Compilation Of Diss - First Quarter - PDF

COMPILATION OF DISS FIRST QUARTER LESSON 1 - Nature And function of Humanities, Social and Natural Sciences Social Sciences, Natural Sciences and Humanities **Social sciences** are key to the understanding of many societal issues such as the balance between economic growth and impact on the envi...

COMPILATION OF DISS FIRST QUARTER LESSON 1 - Nature And function of Humanities, Social and Natural Sciences Social Sciences, Natural Sciences and Humanities **Social sciences** are key to the understanding of many societal issues such as the balance between economic growth and impact on the environment. In other words the social sciences examine what it means to be a social being, ranging from the minutiae of human behavior and brain functions, to large scale social movements, demographics, economics and politics." The social sciences consist of a variety of disciplines, subject areas, and methods, and there is no reason to expect that these disciplines will eventually add up to a single unified theory of society. Political science, sociology and demography, history, anthropology, economics, geography, psychology, linguistics and area studies all provide their own, largely independent, definitions of scope, research agenda, and research methods. In addition, there is no grand plan according to which the disciplinary definitions jointly capture all that is of scientific interest about the social. On the other hand, social scientists are often based in departments of health or science within universities, as well as in social science areas. Many researchers work outside of academia in industry and government. **Natural science** deals with the natural world. It is concerned with the phenomena and objects of nature and the physical world. Natural science involves comprehension, description, and prediction of natural phenomena using empirical and observational evidence. Hypothesis formed in natural sciences must be verified scientifically to be regarded as a scientific theory. Natural science can be divided into two main branches known as biological science (life science) and physical science. Biological science is concerned with living organisms whereas physical science is concerned with the physical world. Physical science is divided into sub-branches, including chemistry, physics, astronomy and Earth science. These branches can be further divided into more fields that are specialized. Natural science is one of the major categories of academic disciplines chosen by students all over the world. This branch of natural science is often simply called science, or scientific study. Many popular professions such as doctor, nurse, engineer, geologist, astronomer, chemist, biologist, etc. require knowledge of natural science. **Humanities,** the academic subjects or fields of study that provides students' knowledge of concepts and skills that are intellectual rather than occupational are classified under humanities. Study of cultures is one of the important parts of this vast field of study that also includes languages, literature, religion, philosophy, visual and performing arts etc. The subjects that are clubbed together under humanities are not sciences for sure. However, these subjects aim to bring into focus the human or social aspects of sciences. These subjects are descriptive and move ahead through analysis and some speculation. Music, visual arts, theater etc. are also humanities subjects. History that has traditionally been a subject under humanities is nowadays included among social sciences. Social sciences are sciences, and this vast field of study includes subjects that adopt a scientific approach to study. However, these subjects are close to both human lives and natural sciences. Subjects like law, political science, history, education, psychology economics etc. classify to be called social sciences. Study of politics is called social science. The thing to remember is that the subjects included in social sciences are those that are in one way or the other connected with human society and human nature. While traditionally only psychology, anthropology, sociology, and economics were included in social sciences, it has come to include many of the erstwhile humanities subjects such as law, political science, and linguistics. Both humanities, as well as social sciences, concern themselves with human lives and human nature. The difference lies in their approach as social sciences are sciences and adopt a more scientific approach, whereas humanities are descriptive and make use of analytical methods to explain concepts. This is why one finds lots of explanation in social sciences but a lot more understanding in humanities. In summary: **The Natural Sciences are empirical** --- that is, they are addressed by using our five senses of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell. Their facts can be verified "empirically," that is, with the five senses. Everybody can verify them. **The Social Sciences are statistical** --- that is, they are addressed by surveys of large populations, as well as by empirical evidence. For example, anthropology compares social groups in so-called primitive economic conditions with social groups in more advanced economic conditions. It also includes Archaeology, Psychology, Politics, Economics and History. Though most observations of Social Science can be verified, some observations are matters of opinion --- subject to a cultural bias of the scientist. The Humanities are neither empirical nor statistical. This includes Ethics --- the study of Right and Wrong (Good and Evil). It includes Aesthetics --- the study of the Beautiful. It includes Poetry, Rhetoric, Drama, the Fine Arts and the Performing Arts. There is no objective way to verify the data. The only methods of judgment that we enjoy in the Humanities are intuition, feeling, opinion, debate and criticism. There is almost never a consensus about them. LESSON 2 - **HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE EMERGENCE OF EACH DISCIPLINE** **Table 1.1 presents a brief summary on the definition and nature of the emergence of each discipline** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Discipline** | **Nature of | **Proponents** | | | Emergence** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **1. Anthropology** | **The rise of Western | **Franz Boas, | | is the study of human | imperialism in the | Bronislaw Malinowski, | | kind. It comes from | 18^th^ and 19^th^ | David Hume, John | | the Greek word | centuries prompted | Locke,** | | *Anthropos*, which | interest in the study | | | means "human" and | of culture of the | **Jean-Jacques | | *logos*, which mean | colonies. Further, | Rousseau** | | "study." Moreover, it | This marked the rise | | | attempt to find | of scientific and | | | answers on questions | rational | | | involving humans: | philosophical | | | | thought. | | | a. How we | Enlightenment | | | originated? | thinkers such as | | | | David Hume wrote a | | | b. How we have | number of humanistic | | | changed? | works on the nature | | | | of humankind.