Computer Fundamental.pdf

Computer Fundamental Unit 1 Introduction  What is computer A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according to a set of instructions called programs. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data, making it possible to pe...

Computer Fundamental Unit 1 Introduction  What is computer A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks according to a set of instructions called programs. It can store, retrieve, and manipulate data, making it possible to perform a wide range of functions, from simple calculations to complex simulations and data processing. Input Process Output  Characteristics of Computer System Speed Accuracy Automation Storage Versatility Diligence Reliability  Characteristics of Computer System Speed Refers to the ability to perform tasks or actions quickly. In the context of computers, it often relates to processing speed, data transfer rates, and how fast software responds. Accuracy Represents the ability to be correct and precise. In a computer context, it encompasses things like calculation precision, data integrity, and the absence of errors in output. Automation Describes the process of performing tasks with minimal human intervention. Computers excel at automation, handling repetitive tasks, calculations, and processes without manual input.  Characteristics of Computer System Storage Refers to the ability to hold and retain data. Computers use various storage devices like hard drives, SSDs, and memory to store information for future access and use. Versatility Represents the ability to adapt and perform a wide range of tasks or functions. Computers are incredibly versatile, capable of handling everything from complex calculations to creative tasks like graphic design and video editing. Diligence Implies consistent and persistent effort. Computers can tirelessly perform tasks without breaks or errors, demonstrating a high level of diligence.  Characteristics of Computer System Reliability Refers to the ability to be trusted and depended upon. Computers are designed to be reliable, consistently performing tasks as expected with minimal downtime.  Computer Input Output Processing Storage Text Hardcopy Softcopy ALU primary Secondary Non- Voice CU Volatile Magnetic Optical USB FLASH Volatile Printer Plotter Pointer RAM ROM M-Tape CD FAT32 SD card Impact Pen SRAM PROM M-Disk DVD Non- impact Durm DRAM EPROM Blu-ray EEPROM Block diagram of computer  Block diagram of computer The block diagram represents how data and instructions flow between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices, managed by the Control Unit. In simple terms, a Block Diagram of a Computer helps us understand how a computer works, from collecting input data, processing & formatting the data, and generating the output results in the way user commands. The computer system consists of three main parts :- Input Units CPU Output Units.  Input Unit The input unit takes all the data received by the computer. The input unit comprises different devices such as a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. All of these devices act as intermediaries between the users and the computer. The major functions of the Input Unit are- The Input Unit takes the data to be processed by the user. The data is then converted into machine-readable form. The main purpose of this process is to connect the user and the computer by creating an easy connection between them.  Central Processing Unit (CPU) The Central Processing Unit or CPU is known as the brain of the computer. like the human brain controls all human activities, the CPU also takes care of all the tasks. The CPU is responsible for performing all the arithmetic and logical operations within the computer. Some of the main functions of a CPU are- All the components of a computer system, software, and data processing are controlled by the CPU. The Input devices provide data to the CPU which is then executed and then the CPU sends the output to the Output devices. All the operations including the arithmetical and logical are processed by the CPU.  Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) The Arithmetic Logic Unit is comprised of two terms- arithmetic and logic. The two primary functions that the ALU performs are- 1. The ALU carries out essential arithmetic operations on this data, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. After performing all sorts of calculations required on the data, it sends back data to the storage. 2. The ALU performs logical operations such as AND, OR, Equal to, Less than, etc. In addition, it also handles tasks like merging, sorting, and selecting the given data.  