻮي اﻟﺎﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﻪ‬.‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﻢ ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻦ ﺷﺮط ﻓﻲ آﻞ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺧﺒﺎز ﯾﺤﺪد ذﻟﻚ‬- ‫ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺨﺒﺎزﯾﻦ دزﯾﻨﺔ واﺣﺪة" ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺛﻠﺎﺛﺔ ﻋﺸﺮ‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬.‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺸﺮوط ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﻋﻤﻮﻣًﺎ ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﺸﻤﻮﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻓﻲ ﺗﺠﺎرة أو ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬ ‫ا اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ اﻟﻌﺮف‬.‫ وﺷﺮوط ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬،‫ﺗﻨﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺷﺮوط ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ اﻟﻌﺮف ﺷﺮوط ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬.‫ وﻟﻜﻦ أﯾﻀًﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺎﺣﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدة ﺑﯿﻨﻬﺎ اﻟﺼﻤﺖ واﻟﺄﺷﯿﺎء ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻘﻮﻟﺎت‬،‫ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ أو اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺘﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬ ‫ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ اﻟﻌﻠﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺄﺷﺨﺎص‬. (ii) ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﺆآﺪًا‬. (iii) ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺎ‬. (iv) (‫)ﯾﺠﺐ أﻟﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﺎرض ﻣﻊ ﺷﺮط ﺻﺮﯾﺢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬.‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن واﺿﺤًﺎ‬. B- Terms Implied by Law A common type of contract which is likely to contain terms implied by statute is a contract for the sale of goods. Under common law, the legal principle of caveat emptor beware" - applied to most contracts for the sale of goods. or "let the buyer This meant that it was up to the buyer to make sure he knew what he was buying. Today various terms are implied into most contracts for the sale of goods. Some of the most important implied terms are: 1- The seller owns the good 2-The goods correspond to the description given by the seller; 3-Where a large quantity of goods is purchased following production of a sample, all of the goods will be of the same quality as the sample. ‫ ﺗﻄﺎﺑﻖ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻤﻘﺪم ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ‬2-.‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﺟﻮدة اﻟﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬،‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺷﺮاء آﻤﯿﺔ آﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﻌﺪ إﻧﺘﺎج ﻋﯿﻨﺔ‬- 3-.‫ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﯾﻤﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ‬1- :‫ ﺑﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ أهﻢ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ هﻲ‬.‫ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻦ ﺷﺮوط ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺿﻤﻦ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻋﻘﻮد ﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬،‫اﻟﯿﻮم‬.‫هﺬا ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﻪ آﺎن ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﺘﺄآﺪ ﻣﻦ أﻧﻪ ﯾﻌﺮف ﻣﺎ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﺘﺮﯾﻪ‬.‫ ﯾﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﻋﻘﻮد ﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬- "‫ أو ﻟﯿﺘﺤﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ‬- "‫ آﺎن اﻟﻤﺒﺪأ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ "اﻟﻜﺎﻓﯿﺎت إﯾﻤﺘﻮر‬،‫ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻌﺎم‬.‫ﻧﻮع ﺷﺎﺋﻊ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أن ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوط ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن هﻮ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬ ‫ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺤﺴﺐ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬- ‫ب‬. C-Terms Implied in Fact: Here the term is being implied as a matter of fact to give effect to what the courts perceives to be the unexpressed intention of the parties; terms which are implied as fact are those which are imputed from the intentions of the parties. Court will be prepared to imply a term if there arises from the language of the contract itself, and the circumstances under which it is entered into. ‫ واﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ إﺑﺮاﻣﻪ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ‬،‫ﺳﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻌﺪة ﻟﺘﻀﻌﯿﻦ ﺷﺮط إذا ﻧﺸﺄ ﻣﻦ ﻟﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬ : ‫ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺿﻤﻨﯿﺔ آﻮاﻗﻊ هﻲ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺘﻲ‬.‫ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﺄﻃﺮاف اﻟﺸﺮوط هﻨﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮط آﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ واﻗﻌﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮاﯾﺎ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬ ‫ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮاﻩ اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ اﻟﻨﯿﺔ‬ ‫ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻀﻤﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬- ‫ج‬. Chapter four Misrepresentation ‫اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ‬ English legal dictionaries define misrepresentation as an untrue statement of fact made by one party to the other in the course of negotiating a contract that induces the other party to enter into the contract. Misrepresentation arises within the period prior to the formation of the contract during negotiations which are held between the contracting parties. Law imposes a negative duty on contracting parties not to make false statements of fact to each other which would inauce the other party to enter into the contract. The contract law currently distinguishes between fraudulent, negligent and innocent misrepresentation. ‫ واﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺒﺮيء‬،‫ﯾﻤﯿﺰ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﺣﺎﻟﯿﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﻲ واﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﻢ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺈهﻤﺎل‬.‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﻬﺎ أن ﺗﺤﻔﺰ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫واﺟﺒًﺎ ﺳﻠﺒﯿﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪة ﺑﻌﺪم ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ ﻟﺒﻌﻀﻬﻢ‬ ‫ ﯾﻔﺮض اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن‬.‫ﯾﻨﺸﺄ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﻖ ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﻤﻔﺎوﺿﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺠﺮى ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪة‬.‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺤﻔﺰ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻪ ﺑﯿﺎن ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﻮاﻗﻊ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﻪ أﺣﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﻟﻠﺂﺧﺮ أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺘﻔﺎوض ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺮف اﻟﻘﻮاﻣﯿﺲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺈﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‬. Section one on) The fraudulent misrepresentation ‫اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﻲ‬ A person misrepresents if he make a false statement of fact that induces someone into a contract. For example, let's say a party advertises a used car as having "new breaks, new tires, and a new engine." In actuality, everything is 5 years old. A buyer relies on the representation that the car has new parts and buys the car, but she wouldn't have paid the price she had if she knew the parts were actually five years old. In this scenario, the seller misrepresented the condition of the car. ‫ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﻗﺪ ﻗﺪم ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎً ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺎ ﺣﻮل ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة‬،‫ﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ‬.‫ ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻟﻦ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ دﻓﻊ اﻟﺜﻤﻦ اﻟﺬي دﻓﻌﻪ ﻟﻮ آﺎن ﯾﻌﻠﻢ أن اﻟﺄﺟﺮاء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ ﻋﻤﺮهﺎ ﺧﻤﺲ ﺳﻨﻮات‬،‫ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮى ﻋﻠﻰ هﺬا اﻟﺒﯿﺎن وﯾﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة‬.‫ آﻞ ﺷﻲء ﻋﻤﺮﻩ ﺧﻤﺲ ﺳﻨﻮات‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬."‫ وﻣﺤﺮك ﺟﺪﯾﺪ‬،‫ وإﻃﺎرات ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬.‫ﯾﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻦ ﺑﯿﻊ ﺳﯿﺎرة ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ "ﻓﺮاﻣﻞ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬ ‫ ﻟﻨﻔﺘﺮض أن أﺣﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬ ‫ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻗﺪ ﻗﺎم ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ إذا أدﻟﻰ ﺑﺒﯿﺎن آﺎذب ﻋﻦ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﻣﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ إﻗﻨﺎع ﺷﺨﺺ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ‬.‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬. Fraudulent misrepresentation occurs when a party makes a purposeful misrepresentation so that the buyer enters into a contract to purchase. In the above example, if the seller knew that all the parts were old and decided to advertise them as new nevertheless, she fraudulently misrepresented the condition of the car to ensure its sale. In other words, in order to sue someone for fraudulent misrepresentation, you have to prove that the person knew he was lying, or said something that he was not technically sure was a lie, but he had no reason to believe it was true. ‫ﯾﺠﺐ إﺛﺒﺎت أن اﻟﺸﺨﺺ آﺎن ﯾﻌﺮف أﻧﻪ ﯾﻜﺬب‪ ،‬أو أﻧﻪ أدﻟﻰ ﺑﺒﯿﺎن ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻣﺘﺄآﺪا ﺗﻤﺎﻣًﺎ ﻣﻦ آﻮﻧﻪ آﺬﺑﺔ‪ ،‬ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﻪ أي ﺳﺒﺐ ﻟﻠﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ رﻓﻊ دﻋﻮى ﺿﺪ ﺷﺨﺺ ﺑﺘﻬﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﻲ‪،‬‬ ‫أن ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺄﺟﺮاء ﻗﺪﯾﻤﺔ وﻗﺮر اﻟﺈﻋﻠﺎن ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻬﺎ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻋﻠﻰ أي ﺣﺎل‪.‬ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ ﻗﺪﻣﺖ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎً ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺎ اﺣﺘﺒﺎﻟﯿًﺎ ﺑﺸﺄن ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة ﻟﻀﻤﺎن ﺑﯿﻌﻬﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ‪ ،‬إذا آﺎن اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﯾﻌﻠﻢ‬ ‫‪.‬ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺸﺮاء‪.‬ﯾﺤﺪث اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻘﻮم أﺣﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﺑﺘﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻞ ﺧﺎﻃﺊ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﺪ ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﯾﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﻓﻲ‬ ‫‪Moreover, another important element constituting the fraudulent misrepresentation is the fact that the‬‬ ‫‪misrepresentation is material to the transaction in question, i.e. it must be made in connection with the‬‬ ‫‪transaction and the person must be intentionally trying to affect the transaction with such lie.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﺔ‪.