** | | | c. How we are still | | | | changing? | | | | | | | | It consists of four | | | | branches namely: a. | | | | physical or | | | | biological | | | | anthropology mainly | | | | concern about how | | | | human emerged & | | | | evolved through time; | | | | b. Cultural or social | | | | anthropology-it | | | | concerns on the | | | | different cultures | | | | from time to time; c. | | | | Linguistic | | | | anthropology is the | | | | anthropological study | | | | of language; and d. | | | | Ethnology is study of | | | | present culture. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **2. Economics** seek | **Economics became a | **Adam Smith, Karl | | to understand | separate discipline | Marx** | | **people's activities | with the publication | | | concerning | of Adam Smith. The | | | production, | wealth of nations in | | | distribution, and | 1776.** | | | consumption of goods | | | | and services." It | | | | derived from the | | | | Greek word *oikos* | | | | meaning "house" and | | | | *nomos*, which means | | | | "laws." Economics is | | | | divided into two | | | | major fields namely: | | | | a. *microeconomics* | | | | focuses on small or | | | | individual | | | | organization in the | | | | system while *b. | | | | macroeconomics* | | | | focuses on the | | | | broader sense.** | | | | | | | | One of the known | | | | theories of this | | | | discipline are the | | | | supply and demand | | | | curve. The focus is | | | | to determine the | | | | economic equilibrium | | | | for price and | | | | quantity (**Jose and | | | | Ong, 2016)** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **3. Geography** | **It became an | **Immanuel Kant, | | means the | academic discipline | Alexander Von | | "*description of the | in Europe during the | Humboldt, Carl | | earth*." Stated by | 18^th^ and 19^th^ | Ritter** | | Getis (2004), | centuries while many | | | "Geography is defined | geographic societies | | | as the study of | were founded in the | | | spatial variation of | 19^th^ century. In | | | how and why things | addition, the | | | differ from place to | earliest geographers | | | place on the surface | were concerned with | | | of the earth." There | exploring unknown | | | are five theme of | areas and with | | | geography namely: a. | describing the | | | location; b. place; | observable features | | | c. regions; d. | of different places. | | | movement and e. human | Such ancient people | | | environment | as the Chinese, | | | interactions. | Egyptians and | | | | Phoenicians made long | | | | journeys and recorded | | | | their observation of | | | | strange land.** | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **4. History** is the | **The Greeks were the | **Herodotus, | | study of the past and | first writers of | Thucydides, Leopold | | its records about | history and It is one | von Ranke** | | events. It comes from | of the oldest | | | the Greek word | discipline of the | | | *historia*, which | social sciences.** | | | means, "to inquire | | | | **knowledge through | | | | investigation." | | | | Herodotus is a | | | | popular Greek | | | | historian and was | | | | considered the, | | | | *"father of | | | | history".* His first | | | | book is called as the | | | | "HISTORIES" which is | | | | the record of ancient | | | | traditions & culture | | | | of Greece, Asia and | | | | Africa.** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **5. Linguistic is | **Modern linguistics | **Ferdinand de | | the study of how | started to develop in | Saussure, Jacques | | languages are** | the 18^th^ century | Derrida** | | **structured**, how | with philology | | | they are **learned**, | reaching its zenith | | | how they **change** | in the 19^th^ | | | through time and how | century.** | | | they are used in | | | | different cultures | | | | and societies | | | | (University of | | | | Western Australia | | | | School of Social | | | | Sciences, 2017). It | | | | is composed of the | | | | following: a. | | | | Phonetic, which | | | | concerns the sound | | | | being used in | | | | language; b. | | | | Phonology that | | | | concerns with the | | | | structure of words; | | | | c. Syntax that | | | | concerns the | | | | structures of phrases | | | | and sentences; and d. | | | | Semantics that | | | | concerns in giving | | | | and studying the | | | | meaning. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **6. Political | **As an academic | **Plato, Aristotle | | Science** is both | discipline, political | Augustine of Hippo, | | theory and practice | science is a | Niccolo Machiavelli, | | of politics including | relatively new field | Thomas Hobbes, John | | analysis on public | that was principally | Locke** | | policies. It divided | worked on by American | | | into six subfield | scholars in the | | | namely: | 19^th^ and 20^th^ | | | a.*Comparative | centuries.** | | | politics* which | | | | compare theories on a | | | | specific nation to | | | | other nation; b. | | | | *International | | | | relation* which focus | | | | on the politics among | | | | nations included the | | | | international law, | | | | diplomatic affairs, & | | | | subfield conflict; c. | | | | *Political theory* | | | | mainly concerns is | | | | the classical, modern | | | | politics & aims to | | | | discover what theory | | | | suits to the | | | | characteristics of a | | | | good politicians; d. | | | | *Public | | | | Administration* | | | | mainly concerns is | | | | the bureaucracies on | | | | how it is functional | | | | & how to improve the | | | | theories; e. | | | | *Constitutional Law* | | | | studies how laws are | | | | made & being applied | | | | on a certain nation | | | | or state; and f. | | | | *Public Policy* it | | | | aims to create a plan | | | | to develop programs | | | | that would be | | | | sufficient & adequate | | | | to societies. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **7. Sociology** is | **It is Emile | **Auguste Comte, Karl | | the study of the | Durkheim founded a | Marx, Herbert | | interaction or | formal academic field | Spencer, Emile | | relationship of the | of study during the | Durkheim** | | society. It derived | late 19^th^ century | | | from the Greek word | with the | | | *socius* meaning | establishment of the | | | "companion" and | first sociology | | | *logos* meaning | department in | | | "word" (Arcinas | Europe.** | | | ,2016). There are | | | | three approaches in | | | | sociology namely: a. | | | | *Structural | | | | functionalist theory* | | | | which means, "Society | | | | is a system of | | | | interconnected parts | | | | that work together in | | | | harmony to maintain a | | | | state of balance & | | | | social equilibrium | | | | for the whole" | | | | (Mooney, Linda, David | | | | Knox and Caroline | | | | Schacht, 2012); b. | | | | Conflict theory | | | | mainly a society by | | | | groups competing with | | | | each other; and c. | | | | Symbolic interaction | | | | means the level of | | | | analysis is in this | | | | perspective is more | | | | on the microsociology | | | | side (perspective | | | | concern the | | | | individual | | | | interpretation | | | | compared to the other | | | | two perspective). | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **8. Psychology** is | **In 1879, Wilhelm | **Wilhelm Wundt, G. | | attempt to understand | Wundt established the | Stanley Hall, John | | and explain the way | first psychological | Dewey, Sigmund Freud | | people think, act, | laboratory in Leipzig | B.F. Skinner, John | | and feel. It comes | (Germany) thereby | Locke** | | from the Greek word | effectively making | | | *psyche* means "mind" | psychology a formal | | | and logos which means | field of study.** | | | "study of". | | | | Psychology comprises | | | | of the following | | | | *School of Thoughts*: | | | | a. *Structuralism* | | | | which uses the method | | | | of introspection to | | | | identify the basic | | | | elements or structure | | | | of psychological | | | | experience by Wilhelm | | | | Wundt and Edward | | | | Tichener; b. | | | | *Functionalism* which | | | | attempt to understand | | | | why animals & human | | | | have developed the | | | | particular | | | | psychological aspects | | | | that they currently | | | | possess by William | | | | James; c. | | | | *Psychodynamic* which | | | | focuses on the role | | | | of our unconscious | | | | thoughts, feelings & | | | | memories on our early | | | | childhood experiences | | | | in determining | | | | behavior by Sigmund | | | | Freud, Carl Jung, | | | | Alfred Adler, & Erik | | | | Erikson; d. | | | | *Behaviorism* which | | | | apply the operant & | | | | classical | | | | conditioning by John | | | | B. Watson, BF Skinner | | | | & Ivan Pavlov); f. | | | | *Cognitive* which | | | | mental processes | | | | including perception, | | | | thinking, memory & | | | | judgment by Hermann | | | | Ebbinghaus, Sir | | | | Frederic Bartlett & | | | | Jean Piaget; f. | | | | *Social cultural*, | | | | the study of how the | | | | social situations & | | | | the cultures in which | | | | people they find | | | | themselves influence | | | | through their | | | | thinking & behavior. | | | | **(Jose and Ong, | | | | 2016),** | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **9. Demography** is | **The 19^th^ century | **Thomas Maithus, | | the study of human | saw the emergence of | Adolphe Quetelet, | | population. It comes | demography when it | William Farr** | | from the Greek word | separated from | | | *demos* meaning | statistics as a field | | | "people" and *French* | of study.** | | | means "graphie". It | | | | is main concern on | | | | the size and | | | | characteristics of | | | | the population | | | | (Arcinas, 2016). | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ LESSON 3 -- STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM** | | | | - **functional theory, sees society as a structure with | | interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social | | needs of the individuals in that society** | | | | **Robert Merton\ | | - identified two types of functions:\ | | \ | | 1. MANIFEST FUNCTIONS\ | | - are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized\ | | 2. LATENT FUNCTIONS\ | | - are consequences that are unintended and often hidden.** | | | | **Concepts of Structural -- Functionalism** | | | | 1. **Collective Conscience and Value Consensus** | | | | | | | | 2. **Social Order** | | | | | | | | 3. **Functionalism and Education** | | | | - **[Talcott Parsons] (1961) believes that *education* | | leads to universalistic values and that education performs a link | | between family and the wider society which in turn leads to | | secondary socialization** | | | | 4. **Functionalism and Family** | | | | - **The family is the primary point of socialization in that it | | provides children with values and norms. Family also stabilizes | | adult personalities.** | | | | - **A family unit provides emotional security for each person in | | the relationship.** | | | | 5. **Functionalism and Media** | | | | **The media operate in the public interest by reflecting the | | interests of the audience. It portrays public opinion** | | | | 6. **Functionalism and Crime and Deviance** | | | | - **Crime and deviance are socially constructed -- they are not | | natural, obvious, or theologically inspired categories.