Control Unit (CU) The Control Unit (CU) is the controller of all the activities, tasks, and operations. The control unit ensures that all tasks inside the computer work together smoothly, coordinating with the input and output units. Some of the most important functions of Control Unit (CU) are: When a user inputs data using an input device, it is Control Unit’s command on where to keep the input data The control unit follows the commands from memory one by one and then executes to ALU during the program execution The control units manages the flow of data from output devices to ALU, ALU to memory and then the output devices  Memory Unit The Memory Unit stores all the data that has to be processed or has been processed. This unit works in sync with the Central Processing Unit to help in faster accessing and processing of the data. This results in making the tasks easier and quicker. Computer Memory is of two types- Primary memory: The primary memory cannot store a vast amount of data. Once the power is switched off, the data stored can be erased. it is also called main memory. The data has to be first transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU for processing. Secondary memory:- For permanent storage purposes, secondary memory is used. It is also known as permanent memory or auxiliary memory. The data does not get erased easily even in case of a power failure.  Output Unit The user receives the results through the output unit. Examples :- printers, monitors, projectors, etc. The output unit presents the data either as a soft copy (on the screen) or as a hard copy (on paper). The Output Units perform these functions- The Output Unit accepts all the data and information from the main memory of a computer system in binary form. The Output Unit also converts the binary data into a human-readable form for a better understanding.  Types of computer Micro Mini Mainframe Super Computers Computers Computers Computers  Microcomputers Microcomputers are the most common and widely used type of computers, also known as personal computers (PCs). They are designed for individual use and are much smaller in size and lower in cost compared to other types of computers. Purpose: Used for general-purpose tasks like word processing, internet browsing, gaming, and multimedia applications. Users: Individuals, small offices, educational institutions. Example: Desktop PCs (e.g., Dell Inspiron), laptops (e.g., MacBook), tablets (e.g., iPad).  Minicomputers Minicomputers, also known as mid-range computers, are designed to fill the gap between microcomputers (personal computers) and mainframe computers. They offer more processing power than microcomputers but are less powerful than mainframes. Purpose: They are typically used by small to medium-sized businesses for specific tasks, such as scientific calculations, engineering applications, and process control. Users: Universities, research institutions, small businesses. Example: PDP-11, VAX 11/780.  Mainframe Computers Mainframes are large and powerful systems designed to process and manage large volumes of data. They are more powerful than minicomputers and microcomputers, offering high processing power, reliability, and scalability. Purpose: Used for large-scale transaction processing, database management, and critical applications where reliability and uptime are crucial. Typical Users: Large corporations, government agencies, financial institutions. Example: IBM z15, Unisys ClearPath.  Supercomputers Supercomputers are the most powerful computers available, capable of performing complex and intensive calculations at incredibly high speeds. Purpose: Used for tasks that require immense computational power, such as weather forecasting, scientific research, nuclear simulations, and complex data analysis. Users: Research institutions, military organizations, government agencies. Example: PARAM Shivay(8000), IBM Summit, Cray XC50. Feature Minicomputer Microcomputer (PC) Mainframe Supercomputer Medium-sized, smaller Small, typically Large, occupies entire Very large, occupies Size than mainframes desktop or portable rooms multiple rooms Low to moderate, Extremely high, Moderate, more than High, handles massive Processing Power suitable for general designed for complex microcomputers data processing tasks simulations Cost Moderate to high Low to moderate Very high Extremely high Transaction Weather forecasting, Scientific research, General-purpose Use Cases processing, enterprise- scientific research, engineering (home, office) level tasks nuclear simulations Universities, research Individuals, small Large corporations, Research institutions, Users institutions businesses banks, government government agencies Scalability Moderate Low to moderate High Extremely high Dell Inspiron, IBM z15, Unisys IBM Summit, Cray Example Systems PDP-11, VAX 11/780 MacBook Pro ClearPath XC50  Programing language in computer Programming languages Low level High level language language Object- Machine Assembly Procedural Scripting Declarative Oriented languages languages Languages Languages Languages Languages  Programming language Low level language A programming language that closely resembles the machine code understood by a computer's hardware. It's often difficult for humans to read and write directly, as it uses a complex system of binary codes or mnemonic instructions. Examples. Machine Language And Assembly Language  Programming language Machine Language The most basic level of programming language, directly executed by a computer's central processing unit (CPU). It consists of binary code (0s and 1s) that represents instructions for the CPU to perform specific operations. Machine code is hardware-specific, meaning it can only run on the exact type of processor it was designed for.  