Comparative Government Slides PDF

Comparative Government  Reasons to Study Comparative Government Countries are actors in a continuously unfolding play Comparative Government and Politics helps “connect the dots”...

Comparative Government  Reasons to Study Comparative Government Countries are actors in a continuously unfolding play Comparative Government and Politics helps “connect the dots” A set of basic understandings helps make sense of world events Countries are actors in a continuously unfolding play. There is no script, but actions on the world stage occur because of countries’ peoples, institutions, and the processes by which they make decisions. The discipline of Comparative Government and Politics examines and analyzes countries’ political structures, actions, and interactions with others, helping to “connect the dots” and make sense of world events. To accomplish this, one must begin with some basic tools for grasping different countries’ histories of authority and power, the political structures and philosophies of different states, the ever-transforming environment in which they operate, and the internal and external forces that influence states’ actions. Comparative Government and Politics can also provide insight into the American political system and the political systems of other governments, making it clearer why governments make certain decisions and take certain actions, and illuminating the potential consequences of these actions as well. Overall, Comparative Government provides a perspective of the world as a sort of laboratory for testing new programs and theories that shape world events and ultimately history.  Vocabulary A nation is a body of people sharing the same cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties. A state is a politically organized body of people able to make decisions through direct action or political participation. A nation-state is a territorial unit controlled by a single state and governed by a single government. A regime is a mode or system of government that rules through authority usually described by a constitution. A government is the part of a state (people and organizations) with legitimate public authority to operate the state. Power is the ability to take action or control a situation through coercion, persuasion, or leadership. Authority is the legal right to exercise power in the name of the state or the people. Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the authority to exercise To get started, let’s look at some basic terms: A nation is a body of people sharing the same cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties. A state is a politically organized body of people able to make decisions through direct action or political participation. A nation-state is a territorial unit controlled by a single state and governed by a single government. A regime is a mode or system of government that rules through authority usually described by a constitution. A government is the part of a state (people and organizations) with legitimate public authority to operate the state. Power is the ability to take action or control a situation through coercion, persuasion, or leadership. Authority is the legal right to exercise power in the name of the state or the people. Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the authority to exercise power. Cleavage is the separation of groups within a society. Such separation may be cultural, historic, geographic, ethnic, economic, or racial. Cleavage causes tensions between these groups and can weaken their bonds as a people. A command economy is a economic system in which the government, rather than market forces, determines the levels of production.  Vocabulary A nation is a body of people sharing the same cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties. A state is a politically organized body of people able to make decisions through direct action or political participation. A nation-state is a territorial unit controlled by a single state and governed by a single government. A regime is a mode or system of government that rules through authority usually described by a constitution. A government is the part of a state (people and organizations) with legitimate public authority to operate the state. Power is the ability to take action or control a situation through coercion, persuasion, or leadership. Authority is the legal right to exercise power in the name of the state or the people. Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the authority to exercise To get started, let’s look at some basic terms: A nation is a body of people sharing the same cultural, geographic, or linguistic ties. A state is a politically organized body of people able to make decisions through direct action or political participation. A nation-state is a territorial unit controlled by a single state and governed by a single government. A regime is a mode or system of government that rules through authority usually described by a constitution. A government is the part of a state (people and organizations) with legitimate public authority to operate the state. Power is the ability to take action or control a situation through coercion, persuasion, or leadership. Authority is the legal right to exercise power in the name of the state or the people. Legitimacy is the belief that a government has the authority to exercise power. Cleavage is the separation of groups within a society. Such separation may be cultural, historic, geographic, ethnic, economic, or racial. Cleavage causes tensions between these groups and can weaken their bonds as a people. A command economy is a economic system in which the government, rather than market forces, determines the levels of production.  The Comparative Approach Comparing governments instills understanding and helps explain past and current events and predict future events Comparisons at multiple levels Sovereignty, authority, and power Political institutions Citizens, society, and the state Political and economic change Public policy Comparing governments and their policies instills a greater understanding of the world and enables us to explain past or current actions and even predict future ones with a greater level of certainty. One can make comparisons at multiple levels by examining a government’s legitimacy through its sources of sovereignty, authority, and power; its political institutions; the social context of politics via the interactions of citizens, society, and the state; the factors which influence political and economic change; and the development and implementation of public policy.  