Conflict in Indochina.docx

Decolonisation (1946 -- 1954): French failure to reassert control over Indochina final defeat at Dien Bien Phu. Ideological Battle (1954 -- 1964): America's goal to keep the South free of Communism during reign and failure of Ngo Dinh Diem Diem's November 1964 assassination leads to power struggle...

Decolonisation (1946 -- 1954): French failure to reassert control over Indochina final defeat at Dien Bien Phu. Ideological Battle (1954 -- 1964): America's goal to keep the South free of Communism during reign and failure of Ngo Dinh Diem Diem's November 1964 assassination leads to power struggle in South Vietnam. Failed Quick-Fix (1964 -- 1968): escalation of US involvement under President Johnson US troops from 1965 after Gulf of Tonkin Incident of 1964 Tet Offensive, the biggest Communist offensive in January 1968. Betrayal (1968 -- 1973): post-Tet attempt of America to leave the war through "Vietnamisation" and "Peace with Honour" by 1973, most US ground troops had existed South Vietnam. Communist Victory (1974 -- 1979): North capture Saigon in 1974 without defence of the US re-design the South along Communist lines, and influence spreads to Laos and Cambodia disastrous consequences. **Survey** ---------- conflict in Vietnam 1946 -- 1954 {#conflict-in-vietnam-1946-1954.SyllabusPoint1} -------------------------------- French Colonisation of Indochina - Brutal French colonisation and exploitation of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos from 1857 history of oppression. **Vietnamese Resistance for Independence** - Ho Chi Minh: led the Indochinese Communist Party from 1930; Viet Minh (**VM**) from 1941 Vietnamese exile and Soviet agent to liberate homeland, with influences of liberty (US) and decolonisation (Lenin). **WWII and Indochina** - 1940 Japanese invasion resisted by Viet Minh funding from China, US, and USSR, and 500,000 new members. - Ho Chi Minh wanted support from US for independence post-WWII, but supports French invasion Cold War between USSR Communism and US Capitalism for world domination with nuclear power and post-war instability. the nature of Vietnamese victory against the French in 1954 1^st^ IC War {#the-nature-of-vietnamese-victory-against-the-french-in-1954-1st-ic-war.SyllabusPoint1} ------------------------------------------------------------------------ - Ho formed Viet Minh as guerrilla resistance force against the French for decolonisation. - 9-year war, with French underestimation leading to their withdrawal after 1954 Battle of Dien Bien Phu 8,000 casualties out of 11,000 troops Geneva Conference for peace. - Colonial vacuum US fear of VM influence in North meaning join USSR during Cold War new colonisers? significance of Geneva Conference for Indochina in 1954 {#significance-of-geneva-conference-for-indochina-in-1954.SyllabusPoint1} ------------------------------------------------------- **Geneva Accords** - Signed 20 July 1954 during Geneva Conference. - Ceasefire at **17^th^ Parallel** in Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, with **Demilitarised Zone (DMZ)** either side. - Period of 300 days for troops and civilians to move to "regroupment" zones either side. - Communist state in North; capitalist democracy in South Diem appointed by US, with SV elections in July 1956 to establish a single, national government not trusted by Ho Chi Minh. - Laos and Cambodia remain monarchies with democratic elections US funding. - Final agreement not signed by US not bound by decisions. **Results of the Treaty** - French satisfied to leave; US satisfied with capitalist state they can stabilise, besides disappointment in NV state. - Democratic Republic of Vietnam in North no trust in 1956 elections so Ho Chi Minh Trail and Cu Chi Tunnels as covert supply line to Communist forces in SV. ### *~~impact for laos~~* {#impact-for-laos.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~3 princes of 3 different political Parties of 1955 election Souvanna Phouma (Communist pro-Vietnam), Souphanouvong (Neutralist -- Independent), Boun Oum (Royalist)~~* - *~~"bring about agreement among the three forces in Laos, so that the formation of a truly neutral government could be secured." **(Khrushchev Vienna summit June 4, 1961)**~~* - *~~US concerned about Laos falling to the Pathet Lao (Communist Party).~~* ### *~~cambodia~~* {#cambodia.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~Prince Norodom Sihanouk dominated Cambodia politics during this period (1955-1970). 1955 82% vote.~~* - *~~May 1965 breaks his neutral stance and severs diplomatic ties with US SV and NV can use areas of Cambodia to avoid engaging in the conflict.~~* - *~~17 March 1969 approves US bombing raids on Khmer Rouge (Communist Party of Kampuchea -- CPK) positions.~~* - *~~Jan 1970 Coup d'état with Lon Nol and Sirik Matak taking over while Sihanouk was visiting Moscow and Peking. Called for a full withdrawal of communist troops from Cambodia.~~* - *~~Sihanouk turned to back the KR. His name and appearance in propaganda helped the Communists cause.~~* - *~~1970-1975 the US gave \$1.95 billion in economic and military aid to Lon Nol government to fight KR and NVA/VC.