Programming language Assembly Language A low-level programming language that uses mnemonics (short codes) to represent machine code instructions. It's a slightly higher level than machine code, making it more readable for humans. Assembly language requires an assembler program to translate the mnemonics into machine code before execution.  Programming language High level language A programming language that is designed to be easy for humans to read, write, and understand. It uses natural language constructs and is closer to human communication than machine code. Examples include C ,Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. Types of High level language Procedural Languages Object-Oriented Languages Scripting Languages Declarative Languages  Types of high level language Procedural Languages A type of high-level language that focuses on the step-by-step procedures or algorithms to solve a problem. Programs are organized as a sequence of instructions that are executed one after the other. Examples include C, Pascal, and Fortran.  Types of high level language Object-Oriented Languages A type of high-level language that models real-world entities as objects, with properties (attributes) and behaviors (methods). Programs are organized around objects that interact with each other. Examples include Java, Python, C++, and C#.  Types of high level language Scripting Languages A type of high-level language that is interpreted rather than compiled, making them suitable for rapid development and prototyping. Often used for automating tasks, web development, and scripting system administration. Examples include Python, JavaScript, Ruby, and Perl.  Types of high level language Declarative Languages A type of high-level language that focuses on what the program should achieve rather than how it should be done. Programs are expressed in terms of constraints or rules that define the desired outcome. Examples include SQL (for databases), Prolog (for artificial intelligence), and HTML (for web pages).  High-Level Feature Machine Language Assembly Language Language None (Direct Low (Close to High (Far from Abstraction Level hardware interaction) hardware) hardware) Ease of Use Very difficult Moderate Easy Moderate High (English-like Readability Poor (binary code) (mnemonics) syntax) None (Hardware- None (Hardware- Portability High (Cross-platform) specific) specific) Slow (tedious and Faster than machine Development Speed Fast error-prone) language Slower than assembly Execution Speed Very fast Fast but optimized Easier than machine Easiest (with Debugging Difficult code debugging tools) int a = 5; (C), Examples 11010101 MOV AX, BX print(a) (Python)  Storage Primary Secondary Volatile Non-Volatile Magnetic Optical USB FLASH M- M- Blu- SD RAM ROM CD DVD FAT32 Tape Disk ray card SRAM DRAM PROM EPROM EEPROM  Primary Memory Primary Memory: The primary memory of a computer includes both volatile and non-volatile memory, enabling the CPU to quickly access data and instructions. It is essential for running programs and managing tasks in real-time. Hear we have two type of primary memory Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory  Volatile Memory This type of memory requires a continuous power supply to retain data. Once the system is powered down, all data stored in volatile memory is lost, making it ideal for temporary data storage during processing tasks. RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM is a type of volatile memory that allows data to be read or written in almost the same amount of time regardless of the order in which it is accessed. It's used for storing the operating system, application programs, and data in current use so that they can be quickly accessed by the CPU.  Volatile Memory SRAM (Static RAM): SRAM uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. It does not need to be refreshed periodically, making it faster and more reliable for cache memory in processors it is more expensive and less dense compared to DRAM. DRAM (Dynamic RAM): DRAM stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Capacitors tend to leak charge, so the information fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. DRAM is slower than SRAM but is used in main memory due to its cost- effectiveness and higher storage capacity.  Non-Volatile Memory Unlike volatile memory, non-volatile memory does not require a power supply to maintain the data stored within it. This makes it suitable for permanent data storage, ensuring that data is preserved even when the system is turned off. ROM (Read-Only Memory): ROM is a non-volatile memory type used to store firmware or software that is rarely changed or updated. Once data is written to a ROM chip during manufacturing, it cannot be modified, PROM (Programmable ROM): PROM is a type of ROM that is manufactured as blank memory and can be written or programmed by the user once. After programming, the data on PROM cannot be changed or erased. Making it suitable for storing fixed data that does not require updates.  Non-Volatile Memory EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):- EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times. The erasure process requires exposure to ultraviolet light, which clears the data, allowing the memory to be reused. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):- EEPROM is similar to EPROM, but it can be erased and reprogrammed using an electrical charge. This flexibility allows EEPROM to be updated without removing the chip from the device  Secondary Storage This type of memory is used for long-term data storage, retaining data even when the computer is turned off. It is slower but offers larger storage capacity compared to primary memory. Different secondary storage Magnetic storage Optical storage USB / Flash Drive  Magnetic Storage Uses magnetic media to store data. Commonly used for large-scale data storage, offering high capacity and durability. Magnetic-Tape: A type of magnetic tape used for data backup and archiving, typically offering storage capacities ranging from 1 TB to over 30 TB per cartridge. It is known for its large storage capacity but has slower access times compared to other storage mediums. Magnetic-Disk: M-Disks are highly resistant to environmental factors like heat, humidity, and light, ensuring that data remains intact for decades, making them ideal for archival purposes.  Optical storage Uses lasers to read and write data on disks. Common for media distribution and storage. CD (Compact Disc): An optical disc used to store data, audio, and video. It has a capacity of about 700 MB. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): An optical disc with higher storage capacity than a CD, typically used for video and data storage. It store up to 8gb of data Blu-ray: A high-definition optical disc format with greater storage capacity than DVDs, used for HD video and data storage. It store up to 100gb of data  USB (Universal Serial Bus) A standard for data transfer and storage devices. It is widely used for connecting peripherals and storage devices like USB drives. USB Flash Drives: Small, thumb-sized devices that can store large amounts of data. External SSDs: Portable solid-state drives that connect via USB and offer faster data access and larger storage capacities. FAT32: A file system format used in USB drives and other storage devices, known for compatibility across different operating systems but with a file size limit of 4 GB.  Flash Storage A type of non-volatile memory that stores data using electronic circuits. It is fast, durable, and used in portable storage devices. SD Card: A small, portable flash memory card commonly used in cameras, smartphones, and other devices to store data. It offers various capacities and speeds. Solid State Drives (SSDs): High-speed storage devices used in computers, replacing traditional hard drives. They use flash memory to store data, providing faster access and durability. MicroSD Cards: A smaller version of SD cards, used in mobile phones, drones, and other compact devices for additional storage. Embedded Flash Memory: Found in devices like smartphones and tablets, where the storage is built into the device itself using flash technology.  I/O Devices Keyboard Text Scanner Input Voice Microphone Dot Dot Mouse Dot-Matrix Pointer Printer Joystick Impact Daisy wheel I/O Devices Printer Inkjet Printer Non-impact Hardcopy Laser Printer Pen Plotter Thermal Printers Durm Output CRT LCD Softcopy Monitor Plasma Display LED  I/O Devices I/O devices are the communication channels between a computer and the outside world. They enable users to interact with the system and receive information from it. There are two primary categories of I/O devices: Input devices Output devices.  Input Devices Input devices are used to feed data and instructions into a computer. Usually we have three types of input Text Input: With the use of these input we input text into digital device as like computer. Example :- Keyboard:- The keyboard is a classic example of a "Text Input" device. It is used to enter alphanumeric data (letters, numbers, and symbols) into a computer or other digital devices. Scanner: A device that converts physical documents and images into digital form. It captures text and images, which can be processed or stored on a computer.  Input Devices Voice Input refers to the method of inputting data or commands into a computer or other digital devices using spoken language Example microphones:-microphones to capture the sound of the user's voice, which is then processed and interpreted by the computer to execute commands or convert speech into text. Pointer Input refers to a method of interacting with a computer or other digital devices by using a pointing device that allows the user to move a cursor or pointer on the screen. Pointer input devices are essential for navigating graphical user interfaces (GUIs), selecting objects, and executing commands.  Input Devices Example Mouse: The mouse is the most widely used pointer input device. It typically has two or more buttons and a scroll wheel. By moving the mouse on a flat surface, the user can move the cursor on the screen. Clicking the buttons allows the user to select, drag, drop, or execute commands. Joystick : A joystick is a lever that pivots on a base, allowing the user to control the movement of the cursor or an object on the screen. Often used in gaming, simulators, or specialized industrial applications, joysticks can control movement in one or more directions  Output Devices Output devices are hardware components that display or produce data from a computer to a user in various forms. They can provide information in – hardcopy (physical) format. softcopy (digital) format.  