‬أي أﻧﻪ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾُﻘﺪم ﻓﻲ ﺳﯿﺎق اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ وﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻗﺪ ﺣﺎول ﻋﻤﺪًا اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل هﺬا اﻟﻜﺬب‬ ‫‪.‬ﻋﻠﺎوة ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻣﻬﻢ ﯾﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﻲ هﻮ أن هﺬا اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﺟﻮهﺮﯾًﺎ‬ ‫‪Section two‬‬ ‫‪The negligent misrepresentation‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﺑﺎﻟﺎهﻤﺎل‬ ‫‪means that you did not directly lie (say something you KNOW to be false), but you made a representation‬‬ ‫‪about something while having no reasonable reasons for believing it to be true.‬‬ ‫ﻟﻢ ﺗﻜﺬب ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ أي أﻧﻚ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻘﻞ ﺷﯿﺌًﺎ ﺗﻌﺮف أﻧﻪ آﺎذب(‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻨﻚ ﻗﺪﻣﺖ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺷﻲء ﻣﺎ دون أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﯾﻚ أﺳﺒﺎب ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬ ‫‪.‬ﯾﻌﻨﻲ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﺑﺎﻟﺈهﻤﺎل أﻧﻚ‬ ‫‪Example: A real estate broker tries to sell a house to a buyer, who stresses his need for peace and quiet.‬‬ ‫‪The broker promises that the house is very quiet. In reality, the house next door is undergoing a very‬‬ ‫‪noisy reconstruction. Although the broker did not know this, her promise that the house was quiet was‬‬ ‫‪made without her having any reason to believe that that was the case.‬‬ ‫وﻋﺪهﺎ ﺑﺄن اﻟﻤﻨﺰل هﺎدئ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ دون ان ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﯾﻬﺎ أي ﺳﺒﺐ ﻟﻠﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﺄن ذﻟﻚ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ‬ ‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﺑﺄن اﻟﻤﻨﺰل هﺎدئ ﺟﺪا‪.‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‪ ،‬ﯾﺠﺮي ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺰل اﻟﻤﺠﺎور أﻋﻤﺎل إﻋﺎدة ﺑﻨﺎء ﺻﺎﺣﺒﺔ‪.‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﯾﻌﺮف ذﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن‬ ‫‪.‬ﻣﺜﺎل‪ :‬ﯾﺤﺎول وﺳﯿﻂ ﻋﻘﺎري ﺑﯿﻊ ﻣﻨﺰل ﻧﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﯾﻮﺿﺢ ﺣﺎﺟﺘﻪ ﻟﻠﻬﺪوء‪.‬‬ ‫‪She simply assumed it. This would be a negligent misrepresentation (had she known about the‬‬ ‫‪construction and lied about it, however, that would be a much more serious fraudulent misrepresentation).‬‬ ‫ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ‪.‬ﺳﯿﻜﻮن هﺬا ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎً ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺈهﻤﺎل وﻟﻜﻦ إذا آﺎﻧﺖ ﻗﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﺖ ﻋﻦ أﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﺒﻨﺎء وآﺬﺑﺖ ﺑﺸﺄﻧﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن ذﻟﻚ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎ ﺧﺎﻃﻨﺎ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﻟﯿﺎ أآﺜﺮ ﺧﻄﻮرة‬ ‫‪).‬ﻟﻘﺪ اﻓﺘﺮﺿﺖ ذﻟﻚ‬ ‫‪Section three‬‬ ‫) ‪(1 The innocent misrepresentation‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻘﺴﯿﻢ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ اﻟﺒﺮئ‬ ‫‪The innocent misrepresentation is a misrepresentation made by someone who had reasonable grounds‬‬ ‫‪for believing that his false statement was true.‬‬ ‫‪There are four basic elements that must be satisfied to prove innocent misrepresentation:‬‬ ‫ﻟﺪﯾﻪ أﺳﺒﺎب ﻣﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺑﺄن ﺗﺼﺮﯾﺤﻪ اﻟﻜﺎذب آﺎن ﺻﺤﯿﺤًﺎ‪.‬هﻨﺎك أرﺑﻌﺔ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﺈﺛﺒﺎت وﺟﻮد اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺌﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺌﺔ هﻲ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻣﻀﻠﻠﺔ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺷﺨﺺ‬ Someone must makes a false representation that must be false at the time of the transaction, and remain false. The misrepresentation is "material to the transaction," which means it must be about an important element of the transaction at hand. ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﻪ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﺔ‬،"‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ "ﻣﻬﻤﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬..‫ وﯾﻈﻞ زاﺋﻔًﺎ‬،‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻘﻮم ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﻤﻞ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻞ زاﺋﻒ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن زاﺋﻔﺎ ﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬. For example, if someone is selling a car and they say that it has 15,000 miles on it when it actually has 15/124 miles, the misrepresentation would like not be material. By contrast, 150,000 would be. ‫ اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة ﺗﺤﺘﻮي‬.‫ ﻓﺴﯿﻜﻮن هﺬا ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻠﺎ ﺣﺎﻃﻨﺎ ﺟﻮهﺮﯾﺎ‬،‫ ﻣﯿﻞ‬150,000 ‫ﺣﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ ﻓﻤﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أن ﻟﺎ‬،‫ ﻣﯿﻞ‬15,124 ‫ إذا آﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺤﺘﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ ﻣﯿﻞ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ ﯾﻜﻮن هﺬا اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﺟﻮهﺮﯾﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬15,000 ‫إﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺤﺘﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل إذا آﺎن ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺒﯿﻊ ﺳﯿﺎرة وﯾﻘﻮل‬ The other party must rely on the misrepresentation, This mean that if the other party knew the true, he would not go through with the transaction. If the buyer would have bought the item regardless of what was said about it, the misrepresentation may not count. He must substantially rely on the falsehood. ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ آﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻜﺬب‬.