~~* **Focus of Study:** Conflict in Vietnam, **1954--1964** ------------------------------------------------------- political, social, economic and military developments within North and South Vietnam {#political-social-economic-and-military-developments-within-north-and-south-vietnam.SyllabusPoint1} ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ [North Vietnam (Democratic Republic of Vietnam -- **DRV**)] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Disciplined state with majority support for Ho Chi Minh rebuilding country with manipulation and indoctrination ### international support {#international-support.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Communist USSR and China offered support to the (**DRV**) immediately after the Geneva Conference owed \$430 million by 1964 rebuilding reliant on generosity. - Military supplies from USSR and China for North Vietnamese Army (**NVA**), e.g., weapons, ammunition, vehicles. ### political TRANSFORMATION Vietnam Dang [Lao Dong] Party (Vietnam Workers Party) {#political-transformation-vietnam-dang-lao-dong-party-vietnam-workers-party.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - 1951 combination of Indochinese Communist Party and Viet Minh for popularly supported Communist state over 1 million members by 1975 despite being repressive regime. - Ho Chi Minh's control Sanders: "Ho's Communists liquidated thousands of landlords and opponents and even loyal Viet Minh... \[yet\] Ho's regime often won the hearts of the people in a way Diem's never did" "Uncle Ho" image of extreme dedication to Vietnamese liberation, e.g., humble farmers' clothes, elderly appearance. - US presence in SV discredited by 1963 coup against Diem by Big Minh (ARVN General) power vacuum. ### MILITARY/ADDRESSING RESISTANCE NVA (North Vietnam Army) as official force {#militaryaddressing-resistance-nva-north-vietnam-army-as-official-force.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - 1956 -- 1965: failure to provide promised elections 1962: Ho ordered over 500 NV film crews to record the achievements of the VC and Hanoi's work force propaganda films. - By 1956, 6,000 peasants killed or deported for revolting brutal reforms, e.g., land collectivisation (*see below*). - 1960 creation of National Liberation Front (NLF) / Viet Cong (VC) revolutionary, covert, guerrilla forces in NV. - Every able-bodied man in NV made to serve in the army + youth, women, and SV people support in other roles. ### PROPAGANDA public support through selective broadcasting {#propaganda-public-support-through-selective-broadcasting.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} **Radio Hanoi founded in 1961:** - Broadcasted to all of Vietnam to destroy US morale and increase Communist support, e.g., broadcaster Hanoi Hanna saying Americans "will never defeat us... nothing here for you except defeat and death". - Factories have to listen to Radio Hanoi from 9-11am and 1-3pm daily. - By 1960, over 225,000 public loudspeakers to combat only 1/30 Hanoi household having radio. **Government Official Newspapers** circulated 50,000 copies of *Nhan Dan* (The People) daily: - Over 500,000 items of visual and written propaganda, all signed by Ho Chi Minh, circulated in 1962. **Film:** - 1962: over 500 NV film crews were recording the achievements of the VC and Hanoi's work force publicised. - On average, each citizen in Hanoi watched 25 films per year all propaganda. ### SOCIAL developments -- be self sufficient to resist armed conflict {#social-developments-be-self-sufficient-to-resist-armed-conflict.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **Article 7 of the 1946 Constitution**: "All Vietnamese citizens are equal before the law and can take part in public activities" responsibilities to state are priority, not personal freedoms. - Daily two-hour 'political session' on state issues and the war mandated in NV schools. - Religion discouraged Ho Chi Minh: "religion... has no place in any revolution of the people", e.g., heavy taxed. ### LAND REFORMS {#land-reforms.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Lao Dong instituted brutal land reforms to target Francophiles (French sympathisers) -- over 100,000 civilians in the DRV died Sanders: "Ho's Communists liquidated thousands of landlords and opponents". - **'Collective Farms' with over 60 employing 200,000 farmers from 1961 rice production doubles from 1930s.** - **However:** rampant inflation, taxes everywhere, meat products rationed, shortage of money and skilled labour. **[South Vietnam ]** -------------------------------- - After Geneva, influx of over 800,000 civilians from NV south during 300-day period before DMZ opposition to Communism, e.g., landowners, previous French sympathisers, and religious people, e.g., Catholics, Hoa Hao. ### political Gleb: "if we lost \[VN\] then the rest of Asia would tumble to Communism" {#political-gleb-if-we-lost-vn-then-the-rest-of-asia-would-tumble-to-communism.