Hardcopy (Physical) Format. Hardcopy refers to physical, tangible output, such as printed documents or drawings. This output is permanent and can be stored physically. Printers are devices that produce text and graphics on paper. They are classified into two main types: impact and non-impact printers, each with different printing technologies.  Printers Impact: Dot Matrix Printer: Uses a print head that moves back and forth, striking an ink- soaked ribbon against paper to form characters. It's noisy but durable and can print multi-part forms. Daisy wheel :- Daisy wheel printing is a mechanical impact printing technology. It is called daisy-wheel because its printing mechanism looks like a daisy. Its speed is usually 25-50 characters per second. Non-impact: Inkjet Printer: Sprays tiny droplets of ink onto paper to create images and text. It is commonly used for high-quality color printing in homes and offices. Laser Printer: Uses a laser beam to produce an image on a drum, which is then transferred to paper using toner. Known for high-speed printing and excellent text quality. Thermal Printers: A thermal printer is a type of printer that uses heat to produce an image on paper  Hardcopy (Physical) Format. Plotters are devices used to produce large drawings or images, such as blueprints or engineering designs. They draw continuous lines rather than a series of dots like printers. Pen: Uses one or more pens to draw images on paper. The pens move along the surface to create high-precision drawings, often used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design). Drum: The paper is wrapped around a rotating drum, and the pens move across the surface. This method is typically used for large-scale technical drawings.  Softcopy (Digital) Format Softcopy refers to digital, non-physical output, such as images or text displayed on a screen. This output is temporary and can be easily modified. Monitors are the primary devices for displaying softcopy output. They come in various technologies that affect image quality, color, and energy consumption.  CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): An older type of monitor that uses electron beams to illuminate phosphors on the screen. CRT monitors are bulky but were widely used for their color accuracy. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): A flat-panel display that uses liquid crystals and backlighting to produce images. LCDs are energy-efficient and lightweight, making them popular in modern devices.  Softcopy (Digital) Format Plasma Display: Uses small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases (plasma) to produce images. Plasma displays are known for their deep blacks and high contrast ratios but are less common today. LED (Light Emitting Diode): An advanced display technology that uses LEDs for backlighting or as the actual pixel source. LED monitors are energy-efficient, slim, and provide excellent brightness and color accuracy.  Number System What is a number system? A number system is a way of representing numbers using a set of symbols. Importance of number systems in computers Computers use number systems to store and process data. The most common number systems used in computers are binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal. There is two type of number system we have :- Positional Number Systems Non-Positional Number Systems  Non-Positional Number Systems Positional Number Systems Non-Positional Number Systems:- Non-positional number system is also known as non-weighted number system. Digit value is independent of its position. In this system symbols such as I for 1. II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4 etc. Positional Number Systems:- In a positional number system, there are only a few symbols called digits, and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the number. The value of each digit in such a number is determined by three considerations The digit itself The position of the digit in the number and The base of the number system  Positional Number Systems Decimal Number System(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9):- The number system that we use in our day to day life is called the Decimal Number System. Hear we have base 10 it means we have ten symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) that can be used in this number system. Binary Number System (0,1):- The binary number system is exactly like the decimal design except that the base is 2 instead of 10. We have only two symbols or digits (0 and 1) that can be used in this number system Example: 1010  Positional Number Systems Octal Number System (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7):- In the octal number system the base is 8. So in this system there are eight symbols or digits : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 Example: 2057 Hexadecimal Number System (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F):- The Hexadecimal Number System is one with a base of 16. Then first 10 digits are the digits of a decimal system 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ,9. The remaining six digits are denoted by A, B,C, D, E, F representing the decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively. Example: 69BBA16