‫ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻟﺎ ﯾُﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﻜﺎذب ذا أهﻤﯿﺔ‬،‫ إذا آﺎن اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﺳﯿﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻤﺎ ﻗﯿﻞ ﻋﻨﻪ‬.‫ ﻓﻠﻦ ﯾﻮاﻓﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﯾﻌﺮف اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ‬ ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﻪ إذا آﺎن اﻟﻄﺮف‬،‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﻜﺎذب‬. The lie must also cause the other party to suffer damages, or in other words, the buyer must be actually harmed by the final transaction in order to sue. ‫ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺘﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي اﻟﺄﺿﺮار ﻓﻌﻠﯿﺔ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻟﻜﻲ ﯾﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ رﻓﻊ دﻋﻮى‬.‫ أو ﺑﻌﺒﺎرة أﺧﺮى‬،‫اﻟﻜﺬب أﯾﻀًﺎ ﺿﺮرًا ﻟﻠﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺴﺒﺐ‬. Chapter five Mistake ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬ A mistake is an error in the meaning of words, laws, or facts which causes one or both parties to enter into the contract without fully understanding the outcomes or responsibilities implied by the contract. Mistake is classified to mutual mistake and unilateral mistake. ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﺎﺣﺎدي‬.‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻒ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ إﻟﻰ ﺧﻄﺄ ﻣﺘﺒﺎدل وﺧﻄﺄ أﺣﺎدي‬.‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ دﺧﻮل أﺣﺪ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ أو آﻠﺎهﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ دون ﻓﻬﻢ آﺎﻣﻞ ﻟﻠﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ أو اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫ﻣﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت أو اﻟﻘﻮاﻧﯿﻦ أو اﻟﺤﻘﺎﺋﻖ‬ ‫هﻮ ﺧﻄﺄ ﻓﻲ‬ Section one Unilateral mistake A "unilateral mistake" is such an error that is held by only one party and not shared by the other party. In other words, a unilateral mistake occurs when only one party is mistaken as to the subject matter or the terms contained in the contract agreement. This type of mistake is generally more common than other types of contract mistakes, such as a mutual mistake (an error that is shared by both parties). The essential point is that only one party is mistaken while the other is not. If a unilateral mistake occurs during the contracting process, it could affect the outcome 4 of the contract. It is unfair if one party understands the contract while the other party does not. Therefore a court will usually issue one of two remedies to correct the unilateral mistake: ‫ ﺳﺘﺼﺪر اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ ﻋﺎدة أﺣﺪ اﻟﻌﻠﺎﺟﯿﻦ ﻟﺘﺼﺤﯿﺢ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﺄﺣﺎدي‬،‫ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.‫ ﻣﻦ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻌﺎدل أن ﯾﻔﻬﻢ ﻃﺮف اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻔﻬﻤﻪ‬.‫ذﻟﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ ﻓﻘﺪ ﯾﺆﺛﺮ‬،‫ إذا ﺣﺪث ﺧﻄﺄ أﺣﺎدي أﺛﻨﺎء ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ‬.‫اﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ اﻟﺄﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ هﻲ أن ﻃﺮﻓًﺎ واﺣﺪًا ﻓﻘﻂ هﻮ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﺨﻄﺌﺎ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﻟﯿﺲ آﺬﻟﻚ‬.(‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل )ﺧﻄﺄ ﻣﺸﺘﺮك ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ‬،‫أآﺜﺮ ﺷﯿﻮﻋًﺎ ﻣﻦ أﻧﻮاع أﺧﺮى ﻣﻦ أﺧﻄﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﻮد‬ ‫ هﺬا اﻟﻨﻮع ﻣﻦ اﻟﺄﺧﻄﺎء ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن‬.‫ ﯾﺤﺪث اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﺄﺣﺎدي ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻃﺮف واﺣﺪ ﻣﺨﻄﻨﺎ ﺑﺸﺄن ﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻟﻌﻘﺪ أو اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻮاردة ﻓﯿﻪ‬،‫ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺁﺧﺮ‬ ‫ وﻟﯿﺲ ﻣﺸﺘﺮآﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ‬،‫ﺧﻄﺄ "أﺣﺎدي" هﻮ ﺧﻄﺄ ﯾﺤﺪث ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮف واﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ‬: Rescission:- Contract rescission is where the contract is completely cancelled and the parties restored to their position before the contract was entered into. Rescission is only available if the non-mistaken party knows or should have known about the unilateral mistake. ‫اﻟﺒﻄﻠﺎﻧﺬ ﻣﺘﺎح ﻓﻘﻂ إذا آﺎن اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﻄﺮف ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺨﻄﺊ ﯾﻌﺮف أو آﺎن ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﺄﺣﺎدي‬.‫اﻟﺒﻄﻠﺎن اﻟﻌﻘﺪي هﻮ هﻮ إﻟﻐﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ وإﻋﺎدة اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف إﻟﻰ وﺿﻌﻬﻢ ﻗﺒﻞ إﺑﺮام اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ :‫اﻟﺒﻄﻠﺎن‬. Reformation:- Contract reformation is where the written agreement is changed to reflect the parties' original understanding. ‫إﻋﺎدة ﺻﯿﺎﻏﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ هﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﯾﺘﻢ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق اﻟﻤﻜﺘﻮب ﻟﯿﻌﻜﺲ اﻟﻔﻬﻢ اﻟﺄﺻﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﺄﻃﺮاف اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﺔ‬ :‫اﻋﺎدة اﻟﺼﯿﺎﻏﺔ‬. Section two Mutual mistake ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل‬ A mutual mistake occurs when both parties are mistaken about different terms of a contract, that is, they do not share the same mistake. Mutual mistake is a fact that both you and the other party believed to be true at the time the contract was signed. However, due to whatever circumstance, this fact is no longer true. For example, contracting to dig a hole in someone's backyard, and discovering later that just below ground level exists solid rock. ‫ واآﺘﺸﻔﺎ ﻟﺎﺣﻘﺎ أن ﺗﺤﺖ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺄرض ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺻﺨﺮ ﺻﻠﺐ‬،‫ﺣﻔﺮ ﺣﻔﺮة ﻓﻲ ﺣﺪﯾﻘﺔ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ إذا ﺗﻢ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬.‫ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺪ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﺻﺤﯿﺤﺔ‬،‫ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻇﺮوف ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬،‫ وﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ‬،‫أﻧﻬﺎ ﺻﺤﯿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺬي ﺗﻢ ﻓﯿﻪ ﺗﻮﻗﯿﻊ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل هﻮ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ أن آﻠﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ آﺎﻧﺎ ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪان‬.‫ أي أﻧﻬﻤﺎ ﻟﺎ ﯾﺸﺎرآﺎن ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬،‫ﯾﻜﻮن آﻠﺎ اﻟﻄﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﻣﺨﻄﺌﯿﻦ ﺑﺸﺄن ﺷﺮوط ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل ﯾﺤﺪث ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬. Not all cases of Mutual Mistake are strong enough to warrant revoking a contract. When determining whether Mutual Mistake can apply in your case, a number of factors that must first be examined: 1 :ً‫ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻓﺤﺺ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ أوﻟﺎ‬،‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ إذا آﺎن ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺘﻚ‬.‫اﻟﺨﻄﺄ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل ﻗﻮﯾﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﺎﺳﺘﺤﻘﺎق اﻟﻐﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﻟﯿﺲ آﻞ ﺣﺎﻟﺎت‬. The mistake must go against a basic assumption of the contract: An example of this would be a professional football team that signs a contract with a player, whom a doctor later determines that the player has Incurable disease. 1. 2.‫ ﯾﺘﺒﯿﻦ ﻟﺎﺣﻘﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻃﺒﯿﺐ أن اﻟﻠﺎﻋﺐ ﻟﺪﯾﻪ ﻣﺮض ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺸﻔﺎء‬،‫ﻣﺜﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ هﻮ ﻓﺮﯾﻖ آﺮة اﻟﻘﺪم اﻟﻤﺤﺘﺮف اﻟﺬي ﯾﻮﻗﻊ ﻋﻘﺪا ﻣﻊ ﻟﺎﻋﺐ‬ :‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺨﻄﺄ ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔًﺎ ﻟﺎﻓﺘﺮاض أﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬. The mistake must have a material effect on performance The mistake must significantly change what you have to do under the contract, almost to the point where it's an entirely different agreement. An example of this would be contracting to clean someone's pool, then discovering that the pool water has produced toxic levels of chlorine over time. As a result, you cannot clean the pool without first decontaminating it. 2. ‫ ﻟﺎ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﻚ ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻒ اﻟﺒﺮآﺔ دون أن ﺗﻘﻮم أوﻟﺎ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ إزاﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻠﻮث‬،‫ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.‫أن ﻣﯿﺎﻩ اﻟﺤﻤﺎم ﻗﺪ أﻧﺘﺠﺖ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت ﺳﺎﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻮر ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺮ اﻟﺰﻣﻦ‬ ‫ ﺛﻢ اآﺘﺸﻔﺖ‬،‫ إذا ﺗﻢ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻒ ﺣﻤﺎم ﺳﺒﺎﺣﺔ‬،‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬.‫ ﻟﺪرﺟﺔ أﻧﻪ ﯾﻜﺎد ﯾﻜﻮن اﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔًﺎ ﺗﻤﺎﻣًﺎ‬،‫آﺒﯿﺮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﯿﻚ اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﻪ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﻠﺨﻄﺄ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻣﺎدي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺄداء‬. Chapter six Duress ‫اﻟﺎآﺮاﻩ‬ Duress is regarded as any wrongful pressure exerted upon a person in order to coerce that person into a contract that he or she ordinarily wouldn't enter into. Duress occurs when a person is influenced to sign a contract under pressure. Duress can be applied when a contract is made or when a contract was modified. Typical examples of duress include threats to personal liberty, threats of actual violence, and excessive economic pressure. Duress is determined not by the nature of the pressure though, but by the state of mind induced in the victim. If you sign a contract under duress, the court may find the entire contract invalid. Duress in contract law is divided to Physical Duress and Economic Duress. ‫اﻟﺎآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺠﺴﺪي‬.‫ ﯾُﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻌﻘﻮد إﻟﻰ إآﺮاﻩ ﺟﺴﺪي وإآﺮاﻩ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬.‫ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺠﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ أن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﺄآﻤﻠﻪ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺻﺎﻟﺢ‬،‫ إذا وﻗﻌﺖ ﻋﻘﺪًا ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ‬.‫اﻟﻀﺤﯿﺔ‬ ‫ ﺑﻞ ﺑﻨﺎءً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻨﻔﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻬﺎ‬،‫ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺑﻨﺎءً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ‬.‫ واﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻟﻤﻔﺮط‬،‫واﻟﺘﻬﺪﯾﺪات ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻨﻒ اﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ‬ ،‫ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﺄﻣﺜﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﻮذﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺈآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺘﻬﺪﯾﺪات ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺸﺨﺼﯿﺔ‬.‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺤﺪث اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ ﻋﻨﺪ إﺑﺮام اﻟﻌﻘﺪ أو ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﻌﺪﯾﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬.‫ﻣﺎ ﻟﺘﻮﻗﯿﻊ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺻﻐﻂ‬ ‫ ﯾﺤﺪث اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺷﺨﺺ‬.‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ أي ﺿﻐﻂ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺸﺮوع ﯾﻤﺎرس ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻐﺮض إﺟﺒﺎرﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻟﻦ ﯾﻮاﻓﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﻪ ﻋﺎدة‬ ‫اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ‬ Section one Physical Duress Physical Duress is the most obvious form of duress. It "involves a threat by one party to the life, health, liberty, or physical comfort of the other, to persuade him to enter into the contract". ‫ ﻟﺈﻗﻨﺎﻋﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫ وﯾﺸﻤﻞ ﺗﻬﺪﯾﺪًا ﻣﻦ ﻃﺮف ﺑﺴﻠﺎﻣﺔ أو ﺻﺤﺔ أو ﺣﺮﯾﺔ أو راﺣﺔ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ اﻟﺠﺴﺪﯾﺔ‬.‫هﻮ أآﺜﺮ أﺷﻜﺎل اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ وﺿﻮﺣًﺎ‬ ‫"اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺠﺴﺪي‬. Physical duress occurs when a person is forced entering into a contract as a result of threat of physical bodily harm on them or their family. If the person enters into the contract and agrees to the terms of the contract, but has no intent to enter the contract, and only did it if they were forced to, then the contract would not be binding. ً‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻟﻦ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺎ‬،‫ وﻓﻌﻠﻪ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻟﺄﻧﻪ آﺎن ﻣﻀﻄﺮاً ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬،‫ وﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﻪ ﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫إذا دﺧﻞ اﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ وواﻓﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮوﻃﻪ‬.‫ﺗﺤﺪث اﻟﺎآﺮا اﻟﺠﺴﺪي ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺠﺒﺮ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﺘﻬﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﺈﻟﺤﺎق اﻟﺄذى اﻟﺒﺪﻧﻲ ﺑﻪ أو ﺑﻌﺎﺋﻠﺘﻪ‬. The use of violence will prevent the intention to contract (for instance, if one is physically forced to sign a contract with his arm being held and moved) and consequently there will be no contractual relationship. ‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻟﻦ ﺗﻜﻮن هﻨﺎك ﻋﻠﺎﻗﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ‬،(‫ إذا ﺗﻢ إﺟﺒﺎر ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﺟﺴﺪﯾًﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﻗﯿﻊ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﻊ ﺣﻤﻞ ذراﻋﻪ وﺗﺤﺮﯾﻜﻪ‬،‫ﺳﯿﻤﻨﻊ ﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻌﻨﻒ‬. section two economic duress ‫اﻟﺎآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ Economic duress is defined as a "threat to harm not someone's person nor even his property, but other interests such as rights someone has under a contract. This form of duress is commonly found in commercial contract disputes. Economic duress occurs when one party uses economic pressure to unfairly force another party into a contract. Courts will look very closely at the nature of the economic duress to determine if the pressure is unfair ‫ ﺳﺘﻨﻈﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﺎآﻢ ﻋﻦ آﺘﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺎ إذا آﺎن اﻟﻀﻐﻂ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻋﺎدل‬.‫اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻋﺎدل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل ﻓﻲ ﻋﻘﺪ‬ ‫ ﯾﺤﺪث اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم إﺣﺪى اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﺿﻐﻄﺎ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾًﺎ ﻟﺈﺟﺒﺎر‬.‫ﻋﻘﺪ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺼﻮرة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺈآﺮاة ﺷﺎﺋﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺰاﻋﺎت اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ ‫ ﺑﻞ ﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ أﺧﺮى ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺤﻘﻮق اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﺘﻠﻜﻬﺎ ﺷﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺐ‬،‫اﻟﺈآﺮاﻩ اﻟﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﯾُﻌﺮف ﺑﺄﻧﻪ "ﺗﻬﺪﯾﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺈﯾﺬاء ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ أو ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻤﻤﺘﻠﻜﺎﺗﻪ‬. Chapter Eight Termination of Contract ‫اﻧﻬﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ ‫ﻓﺴﺦ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬ contract, they become liable under law to fulfill Once a party formally agrees to a their contractual duties Failure to perform the terms stated in the contract can result in a breach of contract lawsuit or other legal liabilities. However, there are some conditions under which a contract can be legally terminated before the contractual duties have been fulfilled. This is known as "termination of contract" and may occur for many different reasons. Some of the more common reasons for termination of contract may include: Impossibility of Performance, Instances of Mistake, Fraud, or Misrepresentation, Breach of Contract, and According to a Prior Agreement. ‫ ووﻓﻘًﺎ ﻟﺎﺗﻔﺎق ﻣﺴﺒﻖ‬،‫ ﺧﺮق اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫ اﻟﺎﺣﺘﯿﺎل أو اﻟﺘﻤﺜﯿﻞ اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ‬،‫ اﺳﺘﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﺣﺎﻟﺎت اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬:‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺄﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺄآﺜﺮ ﺷﯿﻮﻋﺎ ﻟﺈﻧﻬﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ‬.‫ هﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑـ "إﻧﻬﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ" وﻗﺪ ﯾﺤﺪث ﻟﺄﺳﺒﺎب ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬.‫ هﻨﺎك ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺑﻤﻮﺟﺒﻬﺎ إﻧﻬﺎء اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻮﻓﺎء ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎت اﻟﻌﻘﺪ‬،‫ذﻟﻚ‬ ‫وﻣﻊ‬.‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﺆدي ﻋﺪم ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻤﻨﺼﻮص ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ إﻟﻰ رﻓﻊ دﻋﻮى ﺣﺮق ﻋﻘﺪ أو ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺎت ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‬.‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﻓﺎء ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪﯾﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﻤﺠﺮد أن ﺗﻮاﻓﻖ إﺣﺪى اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف رﺳﻤﯿًﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﻠﺰﻣﺔ‬. Chapter Nine Contract via internet ‫اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺎﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ It is well established that to form a contract there must be acceptance of an offer. Both take effect when they are communicated to the other party. For instantaneous methods of communication, such as speaking in the presence of each other or on the telephone, words are spoken and heard at the same instant.. One should not forget that a contract made through the medium Internet is in the first place a contract like any other contract in daily life. It can best be compared to contracts made over the phone or by mail order. This means that general contract law as well as the more specific rules on distance selling will be applicable. ‫ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺎً ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ‬.‫ ﺑﺎﻟﺈﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺄآﺜﺮ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪا اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺪ‬،‫ هﺬا ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أن ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﻌﺎم‬.‫اﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ أو ﺑﺎﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ‬ ‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺘﻪ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﻓﻀﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ‬،‫أﻟﺎ ﻧﻨﺴﻰ أن اﻟﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺘﻢ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ هﻮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺄﺳﺎس ﻋﻘﺪ ﻣﺜﻞ أي ﻋﻘﺪ ﺁﺧﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة اﻟﯿﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺐ‬.‫ ﺛﻘﺎل اﻟﻜﻠﻤﺎت وﺗﺴﻤﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻠﺤﻈﺔ‬،‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺚ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻀﺮة ﺑﻌﻀﻬﻢ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أو ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‬،‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻄﺮق اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ اﻟﻔﻮرﯾﺔ‬.‫إﺑﻠﺎغ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ‬ ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎرف ﻋﻠﯿﻪ أن ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻗﺒﻮل ﻋﺮض آﻠﺎهﻤﺎ ﯾﺪﺧﻞ ﺣﯿﺰ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻢ‬. Section one Different methods of forming contracts through the Internet ‫ﻃﺮق ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺎﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ There are two major ways of Via a website. forming an online contract: via e-mail correspondence and Online contracts can also be formed through interactive telephone systems, interactive television, and other developing technologies. As even newer technologies enter into commercial usage, new ways of forming online contracts will be recognised. ‫ ﺳﺘﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﻄﺮق ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻟﺘﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬،‫ وﻣﻊ دﺧﻮل ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة إﻟﻰ اﻟﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﺠﺎري‬.‫ واﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻮرة اﻟﺄﺧﺮى‬،‫واﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﻲ‬ ،‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أﯾﻀًﺎ ﺗﺸﻜﯿﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ‬.‫ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻤﺮاﺳﻠﺎت ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ وﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫هﻨﺎك ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺘﺎن رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺘﺎن ﻟﺘﺸﻜﯿﻞ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬. A. Contracting via e-mail: One way of forming an online contract is by the exchange of documents via e-mail. At first glance, it might appear similar to the exchange of documents through traditional methods, such as the mail. ‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ‬،‫ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺒﺪو اﻟﺄﻣﺮ ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺒﺎدل اﻟﻮﺛﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻄﺮق اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ هﻲ ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﻮﺛﺎﺋﻖ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﻮهﻠﺔ اﻟﺄوﻟﻰ‬ ‫إﺣﺪى ﻃﺮق إﺑﺮام‬ :‫اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬. B. Contracting via a website: Another way of forming an online contract is when one party is completing an online order form and viewing the terms and conditions of the contract on the other party's website. The buyer is transmitting the form online and agreeing to the terms and conditions by clicking on a button on the website. This is often referred to as a click-wrap contract. Categorizing websites into different types may be helpful when resolving the issue. Three different types of websites have been distinguished, namely: ‫ وهﻲ‬،‫ وﻗﺪ ﺗﻢ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺛﻠﺎﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬.‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻒ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺈﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ أﻧﻮاع ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﺪًا ﻋﻨﺪ ﺣﻞ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ‬."‫ ﯾﺸﺎر إﻟﻰ هﺬا ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻋﻘﺪ "اﻧﻘﺮ ﻟﻠﻤﻮاﻓﻘﺔ‬.‫ﺑﺈرﺳﺎل اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ وﯾﻮاﻓﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﺮوط واﻟﺄﺣﻜﺎم ﻣﻦ ﺧﻠﺎل اﻟﻨﻘﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ زر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬ ‫ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي‬.‫ﻋﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ هﻲ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﯾﻘﻮم أﺣﺪ اﻟﺄﻃﺮاف ﺑﻤﻞء ﻧﻤﻮذج ﻃﻠﺐ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ وﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ اﻟﺸﺮوط واﻟﺄﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺂﺧﺮ‬ ‫ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺔ أﺧﺮى ﻟﺘﺸﻜﯿﻞ‬ ‫ إﺑﺮام اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ وﯾﺐ‬.‫ب‬ Non-interactive websites that provide information (only) and any contact with the website owner is through other means of communication Interactive websites were a person can log onto a site, chose an item for sale, and enter their payment details Automated interactive websites that work in the same way as interactive sites with the difference that they are operated totally by a computer. ‫ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺂﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻔﺮق أﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺪار ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻟﻜﻤﺒﯿﻮﺗﺮ‬. ‫ وإدﺧﺎل ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ‬،‫ واﺧﺘﺒﺎر ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻟﻠﺒﯿﻊ‬،‫ اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺸﺨﺺ ﺗﺴﺠﯿﻞ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‬. ‫ واي اﺗﺼﺎل ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ ﯾﺘﻢ ﻋﺒﺮ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﺗﺼﺎل أﺧﺮى‬،‫اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻓﻘﻂ‬. ↓ Section Two Categories of contracts Contracts formed over the Internet can be categorized into three main types: a) The sale of a very wide range of goods: such as books, sound media, clothes and food. In these cases, the Internet is used to form the contract but not to fulfil it, the delivery of the goods by the vendor Payment by the purchaser can, however. be made through the Internet, whether on the basis of a credit card or by means of electronic cheques or money. ‫ اﺋﺘﻤﺎن أو ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﺷﯿﻜﺎت إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬.‫أو أﻣﻮال إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺸﺮاء أن ﯾﺘﻢ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺳﻮاء ﻋﻠﻰ أﺳﺎس ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺔ‬،‫ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻟﺘﻜﻮﯾﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ وﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬﻩ‬ ،‫ واﻟﻐﺬاء ﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺎت‬،‫ واﻟﻤﻠﺎﺑﺲ‬،‫ واﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﺼﻮﺗﯿﺔ‬،‫ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻜﺘﺐ‬.‫أ( ﺑﯿﻊ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ واﺳﻌﺔ ﺟﺪا ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬ :‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻒ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺒﺮم ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ إﻟﻰ ﺛﻠﺎﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ‬: The sale or licensing of digitized products and information; such as software, books, pictures, music or multimedia products. In this case, both the formation of the contract and the delivery by the vendor can be effected through the Internet in that the customer downloads the products he has bought onto his hard disk ‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﺑﺘﻨﺰﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ اﺷﺘﺮاهﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻘﺮص اﻟﺼﻠﺐ ﻟﺪﯾﻪ‬،‫أن ﯾﺘﻢ آﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ وﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ ‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ‬،‫ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﺠﯿﺎت واﻟﻜﺘﺐ واﻟﺼﻮر و اﻟﻤﻮﺳﯿﻘﻰ أو اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ‬ :‫ب( ﺑﯿﻊ أو ﺗﺮﺧﯿﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت واﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬. The provision of services: such as data-processing, telebanking, financial services, consultancy, telephone services, video-conferences. Online transactions can be identified in three ways: 2. B2C are business-to-consumer transactions conducted via the Internet. B2B are business-to-business transactions conducted via the Internet. C2C are consumer-to-consumer transactions conducted via the Internet ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺎﺳﺘﺸﺎرات‪ ،‬وﺧﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻬﺎﺗﻒ‪ ،‬وﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮات اﻟﻔﯿﺪﯾﻮ‪.‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺑﺜﻠﺎث ﻃﺮق )ج(‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬ ‫‪:‬ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪:‬‬ ‫‪.‬هﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻟﺄﻋﻤﺎل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ﺗﺠﺮى ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ‪B2C‬‬ ‫‪.‬هﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﺠﺮى ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ‪B2B‬‬ ‫‪.‬هﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻠﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻬﻠﻚ ﺗﺠﺮى ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺈﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ‪C2C‬‬