** | | | | - **They are concepts that were brought into the world solely by | | humankind** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ LESSON 4 -- SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM ***Symbolic interaction theory*** focuses on the interpretation (social meaning) that is given to behavior, and on the way such interpretation helps to construct the social world, the identities of people, and, ultimately how they behave. All interaction theories are concerned with the way in which meaning is constructed. The symbolic interaction perspective, also called ***symbolic interactionism***, is a major framework of the [sociological theory](https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-research-and-statistics-s2-3026650). This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in the process of social interaction. ***Symbol*** refers to meanings. For symbolic interactions, things objects, ideas, beliefs, people, values, states of being) do not simply exist: they exist in the meanings they have. On the other hand, ***meanings*** are established in communication; hence the importance of interaction. Our word exists in the meanings it has for us, and our meanings come from our interactions. People, like meanings, exist in a social context. ***Symbolic Interactionism*** - Analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. - Looks at individual and group meaning- making, focusing on human action instead of large-scale social structures. - Its main postulate is based that the human beings have the capacity of thought, which is molded by the social interaction, which is learned of the meanings and symbols that allow us to act and interpret, modifying or altering the meanings based on the interpretation of the situation, to interact with itself and through their actions and interactions to join between the groups and society. To better understand the concept of symbolic interaction, let us have a specific example. The meaning of the \"rainbow\" has changed over time in our culture. Once, it was a Christian symbol-and it still is-of hope, as God placed a rainbow in the sky after the Great Flood. However, in today\'s popular culture, the rainbow symbolizes the LGBTQ community. At one time, as this change was occurring, there was no consensus regarding the meaning of the rainbow; however, in today\'s culture, the rainbow color is universally recognized as a symbol of the LGBTQ community. Now, let's talk about the basic principles of symbolic interaction: 1. Humans have capacity for thought. 2. Thought is shaped by social interaction. 3. Through interaction, people learn symbols and meanings that allow them to think. 4. Meanings and symbols allow for human action. 5. People can interpret a situation and modify their action or interaction. 6. People can create own meanings. 7. Groups and societies are made up of patterns of action and interaction. **Let's now get to know the proponents of symbolic interactionism and their views about oneself and the society.** **a. Mead's Concept of Self** George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) was born in South Hadley, Massachusetts in February of 1863. ′ In 1894, Mead moved from The University of Michigan to Chicago, Illinois, where he would later become the center of the sociological department at The University of Chicago. After 1893 taught at the University of Chicago until his death. - Believed people have the capacity to think and decide on their own how they should act in certain situations. - Their reactions are based on their perceptions and definitions of the situation. - People cope with the reality of things according to their comprehension of the situation. He laid the groundwork for symbolic interaction with his discussion about the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. ′In simple form, people act based on symbolic meanings they find within a given situation.′ The goals of human interactions are to create a shared meanings. In Mead's book on **Mind, Self, and Society**, he discussed the following: 1\. the *mind* as a process, a conversation within itself. - People have the capacity to control their responses to the environment. 2\. *Self* involves the process where actors reflect on themselves as objects. - Develops from social forces and social experience. The self-breaks down into two processes or phases that take place in any human interaction: 2.1 The *I* is described as the unorganized response of the self to the attitudes of others - the spontaneous disposition or impulse to act. 2.2 The* me*, in contrast, is a set of organized attitudes of others that the individual assumes in response - that is, those perspectives on the self that the individual has interpreted from others. 3\. *Society* cannot exist without minds and self. - Humans have ability to manipulate environment so multiple societies exist. The 'I' and 'Me' - I is source of creativity and spontaneity. - Me is formed from the perceptions others' actions and views, including own thoughts on oneself. After Mead's death in 1931, his students at the University published his Mind, Self, and Society teachings. ′ Herbert Blumer, Mead's pupil, further developed his theory and coined it "Symbolic Interactionism." **b. Cooley\'s \'Looking Glass Self\'** Along with Mead is his friend, Charles Horton Cooley. He helped originate symbolic interaction theory. Cooley is best known for the concept of the \'looking glass self,\' which he illustrated with the following statement: *I am not what I think I am and I am not what you think I am;* *I am what I think you think I am.* This means that we as individuals define how we perceive ourselves by how we think others perceive us. To put this component of the theory in perspective, consider this: It is your first day of high school. You are at lunch, holding your food tray and nervously scanning the crowd to find the best place to sit. As you find your seat, you internalize the glances you get from the students you pass at the other tables, interpreting what you think they are thinking of you based on their facial expressions, body language, and verbiage. You are, in effect, redefining who you think you are based on your interpretation of other people\'s reactions to you. **c. Blumer\'s Symbolic Interactionism** Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) was actually a student of Mead and he expanded on Mead\'s discussion of the self in relation to social behavior. Despite much of the groundwork being established by Mead, Blumer is traditionally known for being the brain behind the theory of symbolic interactionism. In fact, his work 'Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method' synthesized his contributions with those of Mead and Cooley and coined the term symbolic interaction. Blumer argued that people\'s behavior is based on the meaning those behaviors have to them. Those meanings are based on and derived from interactions an individual has with others. It is important to note that these meanings are subject to change based on an individual\'s interpretation. This argument varies from others that preceded it because it is based on an individual\'s interpretation of something, as opposed to a structural or functional perspective on how behaviors or actions are given meaning by humans. Blumer was one of sociology's most prominent and esteemed practitioners. - Leading spokesperson for the Chicago style of symbolic interactionism for an entire generation. - Believed that humans construct their own actions and are free of internal drives. - Additionally, actions are a consequence of reflexive and deliberate processes determined by an individual in response to their environment.  