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Diem as president from 1954 puppet of the US to install capitalist democracy, but only concerned with power. - Catholic despite 95% of population being Buddhist and Taoist -- no nationwide identity, ensuring SV's lose in war. - Needs to combat corruption, national bankruptcy, unemployment, and remaining NV troops needs Lansdale. ngo family unpopular - Ngo Family Dominance -- anti-Com.: Ngo Dinh Diem (SV PM 1955--1963), Ngo Dinh Nhu (military), Ngo Dinh Thuc (Archbishop -- excommunicated), Tran Le Xuan (**Madame Nhu** -- de facto first lady) corrupt nepotism in by JFK. - March 1956: rigged election false façade of democracy + disconnected from society with absolute power. - Harrison argues leadership failure meant ½ million US troops were only way to combat Communist threat. Edward LANSDALE: - CIA agent with goals of discrediting NV government and creating popular support for Diem lots of obstacles. - 1965 Operation Exodus to persuade Catholics to flee NV through propaganda attacking Ho Chi Minh and the Communist ideology, e.g., 'The Virgin Mary has fled South, Seek refuge with Ngo Dinh Diem'. political opposition gangs -- either destroyed or support SV strength - **Binh Xuyen:** organised crime syndicate for extortion, kidnapping, prostitution destroyed by ARVN in 1955. - **Cao Dai:** monotheistic, nationalist faith with a trained militia 1955 negotiations with Lansdale to be absorbed into Diem's ARVN, in exchange for main general Trinh receiving ½ million USD. - **Hoa Hao: militant** Buddhist reform movement join ARVN with Lansdale's cases of US dollars to commanders. national assembly law 1959 - 1959 law allowing arrest without trial for 'activities \[that\] are deemed dangerous to the security of South Vietnam' over 60,000 South Vietnamese in jail by 1961. ### social {#social.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} [1959 agroville program] Diem: "settlement areas in the countryside" - Façade of protecting rural communities from VC attacks, but just wanted countryside control resentment. [1961 strategic hamlet program] Agroville expansion for 'secure' hamlets - Tucker: meant to pacify and reduce Communist influence in countryside over 3,500 hamlets by 1963. - Failed because easier targets to avoid or recruit resentful civilians having to build defence and new homes after relocation and disruption of lifestyle Burns: "As people's anger grew, so did the ranks of the Viet Cong". buddhist Persecution largest religion but Catholic leadership persecutes - May 1963 celebrations of Buddha's birthday in Hue ordered to stop by police and army non-cooperation leads to 9 killed and 14 wounded religious civil war erupted in Saigon. - Public self-immolation of Buddhist monks as protest of Diem's oppressive government, e.g., Thich Quang Duc's in June, then six more by September 1963 worldwide sensation from international television crews. - Madame Nhu: "the government is not concerned about Buddhist barbeques" **no sympathy or credibility.** ### military -- ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam) {#military-arvn-army-of-the-republic-of-vietnam.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **ARVN created, MAAG trained; US funded "utterly dependent on that presence becoming perpetual" (Burns).** the nature and development of US policy towards Indochina to 1964 {#the-nature-and-development-of-us-policy-towards-indochina-to-1964.SyllabusPoint1} ----------------------------------------------------------------- - 1947 Truman Doctrine: \$400 million dollars to Greece and Turkey -- 1954 **Domino Theory against Communism.** - US provided nearly ¾ of the funds required for France's war effort against the Viet Minh early intervention. - Gleb: idea that "if we lost \[Vietnam\] then the rest of Asia would tumble to Communism". **Eisenhower Administration** 1954 Domino Theory with fear of Communism: - Burns: "America's involvement in Vietnam began in secrecy, it ended 30-years later in failure" - **MAAG** Military Assistance Advisory Group: train and support anti-communist forces, e.g., over 15,000 US military advisers to train SV ARVN by 1963; 1955--1963 operations in Cambodia; weapons and training for Royal Lao Government through 1955 Programs Evaluation Office viable enough to resist Communism. ### NON-DIRECT involvement [American cultural imperialism Model] {#non-direct-involvement-american-cultural-imperialism-model.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Anti-Communism through "Dollar Imperialism" - selling US capitalist and democratic way of life, but "the West should not try to substitute "Coca-Cola for Confucius" when dealing with Asia" (Masur) -- [Coca-colanisation] fails. - 1958: 60 American films available in SV, e.g., '*Gone With The Wind'* materialistic image forces military. - Display of US political traditions through 'Democracy in Action' event -- 10,000 people in one day. ### NON-DIRECT involvement [economic/political] {#non-direct-involvement-economicpolitical.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - By 1965, tens of millions of dollars to develop SV's military, economy, and politics Barrows: goal of fostering "a source of loyalty to Diem" and to the perseverance of a non-Communist Vietnam. - Failed: Diem policies (rich/poor rift) didn't align with propaganda failure of nation-building leads to military. ### military ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam) {#military-arvn-army-of-the-republic-of-vietnam-1.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - ARVN trained by MAAG and supported by US Marines and forces, especially Air Force US reliant, funding too. - US building conventional force, despite the effectiveness of guerrilla tactics no lesson from French failure. ### heightened policy of involvement {#heightened-policy-of-involvement.