Compendium 1 Notes PDF

# Lecture Notes ## Anatomy Anatomy is the branch of science that deals with the structure of organisms (humans) and their parts. - The organisation of living things. ### Levels of Anatomy - **Gross Anatomy**, *Macroscopic* - Structures studied without the use of a microscope. - **System...

# Lecture Notes ## Anatomy Anatomy is the branch of science that deals with the structure of organisms (humans) and their parts. - The organisation of living things. ### Levels of Anatomy - **Gross Anatomy**, *Macroscopic* - Structures studied without the use of a microscope. - **Systemic**: studying the body system by system - Integumentary system - skin, hair and nails - Skeletal system - bones - Muscular system - muscles and tendons - **Regional**: studying the body area by area - Limbs - Knee (joint itself, muscles or tendons) - **Surface level anatomy** - The study of the external form of the body - Relation to deeper structures - **Microscopic anatomy** - The study of the structures with the aid of a microscope - Cytology (cells) - Papsmear - Histology (tissues - the collection of specialised cells and the other substances that surround the cells) - Biopsies with cancer suspicions - **Developmental anatomy** - The study of structural changes that occur in the body throughout the lifespan - Fertilisation to death - The greatest developmental changes occur before birth ## Physiology The branch of science that deals with the normal function of living organisms (humans) and their parts. - The way in which an organism (or its parts) function ### Levels of Physiology - **Molecular** - The processes and interactions within a cell - How proteins form channels within a membrane - **Cellular** - The processes happening inside cells - The way cells form energy or produce waste - **Systemic** - Function of organ systems - A neurophysiologist studies the function of the nervous system. - Cardiovascular physiology studies the function of the heart and the bloodvessels that transport blood around the body. ### Studies of Anatomy or Physiology - Measuring the electrical conductivity of the heart - physiology - Viewing cells under a microscope - anatomy - Using a vitalograph to test lung capacity - physiology - Observing the deep interior structures of the brain - anatomy - Measuring heart rate and blood pressure after a run - physiology - Dissecting a heart - anatomy ## Structural & Functional Organisation of the Human Body ### Chemical Level - How atoms (e.g. carbon, hydrogen) interact and combine into molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA, water, sugar). - The structural and functional characteristics of this level of organisation are determined by the chemical make-up. ### Cellular Levels - How molecules interact and combine to form organelles (e.g. nucleus, mitochondrion) of a cell. ### Tissue Level - Numerous similar cells and the tissue around them join to form a tissue type (e.g. smooth muscle tissue). - Basic tissue types (later) ### Organ Level - Two or more tissue types form an organ that performs one or multiple functions, e.g. the bladder. ### Organ System Level - Group of organs performing a common function (e.g. kidneys, bladder, ureters) make up a system (urinary system). - Lymphatic system - Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes and lymphatic organs like the spleen - Respiratory system - Lungs and respiratory passageways ### Organism Level - Anything living considered as a whole e.g. a human ## Characteristics of a Living Organism - **Organisation** - The specific relationship/interactions among parts of an organism -> how they perform their functions - Loss of organisation can cause death. - **Metabolism** - The ability to use energy (chemical reactions) and perform vital functions. - All chemical reactions taking place in the body. - **Responsiveness** - The ability to sense and adjust to changes in the environment. - **Move towards food and water and away from danger** - **Growth** - An increase in the size or number of cells -> overall enlargement of an organism - Working a muscle group at the gym causes growth development - The changes an organism undergoes through time. - Can involve growth or structure (shape) - **Reproduction** - The formation of new cells and organisms. All living organisms pass genes to their offspring. ## Homeostasis - Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively consistent environment inside the human body. - E.g.: blood pressure, pH, temperature, glucose levels, oxygen - Homeostatic mechanisms maintain the body near an ideal normal value or set point. - Slightly above or below this set point is the normal range. - Failure of homeostasis can lead to disease or death. - Organ systems keep our internal environment relatively constant. - E.g. digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular systems work together to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells and remove waste products from cells. - Modern medicine seeks to understand disturbances and maintain normal range. - Most body systems are maintained by negative feedback mechanisms. - When our temp rises the brain notices and tells sweat glends produce sweat and when the body has cooled the brain stops sending messages to the sweat glands (if noted note in nicer words lol) ## Lecture Notes {2} ### Anatomical position - The anatomical position is the standard reference used to describe body parts and their position/relation to other parts. - An erect person with their face forwards upper limbs hanging by their sides with the palms facing forwards, lower limbs straight. - This is important because to create a common point of reference to everyone who studies the human body. It's clear, consistent and helps to avoid confusion when talking about the structure and function of the human body ### Other body positions - **Supine** - A person lying face up - **Prone** - A person lying face down ### Directional terms - **Superior** - Towards the head/above - E.g. the chin is superior to navel - Also known as cranial or cephalic - **Inferior** - Towards the feet (tail) - E.g. the pelvis is inferior to the stomach - Also known as caudal - **Anterior** - Towards the front/in front of - E.g. the breast is