According to Herbert Blumer, symbolic interaction rests on three basic premises/ principles: 1. Human beings act toward things on the basis on the meanings the things have for them. E.g. Book -- a 'purchase'. For which you paid, which you then had to carry home with your other purchases. These things, taken to gather, are 'possessions', for which you may feel the need of more closet space. Alternatively, you may have to pay by weight to move to another apartment. The book also has meaning as a book, as something to read, something to study, something for which you may be 'responsible' on a test. 2. The meanings of such things are derived from, or grow out of, social interaction. E.g. When a child picks up a bug from off the ground, the people around her may have different reactions. In one family, someone slaps the child's hand and washes it: the bug is bad, dirty thing. In another setting, someone brings a piece of paper to hold the bug and a magnifying glass with which to view it: the bug is interesting, something to study. In another setting, someone ties a string around the bug and teaches the child how to play with it: the bug is a toy. In addition, in some other setting, the child is thanked and the bug put aside to be cooked: the bug is food. 3. These meanings are handled in and modified through an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he encounters. Meaning making and understanding is an ongoing interpretive process, during which the initial meaning might remain the same, evolve slightly, or change radically. **d. Erving Goffman** (1922--1982) was a major Canadian-American sociologist who played a significant role in the development of modern American sociology. He is considered by some to be the most influential sociologist of the 20th century. He is considered a pioneer of micro-sociology, or the close examination of the social interactions that compose everyday life. - **Presentation of self** (Goffman): An identity that one presents to others in an attempt to manage their impression of him or her. We act a certain way so others view us in this certain way. - **Dramaturgy** (Goffman): Method of analyzing social interactions in the form of a play. We are the actors; we present ourselves in a specific way in the front stage and act as we truly are in the back stage. - **Stigma** (Goffman): Describes a mark of disgrace. Sometimes in physical form, other times as poor personality traits (weak or dishonest). LESSON 5 -- PSYCHOANALYSIS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Psychoanalysis refers both to a theory of how the mind works and a treatment modality. As a treatment method, it helps people understand themselves, their relationships, and how they behave in the world. Psychoanalytic treatment is based on the idea that we are commonly motivated to act by impulses that we do not recognize because they originate in our unconscious.** **Psychoanalytic theory is a framework for understanding the impact of the unconscious on thoughts, feelings, and behavior.** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- You may not be greatly aware of his work in detail, but you will likely have heard his name- Sigmund Freud-- and that's because he was an influential individual in the past. Know anything else about him? Let's take a read. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Jewish background, though avowed atheist. | | Lived in Vienna until Nazi occupation in 1938. He had a medical | | background wanted to do "neurophysiologic research". He had a private | | practice in nervous and brain disorders. He is the founding father of | | psychoanalysis.** | | | | **Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who is perhaps most known | | as the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud has developed a set of | | therapeutic techniques centered on [talk | | therapy](https://www.verywellmind.com/talk-therapy-2671994) that | | involved the use of strategies such as transference, free | | association, and dream interpretation.** | | | | **Psychoanalysis became a dominating school of thought during the | | early years of psychology and remains quite influential today. In | | addition to his influence on psychology, Freud\'s ideas have | | permeated popular culture and concepts such as denial, Freudian | | slips, the unconscious, wish fulfillment, and the ego are even | | commonly used in everyday language.** | | | | **Influence** | | | | **Freud also influenced many other prominent psychologists, including | | his daughter [Anna | | Freud](https://www.verywellmind.com/anna-freud-biography-1895-1982-27 | | 95536), [Melanie | | Klein](https://www.verywellmind.com/melanie-klein-biography-2795547), | |  [Karen | | Horney](https://www.verywellmind.com/karen-horney-biography-2795539), | | Alfred Alder, [Erik | | Erikson](https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-erikson-biography-1902-199 | | 4-2795538), | | and Carl Jung.** | | | | **Contributions to the Field of Psychology** | | | | **Regardless of the perception of Sigmund Freud's theories, there is | | no question that he had an enormous impact on the field of | | psychology. His work supported the belief that not all mental | | illnesses have physiological causes and he offered evidence that | | cultural differences have an impact on psychology and behavior.** | | | | **His work | | and [writings](https://www.verywellmind.com/books-by-sigmund-freud-27 | | 95862) contributed | | to our understanding of personality, [clinical | | psychology](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-clinical-psychology- | | 2795000), | | human development, and [abnormal | | psychology](https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-abnormal-psychology- | | 2794775).** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Learn more about each levels of awareness and the role that they play in shaping one's thought and behavior. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Conscious contains those thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which you are currently aware. This is the aspect if our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. Consciousness and its precursor (precociousness) too, was formulated as a psychic province, and attributed to the workings of the ego.