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} diem coup ensured unstable political climate, but failed public support - Ambassador Lodge on 5 October: "the US will not thwart General Minh's plans" US enabled assassination. - 1 November 1963 coup d'état and Diem assassinated by General 'Big Minh' of ARVN chaotic power vacuum. Aftermath of Diem's assassination inevitable removal from power - 'Big Minh' banned mourning Diem, then replaced by General Khan on 30 January trend of instable power. - Nguyen Cao Ky: "South Vietnam was rent by political chaos" 9 SV gov. changes by 1965 -- US endorsed. The Second Indochina War (1 Nov 1955 -- 30 Apr 1975) ==================================================== - Burns: "America's involvement in Vietnam began in secrecy, it ended 30-years later in failure" "easier to muddle through than admit that it had been caused by tragic decisions made by five American presidents". - Deaths: 58,126 Americans; 250,000 South Vietnamese troops; 1.1 million North Vietnamese soldiers and Viet Cong guerrillas; 2 million North and South civilians; tens of thousands of civilians in Laos and Cambodia. - Over 6.1 million tons of bombs + 20 million gallons of herbicides dropped over 3 million Vietnamese affected by use of Agent Orange since. - Ongoing compensation of \$22 billion per year to Vietnam and \$270 billion to US and Australian veterans. US foreign policy towards Vietnam from 1964 {#us-foreign-policy-towards-vietnam-from-1964.SyllabusPoint1} ------------------------------------------- ### para 1: escalation pentagon papers: mostly avoiding humiliating defeat to Comm. {#para-1-escalation-pentagon-papers-mostly-avoiding-humiliating-defeat-to-comm..Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - JFK's non-direct 'Dove' involvement installing Diem, Strategic Hamlet, MAAG (over 15,000 advisers by 1963). - JFK: "plan to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963" but dies Johnson's 'Hawk' escalation. **[1964 Gulf of Tonkin Incident]** - 4 August: USS Maddox and Turner Joy reportedly attacked on patrol but unsubstantiated -- LBJ lies to Congress. - 6 August 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: "all necessary measures" to combat Communist threat Welsh (US historian): "keystone of American involvement in South-East Asia" unlimited support, yet unwinnable (Doves). ### para 2: ADVISORS gradual intervention -- Patridge: "boots on the ground" {#para-2-advisors-gradual-intervention-patridge-boots-on-the-ground.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - September 1950 establishment of MAAG -- advise and train 15,000 US military advisors in SV by 1963. - 8 March 1965: first 3,500 US combat troops arrive in Da Nang 500,000 in Vietnam by 1968 (peak). ### para 3: OPERATIONS (*LBJ limits ground troops' risk*) or vietnamisation (chose on the day) {#para-3-operations-lbj-limits-ground-troops-risk-or-vietnamisation-chose-on-the-day.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **December 1964 Operation Barrell Roll**: bombing campaign targeted at the Ho Chi Minh Trail. - **March 1965 -- November 1968 Operation Rolling Thunder: bombing of NV -- impacted thousands of civilians + lose** 3,800 US aircrafts and 1,800 crew members from China- and USSR- funded anti-aircraft artillery. **escalation of the war in cambodia President's attitudes; foreign policy; escalation of war** - **Operation Menu** from 18 March secret bombing of Cambodia to destroy VC. - US bombed Cambodian border with 100,000 tonnes in missions named 'breakfast, 'lunch', 'dinner', 'snack'. **escalation of the war in laoS Lam Son 719 *as above*** - February 1971 ARVN attack on HCM trail in Laos -- test of Vietnamisation -- decimated by Communists clear "At best we could survive one year, maybe two" (SV General Thieu) without US -- failure of Vietnamisation. the nature and effectiveness of the strategy and tactics employed by the North Vietnames Army (NVA), the National Liberation Front (NLF), Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the USA {#the-nature-and-effectiveness-of-the-strategy-and-tactics-employed-by-the-north-vietnames-army-nva-the-national-liberation-front-nlf-army-of-the-republic-of-vietnam-arvn-and-the-usa.SyllabusPoint1} -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **[USA/ARVN] Patridge: "boots on the ground"** ---------------------------------------------------------- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Strengths** | **Weaknesses** | +===================================+===================================+ | Numerically superior to NVA/VC | - Unfamiliarity with language, | | | geography, guerrilla warfare | | **Unlimited resources** | **Tran Ngoc Toan: "foreigner | | | is invader"**. | | | | | | - Massive firepower = civilian | | | deaths -- ***destroyed | | | American credibility and | | | anti-Communist claims.*** | | | | | | - Lack of morale and popular | | | support -- *McNamara: | | | "underestimated the power of | | | nationalism..."*. | | | | | | - Drawn out conflict despite | | | obvious stalemate cost \$250 | | | billion dollars + anti-war | | | movement. | | | | | | - *Numbers*: 500,000 US | | | servicemen in Vietnam by 1968 | | | -- 'Americanised' from only | | | 3,500 originally. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **South Vietnamese / USA (ARVN)** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Search and Destroy | - Anderson: "measure of success | | | was body-count" civilians | | | included-- 45 to 1 kill | | | ratio. | | | | | | - Search and Destroy missions | | | to locate and destroy enemy | | | forces, but ineffective (VC | | | hid) and hurts unarmed | | | civilians -- troops ordered | | | to "shoot anything that | | | moved" (The Canberra Times, | | | 1969). | | | | | | - 184,000 SV troops by end of | | | 1965 -- but had been over | | | 180,000 VC since 1964. | | | | | | - Welsh: "the US gave the | | | guerrillas the initiative by | | | relying on technological | | | superiority" Lieutenant | | | Caputo: "we fought in a | | | formless war against a | | | formless enemy" -- don't | | | adapt to guerrilla warfare. | | | | | | - Fire support bases: heavily | | | fortified bases with weapons | | | and troops -- but **easy | | | targets for VC.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 'Win Hearts and Minds' | - Propaganda by SV and US | | | government to win support of | | | people, e.g., 1969 Policy of | | | Pacification by Nixon to | | | replace Search and Destroy, | | | redistribute land, medical | | | supplies, food + 10 million | | | anti-communist leaflets | | | dropped over SV -- want | | | desertion of VC but seen as | | | aligning with nationalism. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aircraft | - *See* *Operation Rolling | | | Thunder* and *Rolling Thunder | | | MACV: "relentless application | | | of force".* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pheonix Program (1968-72)** | - Destroy the VC's | | | infrastructure at a village | | | level 80,000 arrested and | | | 30,000 killed some not VC. | | | | | | - Cantwell: "America and its | | | allies, not the Viet Cong, | | | were identified... as the | | | real enemy of the people" | | | terror campaigns decimate | | | America's image in | | | countryside, negating 'Hearts | | | and Minds'. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Attrition **1967 Operation Cedar | - Westmoreland's 'search and | | Falls** | destroy' mission destroy | | | enemy tunnels and bunkers in | | | Binh Duon province, | | | evacuating 7,000 -- 10,000 | | | civilians before carpet | | | bombing the area VC return | | | after 2 months despite in | | | discriminant blanket bombing | | | war of attrition on | | | population without progress. | | | | | | - Mangold: "all they \[NV\] | | | had to do was not lose" | | | US never able to secure | | | an area securely. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ [Goals/Strategies and Tactics of NVA/VC and NLF] ------------------------------------------------------------ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **NVA/NLF/VC** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Guerrilla Tactics** | - Morale + tactics unknown by | | | US -- at night or during poor | | | weather + use terrain and | | | booby trains. | | | | | | - VC average solider was 18, | | | 80% were farmers without | | | schooling full dedication -- | | | propaganda. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Ho Chi Minh Trail** | - About 1 million acres through | | | Cambodia and Laos -- support | | | NV troops in south control | | | over 80% of Vietnamese | | | countryside in 1961 LBJ: | | | "there's no daylight in | | | Vietnam" privately in 1965. | | | | | | - Attempted destruction with | | | bombs and defoliants for | | | years, but repaired | | | constantly unified morale. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Cu Chi Trail** | - 121 km of undetectable | | | tunnels for storage and | | | transport of men and | | | materials around South | | | Vietnam. | | | | | | - Mangold: "the tunnels | | | paramount importance was to | | | maintain the fight against | | | the enemy". | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ impact of the 1968 Tet Offensive {#impact-of-the-1968-tet-offensive.SyllabusPoint1} -------------------------------- ### tet offensive {#tet-offensive.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - October 1976 offensive at Khe Sanh US fire support base to distract from incoming Tet Offensive -- defeat. - 30 January 1968: 84,000 NVA/VC troops surprise attack over 100 major cities and villages main targets: **[Saigon]** - 5,000 NVA/VC attack initial targets of US and SV Military Police later take Saigon radio station. - 19 NVA/VC troops attempt to take US Embassy entered city through Cu Chi Tunnels or with disguises. - Welsh: "within 24 hours of the initial attacks, Saigon was a burning battleground". **[Hue]** - Initial NVA/VC success with US withdrawing on 30 January. - Counter-offensive succeeds by 25 February and NVA withdraw number of casualties disputed but US victory. ### [results]/impact of tet {#resultsimpact-of-tet.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Destruction across dozens of cities, towns, and military bases 750,000 homeless refugees from the fighting. - Continued military and morale strength of NVA/VC shattered US confidence 'Vietnamisation' began. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **South Vietnam** | **Communists** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Rebuilding of infrastructure | - Failed offensive without SV | | in major cities is needed. | people's support -- | | | mis-calculate unknown but | | - Increasing sense of ***war | significant casualty rates. | | weariness*** by 1968 end, | | | e.g., popular anti-war songs | - Still unified with foundation | | of SV artists like CBC Band. | for US withdrawal. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ US Impact: **Psyche of American Soldiers gradual withdraw decimates morale with 'Vietnamisation' destroying hope** - Eroding support -- lack of military goals and ideals, e.g., 900 fragging incidents from 1969 to 1972. **Home-Front growing tension after Tet disillusionment** - LBJ withdraws from 1968 election Nixon: "peace with honour" + "Vietnamising the War" slogans -- vague. - **Anti-war sentiment**: disillusionment and resistance with sheer brutality for Vietnamese Civilians and lack of progress. - Eddie Adam's prizewinning photograph of Nguyen Van Lem's execution by SV Police Chief, Nguyen Ngoc Loan, in Saigon. **September 1969 death of Ho Chi Minh** increased motivation to reunify Vietnam -- replaced by militarily aggressive **[Le Duc Tho]**. impact of the war on civilians in Vietnam {#impact-of-the-war-on-civilians-in-vietnam.SyllabusPoint1} ----------------------------------------- - Over 3 million civilians died during the course of the war weakened SV morale, so any grounds for victory. - Mandelbaum: "American involvement in Vietnam was an unwanted intrusion" boots on the ground + Tonkin. ### direct impact of American Tactics Anderson: "measure of success was body-count": {#direct-impact-of-american-tactics-anderson-measure-of-success-was-body-count.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} **16 March 1968 MY LAI MASSACRE** - Charlie Company's 1^st^ Platoon murdered up to 504 unarmed SV women, children, and old men -- **1969 Canberra Times**: "shoot anything that moved" reported by officers as victory and hidden until November 1969. - NY times: "one of this nation's most ignoble horrors" images of slaughtered My Lai villagers in ditches. **BOMBING less discriminant methods of warfare** - 3 million Vietnamese people left homeless by US bombing campaigns. - 250,000 Cambodian civilians died because of US bombing. ### land / culture {#land-culture.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - 20 million gallons of herbicides Agent Orange has affected over 3 million Vietnamese people -- health, eco. - 42% of forests destroyed, along with canals and rice paddies trying to destroy enemy's hiding areas. - Values for new order of the city uncontrolled urbanisation with loss of village culture and support. - 500,000 women became prostitutes due to mass unemployment. ### consequences of the war -- refugees, Khmer rouge {#consequences-of-the-war-refugees-khmer-rouge.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} **REFUGEE CRISIS** - Makeshift refugee camps of 4 million people escaping bombing Doyle: "a state of emergency". - 50,000 Laos civilians and 1 million Cambodian civilians fled to Thailand by end of 1975. **KHMER ROUGE *see*** *below*. **STRATEGIC HAMLETS** *see above* disruption of life. nature and significance of anti-war movements in the USA and Australia {#nature-and-significance-of-anti-war-movements-in-the-usa-and-australia.SyllabusPoint1} ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Televisation and media coverage allows civilians to question "the way the war was being fought, whether it could ever be won, and if the United States should be in Vietnam at all?" (Burns) withdraw and lose. ### prior to the tet offensive (combine with societal change) {#prior-to-the-tet-offensive-combine-with-societal-change.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - ***Progressive climate of political protest*** Civil Rights, Second Wave Feminism, growing war disillusionment anger at lack of substantial progress, conscription, and brutal treatment of civilians. - 1965: first national demonstration against the war with over 20,000 students gathering in Washington DC. - Initially insignificant -- US General Westmoreland promised "constant, real progress is being made". ### after visualising the tet offensive Burns: "the war against the war intensified" {#after-visualising-the-tet-offensive-burns-the-war-against-the-war-intensified.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - 1968 Gallup poll: majority of Americans believe Vietnam involvement was a mistake Vietnamisation. - April 23 to 20, 1968: Columbia University shut down since students took over buildings in anti-war protest. - 15^th^ November 1969: 250,000 American protestors marched in Washington for moratorium of the Vietnam War. - **Australia** -- anti-war protests escalated with mass moratoriums in May and September 1970 and June 1971. - **4 May 1970 protest at Kent State University leaves** 4 students dead and 8 wounded disillusionment. - My Lai Massacre, 16 March 1968 November 1969 publication showed brutality and dishonesty of US army. ### other causes (other than Tet) for anti-war protests {#other-causes-other-than-tet-for-anti-war-protests.