anterior to the spine - Also known as ventral - **Posterior** - Towards the back/behind - E.g. the kidneys are posterior to the navel - Also known as dorsal - **Proximal** - “Closer to the body" - E.g. the elbows are proximal to the wrist - Relative positions of structures – usually relevant to the limbs - **Distal** - “Further from the body” - E.g. the toes are distal to the knee - Relative positions of structures – usually relevant to the limbs - **Medial** - Towards the mid-line of the body - E.g. the sternum is medial to the shoulder - **Lateral** - Away from the mid-line of the body - E.g. the ears are lateral to the nose - **Superficial** - Closer to the surface - E.g. the skin is superficial to the bone - **Deep** - Towards the interior of the body ' - E.g. the muscle is deep to the dermis ### Body planes - A plane divides the sections of the body - then we can see 'inside'. - **Sagittal** - Separates the body into right and left parts - The median plane is mid-sagittal - Sagittal: the flight of an arrow - **Frontal (coronal)** - Separates the body into anterior and posterior parts - E.g. the coronal structure of the skull across the top, where one would wear a crown - **Transversal (horizontal)** - Separates the body into superior and inferior parts - The plane runs parallel to the ground - **Oblique** - Not parallel to any other plane - Doesn't make a right-angle ### Body Cavities - Closed to the outside and provides protection. - Contain our internal organs or viscera (the collective term for the internal organs). #### Trunk cavities - **Thoracic cavity** (most superior) - Contains the mediastinum and lungs - The mediastinum is a separate section within the thoracic cavity which houses the heart, trachea, vital blood vessels and the oesophagus - **Abdominal cavity** - Inferior to the diaphragm (bread sheet of muscle involved in breathing) - Contains the majority of digestive organs such as the stomach, intestines, pancreas and liver - **Pelvic** - Contains the reproductive organs, urinary bladder and the rectum - **Abdominopelvic cavity** - A term used to describe the abdominal and pelvic cavities in conjunction as there is less of a defined boundary between the two cavities ### Subdivisions of the Abdomen - These subdivisions create consistent reference points. #### Quadrants - Right upper - Left upper - Right lower - Left lower #### Regions - Right hypo and epigastric - Hypogastric #### Large intestine - Pregnancy, tumour, central abdominal obesity - Liver, stomach, pancreas ### We worked well as a team - Niracha - Tilisha - Define the terms ‘anatomy' and 'physiology'. - Describe the different levels of anatomy and physiology. - Describe the six levels of organisation in the body. - List the six characteristics of living organisms. - Define 'homeostasis'. - List the characteristics of the anatomical position. Use appropriate anatomical terminology to describe directional terms, body planes, and location of body parts and anatomical relations. - Describe the major body cavities and their divisions. - Identify the major organs within each abdominal quadrant and region. - Describe the properties of serous membranes. - Describe the location and function of serous membranes. ## Post workshop activities 1. The frontal plane separates the body into anterior and posterior parts. 2. Separates the body into superior and inferior parts. 3. Sagittal plane separates the body into left and right parts, if the plane is in the middle its in the midline of the body. 4. A) horizontal plane B) coronal/frontal plane C) sagittal 5. Sagittal, horizontal, frontal/sagittal, frontal, horizontal/frontal, frontal, horizontal. 1. Visceral pericardium 2. Pericardial cavity 3. Posterior pericardium 4. Heart 5. Diaphragm 6. Visceral pleura 7. Pleural cavity 8. Posterior pleura 9. Lung - Superior - Anterior ## Lecture Notes {3} ### Serous membranes - Also known as serosa. - They line the trunk cavities and cover the organs inside the trunk cavities. - Slippery double-layered membranes. - The parietal serous membrane lines the body cavity - Visceral serous membrane lines the internal organs - The above membranes are separated by a thin layer of serous fluid which is produced by the membranes to reduce friction (provides lubrication). - This is important for organs that move like the heart and lungs. - The membranes hold all our viscera in position. - Separate names for different cavities. - The pericardial cavity has separate parietal and visceral pericardium with pericardial fluid (heart). - The pleural cavity has separate parietal and visceral pleura with pleural fluid (lungs). - The peritoneal cavity has separate parietal and visceral peritoneum with peritoneal fluid (abdominal cavity). - Retroperitoneal organs: organs in the abdomen that are tightly adhered to the posterior body wall so the only have the peritoneum covering them on one side e.g. the pancreas. ## Tutorial notes 1. Nutritionists, dietitians, phlebotomists, physiotherapists, pathologists, GPs, exercise, nurses, doctors, emergency physicians, physiologists, endocrinologists, pharmacists, social workers or psychologists, optometrists, podiatrists. 2. A psychologist would be required if she is having other mental health issues to help her to adjust to her new way of living and coping with new medications. 3. Minor disruptions stay within the normal range e.g. change in blood pressure after exercise, change in temp. after being in a sauna or cool room and major disturbances require medical attention like severe dehydration, cancer, blockage within an artery, major burns, heart attack, brain injury. 4. Insulin was given at the hospital, and continuous care includes insulin monitoring, keeping a good diet and level of physical activity - thoracic, abdominal and pelvic - diaphragm - mediastinum - major vessels, heart, thymus, trachea, oesophagus - in the abdominal cavity there are the stomach, intestines, gall bladder pancreas, kidneys, spleen in the pelvis there is the reproductive system, bladder, large intestines ### Quadrants - Right lower - Left upper - Right and left lower ### Regions - Right hypo and epigastric - Hypogastric ### Large intestine - Superior - Deep - Inferior - Distal - Proximal - Lateral - Medial - Inferior