** **Preconscious stores all the thoughts of which you could bring into consciousness fairly easily if you wanted to; thoughts that can be easily recall without special techniques. These are not the same things as memories that are readily accessed, such as remembering your way home. They are unrepressed memories that we extract for a specific purpose at a specific time. It also acts as something of a guard, controlling the information that is allowed to enter into conscious awareness.** -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Unconscious is the material that we have no immediate access to, and we cannot bring into consciousness except under certain extreme situations. A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. This contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. *Ex. Slip of the tongue: A teacher who accidentally uses her daughter's name when referring to her student.* Unconsciousness is at once a quality that can be attributed to a represented idea or impulse, and also a region or 'province' to where the idea is banished.** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ According to Freud, there is psychodynamic or tripartite person's personality. Take a closer look at each of these key parts of personality, how they work individually, and how they interact. ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Id (Impulsive Self) The Id is the oldest and most primitive psychic agency, representing the biological foundations of personality. This is an unconscious part of your personality concerned only with satisfying personal desires as cauldron of passions. It is basically childish and impulsive part of you that just does what it wants without thinking the consequences. The actions taken by the id are based on the *pleasure principle*. The id is chaotic and animal-like, simply seeking to increase pleasure and decrease if not avoid pain. ***Ex.*** ***Let us say you come home and you find to your delight that your roommate has baked a cake. Your Id would think "Oh! I want that cake right now! That looks delicious!" You know that your roommate is not going to be happy if you eat it, so first, you eat a little piece of the corner, and then you have to cut yourself a slice so it does not look disgusting, and then soon enough you have eaten the whole thing; it is gone.*** How did you manage to eat the whole cake? Blame your Id for taking over. It wants you to eat whole cake because it wants you to increase pleasure. Now what it also wants to do is decrease pain. ***So let us say you wake up the next morning and you think, "Oh no, I just ate a whole cake. That's not good for my diet, maybe I'll get some exercise." You think about going to a hiking all day and you tell yourself "Alright, exercise will be enough." Your Id may insist "No! That is not going to happen; that is going to hurt. I don't want to do that!"*** If you are totally Id driven, you would basically eat the whole cake and then you would not go for hiking nor do exercise the next day to burn off the calories. That is the pleasure principle. ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- EGO (Rational Self) The ego is the agent of reason, commonsense and defense. The primary job of the ego is to mediate/ balance the demands of the id and the outer forces of reality. The ego is the decision-making part of the mind. It uses reason and logic, and tries to get the unrealistic id to cooperate in a society that has rules and boundaries. The ego takes on a number functions. It commands voluntary movement. It has the task of self-preservation, and must therefore master both internal (id) and external stimuli. The ego is the component of personality that functions in both the conscious and unconscious mind. ----- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SUPER EGO Superego is the moral arm of the personality, which is the unconscious part of the brain. In Freud's terms, we all develop a superego at the age of 5 or 6. The superego is the "conscience" of a person: it is the voice that incorporates the values and morals, which are learned from one\'s parents and society. It tries to persuade the id and ego to turn to moral goals rather than seeking pleasure. The superego makes you feel guilt when you fall short of the good person you want to be. Now let us see what the superego would do if you come home and you find the cake. If the superego were in charge, you would not eat the cake at all. You would still think it looks delicious and want to eat it, but the superego would say, ***\'No, it\'s my roommate\'s cake. I\'m not going to eat this cake!\'*** Remember, the superego wants you to behave morally and appropriately, and it is not that socially appropriate to eat other people\'s baked goods. Your superego makes you feel guilty when you do things that are not socially appropriate. What do you do now ----------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ LESSON 6 -- RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY **Rational Choice** Peoples' demand for resources is said to be infinite while the world's resources such as land, labor, and capital are finite. From this situation arise the concept of scarcity. It is a fundamental economic problem arising from unlimited wants of people with limited resources. Therefore, decision making always considers a rational choice. According to Jonathan Levin and Paul Milgrom, in the standard view, rational choice is defined to mean the process of determining what options are available and then choosing the most preferred one according to some consistent criterion (Levin and Milgrom, 2004). In this sense, rational choice is presented as maximizing a real-valued utility function. Rational choice also explains social phenomena as outcomes of individual action. According to Rafael Wittek, choices are "rational" if they meet some consistency criterion as defined by a decision theory and are suitable to achieve specific goals, given the constraints of the situation (Wittek, 2013). Overall, rational choice is used to predict social consequences of decision-making based on scarcity. **Basic Concepts and Principles of Rational Choice** Among the important concepts and principles of rational choice are provided by Ian Shapiro and Donald Green. Some of them are utility maximization, structure of preferences, and centrality of individuals in the explanation of collective outcomes. 