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} **Self Interest/ Social Situation** - **'The Draft'** impact of war on households, especially with lack of discernible progress after Tet. - Vietnam Veterans Against the War: over 8,000 members by 1971 saw injustice of "the biggest nothing in history" (member by Burns) firsthand. **Economic Strain** - 1967: inflation climbing, 10% tax surcharge to combat the \$30 billion budget deficit cost on angry population. **Political Distrust** - **Pentagon Papers** reality of US involvement, JFK's role in assassinating Diem and of bombing attacks NV. - Announcing incursion into Cambodia Kent University and Jackson State University. the reasons for and the nature of the US withdrawal {#the-reasons-for-and-the-nature-of-the-us-withdrawal.SyllabusPoint1} --------------------------------------------------- ### VIETNAMISATION -- End US involvement in Vietnam {#vietnamisation-end-us-involvement-in-vietnam.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **Nixon**: "the mad bomber" nickname trying to weaken NV while withdrawing troops to help SV. - 24 June 1970: 1965 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repealed to "end American military responsibility to protect South Vietnam" **(Welsh)** through Vietnamisation of the war ARVN take over; US firepower support -- fails. - Reducing US soldiers until complete 1973 withdrawal -- leave 1.1 million ARVN soldiers behind. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Military** | **Economic** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Budget cuts = shortages of | - 1974 financial aid reduced to | | ammunition, medicine- rich | \$700 million -- 3% of 1967 | | war. | unemployment and instability. | | | | | - 20,000 soldiers deserting | | | monthly by 1975 -- Comm. | | | victory. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ### easter offensive march 1972 {#easter-offensive-march-1972.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - NVA/VC forces attempt conventional warfare-- initial success with US ground troop withdrawal no US combat troops by 1973 -- despite Vietnamisation failure. - By June, US bombing allowed ARVN forces to succeed -- return to guerrilla both soften Paris stance. ### paris peace accords 1973 {#paris-peace-accords-1973.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Nixon to Kissinger: "we simply have to cut the umbilical cord and have this baby walk by itself" want VN gone. - 27^th^ January 1973: inconclusive peace in Indochina, simply facilitated US withdrawal -- US civilians satisfied. - Final terms: ceasefire, NVA couldn't take advantage of ceasefire terms, communists in SV Committee of National Reconciliation, US aid to NV, POWs return decided by Kissinger (US) and Le Duc Tho (NV) without SV and VC. - "Burst of Joy" photo, March 1973 of Lt Col. Stirm getting greeted by his daughter at an air force base in California after 5 years in captivity withdraw troops; POWS back Welsh: "By December 1972, the end was near". - SV General Thieu: "\[US\] sold out South Vietnam at Paris. At best we could survive one year, maybe two." reasons for Communist victory in Vietnam -- (*civilian impact see elsewhere*) {#reasons-for-communist-victory-in-vietnam-civilian-impact-see-elsewhere.SyllabusPoint1} ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ### superiority of the north -- the communist strategy / tactics used {#superiority-of-the-north-the-communist-strategy-tactics-used.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **Nationalism of NV:** Sanders: "Ho's regime often won the hearts of the people in a way Diem's never did". - **Superior Strategies:** US-ARVN couldn't combat communist: guerrilla tactics, Ho Chi Minh Trail, Cedar Falls. - **NV willing to fight a long, protracted war, but US was movement** wouldn't allow Mangold: "all they had to do was not lose" just wait for the US to leave so they can dominate the ARVN shouldn't be involved. ### weakness of US / concept of intervention {#weakness-of-us-concept-of-intervention.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Civilian Duong Van Mai: "our side... not as committed" to victory US only fighting for ego and devastated credibility, and with it any unanimous, motivated resistance to VN independence under Communism. - **Discrediting US:** US involvement in Indochina helped to unify NV in nationalist resistance to foreign intervention. - **Weak SV Governments:** corrupt, unstable governments + Diem as devout Catholic no national solidarity. - **ARVN/ US Superior tactics:** Welsh: "the US gave the guerrillas the initiative by relying on technological superiority" **didn't adapt to guerrilla tactics.** ### lack of support {#lack-of-support.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - **Weak and unsupportive home-front** (incl. Australia) *see anti-war movement*, My Lai disgrace. - **Impact on civilians *see elsewhere*, resentment Tran Ngoc Toan: "foreigner is invader" disposition.** - **Ultimately*,* McNamara (1961-1968 Secretary of Dence): "We underestimated the power of nationalism to motivate a people to fight and die for their beliefs and values" Bao Ninh of NVA: "Americans thought we were followers of Marx... \[but\] We fought for this country" belief in Vietnam humbled the military might of the US.** [Collapse / Impact for "the biggest nothing in history" (vet. by Burns)] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ### final collapse {#final-collapse.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - 1974 US aid was \$700 million \>3% of 1967 **"utterly dependent on that presence becoming perpetual" (Burns)**. - 3 April 1975: US begins airlifting US civilians and diplomatic personnel from Saigon 1 May collapse. ### **Cost of the War for US:** {#cost-of-the-war-for-us.