1\. **Utility maximization** means that a person will choose the object that provides the greatest reward at the lowest costs. A good example of utility maximization is selecting a product based on its features and low market price compared to other brands that offer the same features at a higher price. 2\. **Structure of preferences** means that a person will make choices related to his/her goals and determine the ways to attain those goals. An example of this is buying a house and lot by using a person's savings or applying for a housing loan in a private lending company. 3\. **Centrality of individuals in the explanation of collective outcomes** means the results of individual actions and interactions will lead to social change or group outcomes. A good example is the individual decision of the people to go to the streets and protest the end of dictatorship that lead to the restoration of democracy. LESSON 7 -- MARXISM THEORY Society, in another perspective is made up of individuals from different social classes who competes for social, material and economic resources like food, housing, education, health and employment. According to **Karl Marx**, the proponent of the theory on Social Conflict, society is divided into two classes. These classes are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. This society originated from the rise of the capitalist dating back industrial revolution. ***Bourgeoisie*** are the owners of the means of production in the society. They are the rich class who owns big businesses. Factors or production includes land, entrepreneurial skills, and capital like money, factories, machineries. These are also known as means of production. ***Proletariat*** are the workers or laborers in the society. In most cases, they constitute the majority of poor people who works in the businesses owned by the rich. In understanding society using this lens, it is noteworthy to consider that Marx have identified stages of time by which development took place from primitive communism to a capitalist society. For him only the first period of primitive communism people are free from some form of social stratification or class. However, the moment people start producing their daily needs, increase for economic activity follows. This leads to the formation of a ***Capitalist*** ***society***.It is run by a capitalist class called as the bourgeoisie. Production from factories became a norm during the industrial period that made the bourgeoisie more interested in manufacturing and profits. On the other hand, pre-capitalist peasant remained in the agricultural form of production. ***Social conflict*** arise from the inequalities produced by ownership and control of limited resources. Naturally, the bourgeoisie serves as the ruling class in running the means of production that leads to higher profit and income generated from the business. With these, they enjoy social and economic benefits such as having big and beautiful houses, eating in high class hotel and restaurants, study in prestigious private schools and put up more businesses. Unlike the proletariat, they have income just enough for their basic needs such as renting a house, eating in fast food chain, sending kids to public schools and do another job to extra income. While the rich bourgeoisie have still excess money for ***savings***, the poor proletariat strive very hard for daily ***survival***. As search for more profit increases, bourgeoisie tends to neglect fundamental needs of workers such as clean and healthy working environment. In addition, more business means more workforce to exert labor resulting to longer hours of work without appropriate overtime pay. These situations may ignite ***revolt*** among workers. This revolt creates the so called ***class antagonism***. That is why Marx believes that class consciousness must be done to eliminate false consciousness. ***Class consciousness*** refers to the person's awareness of his/her rank in the society. Knowing one's personal rank may bring social improvement to overcome conflict. Social conflict cannot be avoided in the society because there is always competition and differences in interest. Social conflict happens when two or more people or group don't agree with each other. It is further aggravated by the use of ***social power*** to get their goals. If this situation continues, then inequality is also present. **Basic Arguments of Marx on Social Inequality** 1. All socities are characterized by the struggle between social classes. 2. The existing relationship between these classes is both dependent and conflicting. 3. The contradicting relationship of dependency and conflict explains the basis of social stability and social change. ***Social Inequality*** is the uneven social status in the society due to unequal opportunities. It is the state of imbalanced distribution of valued goods and resources. Social inequality is caused by both social and economic factors. ***Social factors*** that causes inequality involves education, health, number of family members, justice system, and housing to name a few. While ***economic factors*** causing inequalities are income, poverty, unemployment, degree of educational attainment, and promotion among others. This is because economic production change more rapidly than people's ability to adopt the change. Marx argued that economic infrastructure was the most important division in society for two reasons such as: 1. It involves production, distribution, and exchange of essential requirements for living like food, clothing, shelther and consumer goods. 