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - Cost \$250 billion dollars; 58,126 US deaths and 200,000 permanent disabilities, many emotionally traumatised. - Ongoing compensation of \$22 billion per year to Vietnam and \$270 billion to US and Australian veterans. socialist transformation - Renamed Ho Chi Minh City in July 1976. - August 1979: 675,000 people had escaped SV for places like Malaysia and Thailand -- many granted asylum in Australia, America, Canada Communist power as threat, e.g., re-education camps for ARVN soldiers. ~~The reasons for the Communist victories in Cambodia and Laos~~ {#the-reasons-for-the-communist-victories-in-cambodia-and-laos.SyllabusPoint1} ---------------------------------------------------------------- - ~~With US withdrawal, the forces weren't strong enough on their own Communist forces had NV support.~~ ### *~~Cambodia~~* {#cambodia-1.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~Penh fell to Cambodian communist (Khmer Rouge) on 17^th^ April 1975 overthrowing Lon Nol's government.~~* - *~~[Cost of 500,000 Cambodians] killed by US bombing missions, and confrontations with Lon Nol's Army.~~* - *~~**US WITHDRAWAL: Force Armee Royale Khmere (FANK)** (non-communist) faced Khmer Rouge (KR) only.~~* - *~~1973: KR forces reached around 100 000 and controlled 70-80% of Cambodian countryside.~~* ### *~~Laos~~* {#laos.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~"the Pathet Lao rode to power on the crest of a wave of national exasperation" **(C. J. Christie)**~~* - *~~US supplied militaries and provided mass US Air support against the Pathet Lao. When US support declined, Laos weakened and Pathet Lao (communist faction) strengthened. 2^nd^ December Pathet Lao took over.~~* *~~Democratic Kampuchea: aims and impact of the regime, foreign policy~~* {#democratic-kampuchea-aims-and-impact-of-the-regime-foreign-policy.SyllabusPoint1} ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - *~~Khmer Rouge was formed in 1951 as the Communist Party of the Kampuchea.~~* ### *~~democratic kampuchea~~* {#democratic-kampuchea.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~**Four main aims:** total independence, preservation of dictatorship, economic transformation, recasting of social values. Ultimately shared in Chinese communist conviction.~~* - *~~**Four-year plan:** blueprint for the nation's economic development between 1977 and 1980~~* - *~~Collectivisation of private property~~* - *~~Dramatically increase rice production in Cambodia. Split into At a minimum, zones were required to produce 3 tons of rice per hectare of land. Most fertile areas required to produce 7 tons. Slogan: 'If we have rice, we can have everything'~~* - *~~Fishing, timber and trade, livestock, rubber and some factories were aimed to be developed.~~* ### *~~Evacuate people from towns / INITIAL things~~* {#evacuate-people-from-towns-initial-things.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~Implement "radical agrarian Marxism" (M Levien) collective farms and eliminating any members of the bourgeoisie.~~* - *~~The KR divided the country into **7 agricultural zones** to make administration easier.~~* - *~~400,000 people died.~~* - *~~Abolish all capitalism destruction of all social classes made by capitalism.~~* - *~~Abolish Lon Nol regime currency (dependant upon large quantities of American aid)~~* - *~~Make all Buddhist monks work on the rice fields like all others in Cambodia~~* - *~~Execute all leaders of the Lon Nol regime~~* - *~~Close Kampuchea off from the rest of the world (western influence) except China, Declare 1975 as "Year Zero"~~* ### *~~co-operatives THROUGHOUT country~~* {#co-operatives-throughout-country.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~100,000 people dying in a cholera epidemic soon after the evacuation of the cities.~~* - *~~International aid rejected on the basis of self-reliance.~~* - *~~Worked for around 12 hours per day, 7 days a week.~~* - *~~"the collectives was extremely monotonous and it was attempted to do away with any individuality" **(Kimmo Kiljunen)**~~* - *~~Kratie, for example was cleared of its population in 1973. As early as 1970; schools closed, farms implemented~~* - *~~95-97% lived on over 1000 collective farms.~~* - *~~Rice crop for export over 2mil tons exported (Sorthy et al)~~* ### *~~eliminate opposition~~* {#eliminate-opposition.Sub-HeadingFocusPoint} - *~~1- 3 million people were killed in Cambodia between 1975 and 1978.~~* - *~~Mass purges were conducted within the Party after 1976 and up to 15,000 opponents were arrested and sent to Tuol Sleng prison in Phnom Penh.~~* - *~~**KR slogan:** "it is better to arrest 10 people by mistake than let one guilty person go free"~~* - *~~Around 196 major security centres. S-21 in Tuol Sleng (converted school) -- Phnom Penh, at its height had over 1000 staff members -- over 20,000 imprisoned~~* - *~~2007, Documentation Centre of Cambodia listed a total 19,733 mass graves uncovered. There may be more.~~* *~~Employed child soldiers:~~* - *~~"weapons drip from them like fruit from trees -- grenades, pistols, rifles, rockets" **(Pin Yathaty)**~~* - *~~"they killed their own people, even babies, like we might kill a mosquito" **(Sydney Schanberg)**~~*