2. Systems of government, communication, and the like are dependent upon the way in which society organizes itself to provide these essential requirements. Say for example is the Income inequality. It is the unequal amount of income due to lack of employment with enough compensation to pay for everyday consumption of goods and services. Poor families tend to accept sub-standard housing that are sometimes located in depressed area because they cannot afford to build concrete houses in subdivisions. Moreover, inequality can be addressed only if the poor will have equal opportunities with the rich. If this social change happens then a Utopian society can be achieved. ***Utopian society*** for Marx is the classless and perfect society. LESSON 8 -- INSTITUTIONALISM **Institutionalism** Institutionalism is an approach in social science that gives emphasis on the role of institutions in shaping/affecting social behavior. According to Geoffrey M. Hodgson, we may define institutions as systems of established and prevalent social rules that structure social interactions (Hodgson, 2006). This is supported by Constanze Dobler's definition of institution. For him, institutions are rules that regulate human interactions (Dobler, 2011). Through institutions, people can establish expectations of other people's behavior. In general, institutions enable us to order our thoughts, expectations, and actions by imposing rules on human activities. When classified to degree of formality, there are two kinds of institutions -- formal and informal institutions. Formal institutions are often established by governments and legally introduced and enforced by the state. Examples are government laws, church doctrines, educational institutions, traffic rules, and holidays. While informal institutions are rules that govern behavior outside formal institutions such as courtship, dowry, arranged marriage, filial piety, and *compadrazgo*. **Constitutive Nature and Actors of Institutions** 1. **Informal Institutions** a. Traditionally, it is the role of a male to actively \"court\" a female. During courtship, a couple gets to know each other and develop an intimate relationship. Courtship processes vary widely across cultures. In Japan, parents hire a matchmaker to look for potential mates. If the couple being matched agrees, there will be a formal meeting with the matchmaker and parents also attend the formal meeting. Parents often exert pressure on the couple to decide whether they want to marry or not after a few dates. In the Philippines, it is common to see the male to show off by sending chocolates and flowers, and buying gifts for the female. Parental approval is commonly needed before courtship may begin or before the female gives her answer to the male. Nowadays, cellular phones and other modern technologies have influenced both how couples meet and how they maintain their relationships. b. In many countries, dowry is a payment to bride's family in the form of money, goods, or estate. Dowry provides money to the bride's family so the future husband is chosen according to his wealth. Dowry has many functions. It may serve as a form of protection for the wife against possibility of ill treatment by her husband and his family. Dowry may serve to help the new couple to establish a household. In some societies, a dowry supports the wife in case of her husband's death. In many societies, the bride's kin give dowries to the groom's kin for the expenses incurred by the husband in payment of bride wealth. In South Asia, the bride would share to the expenses incurred by the groom's parents for their son's higher education. c. According to Maria del Mar Pastor Bravo, Pilar Almansa Martinez, and Ismael Jimenez Ruiz, arranged marriages are traditional in Africa, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Latin America. Many families choose their daughter's husbands according to wealth, so converting the woman into a tradable good (Bravo, Martinez, and Ruiz, 2014). d. Filial piety is one of the most important virtues of Chinese society. It is respect and obedience to one's parents. e. According to Joefe B. Santarita and Randy M. Madrid, *compadrazgo* is a ritual co-parenthood, which stresses a horizontal relationship or ritual ties binding adults (Santarita and Madrid, 2016). 2. **Formal Institutions** a. Government laws are coercive in character. According to Andrei Marmor and Alexander Sarch, law has been known as a coercive institution, enforcing its practical demands on its subjects by means of threats and violence (Marmor and Sarch, 2019). Law as a coercive institution must impose its mandate to the people by applying sanctions to threat its violators. This is supported by Joseph Raz's argument that the law is an authoritative social institution. As a de facto authority, laws are imposed to people. An example is the imposition of individual income tax. Percentage of individual income tax varies around the world from zero percent to as high as 57.19%. b. Based on the Catechism of the Catholic Church, \"To the Church belongs the right always and everywhere to announce moral principles, including those pertaining to the social order, and to make judgments on any human affairs to the extent that they are required by the fundamental rights of the human person or the salvation of souls.\" Church leaders assess the acts of its members. For Archimedes C. Articulo, a moral standard based on religion evaluates moral acts whether they conform or not to moral teachings based on God's will or not (Articulo, 2005). c. For John Parankimalil, education is modification of behavior (Parankimalil, 2012). Human behavior is modified and improved through educational process. Education develops all faculties of a child. Education officials and teachers work hand-in-hand to develop the mental, physical, emotional and spiritual development of the individual. Thus, making them holistic individuals. d. All countries have traffic rules. Republic Act No. 4136 Chapter IV states traffic rules in the Philippines. It discusses speed limit and keeping to the right, overtaking and passing of a vehicle and turning at intersections, right of way and signals, and turning and parking. The Commissioner of Land Transportation Commission is responsible for the administration of this Act. e. Holidays are events and cultural or religious traditions that allow people to celebrate or commemorate. These are designated by the government, religious groups, or other organizations. An example of government designated holiday is Republic Act No. 9177. RA 9177 declared Eid'l Fitr (Feast of Ramadhan) as a regular holiday throughout the Philippines. Eid'l Fitr is celebrated by the Muslim world for three (3) days after the end of the month of fasting. Another holiday is the celebration of Christmas around the world. Christians celebrate Christmas every 25^th^ day of December to commemorate the birth of Christ. Popular modern customs of Christmas include thanks giving; gift giving; Christmas music and caroling; a special meal; and the display of various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, and nativity scenes. Every 10^th^ of December is Human Rights Day celebration. A working holiday celebrates the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948.