Sovereignty, Authority, and Power A government’s legitimacy comes from its sovereignty, authority, and power Factors influencing legitimacy include: – The state’s history of leadership – Supranational systems – Religious or other social movements – Economic considerations The scepter, a monarchical symbol of sovereignty, authority, and power Without sufficient sovereignty, authority, and power to lend legitimacy to its government, a state cannot function. A state’s history of governance (authoritarian, democratic, etc.) influences perceptions of legitimacy. Political philosophies and practices carried down through generations establish in citizens’ minds the relationship between society and the state. In addition, supranational systems (coalitions of other countries for a common purpose, such as United Nations, the European Union, or the World Bank) may affect states’ sovereignty and thus their authority, power, and ultimately their legitimacy. For example, the United Nations Security Council may impose sanctions on “rogue states” for illegal, illegitimate, or potentially dangerous actions. Also, the financial assistance of organizations like the World Bank may hinge upon a state’s reversal of spending policies contrary to the organization’s aims. Within the state itself, the various political systems can also affect state actions and thus affect its government’s legitimacy. Religion may play a role in legitimizing a state’s government, as in feudal Europe and in theocracies such as Iran. The country’s military or a popular political movement may have a similar effect. An immediate test of any state’s legitimacy involves how it conducts its economic policies. Regardless of the level of authority held or power exercised over society, a government that does not effectively manage the country’s economy will soon find its legitimacy in question; if conditions deteriorate severely, forces from inside and outside the state may challenge its ability to rule.  Political Institutions Formal and informal structures of authority and their interactions, such Executive as between: – Branches of a single government – Governments of different countries – Countries and Legislative Judicial international organizations How those in power gain their legitimacy Political institutions are the formal and informal structures of authority and policymaking systems within and outside a country. These can be examined by looking at the interactions between branches of one government, interactions between different governments, and relationships between governments and supranational organizations. When studying a state, one should analyze the political institutions established by a country’s constitution (or other claims to legitimacy) and its operations of authority and policymaking. For example, the U.S. Constitution grants authority to the executive, legislative, and judicial branches—all political institutions of the U.S. government. In China, the Communist Party legitimizes the government and its operations. Comparative government looks at the interactions between countries’ political institutions in order to explain these countries’ actions and policies. One may also analyze the relationship between internal and external political institutions, such as one country’s relationships with other countries or with international institutions. For example, when one country declares war on another, an international organization will likely react in ways it deems most effective in promoting its goals. How the belligerent country reacts to this response can reveal much about the political institutions of both parties. Ways in which those in authority attain power can explain much about how the different political institutions operate within a government. Claims to power may come in the form of a constitutional mandate, traditional customs of ascension (as with tribal leaders), or social custom (as in a patronage system, in which people are awarded government positions in exchange for favors or votes).  Citizens, Society, and the State Politically relevant cleavages Consider politically relevant cleavages and their effect on Cultural the state Racial The media and advocacy groups Historic also influence state operations Economic Geographic Ethnic When examining a country’s government, it is often useful to look at how its citizens and society interact both with one another and with the state itself. Identifying politically relevant cleavages—which may be based on cultural, historic, geographic, ethnic, economic, or racial differences—and their effectiveness in spurring state action assists greatly in understanding a state’s political systems. A country’s media and various advocacy groups play important roles in maintaining and inspiring political change. Advocacy groups include political parties, social-service groups, and international organizations that assist various segments of the population.  Political and Economic Change Examine the common character of change within a country Economic change can bring about political change, and vice versa Identify and analyze the forces that promote or deter democratization When comparing the governments of different countries, looking for patterns in the type and manner of political and economic change can prove useful. For instance, transitions between successive governments may be customarily peaceful or revolutionary. New leadership may alter a country’s economic policy in order to address specific problems; conversely, sudden or drastic fluctuations in the economy may bring about changes in political leadership or even in a country’s economic philosophy. Citizens who live under democratic regimes tend to view government according to their own views of political legitimacy and tend to use these views to judge the degree to which a state has or has not become more democratic. Therefore, the comparative approach frequently examines forces that either promote or deter democratization and what effect these forces have had on change in the country. Internal forces such as government corruption and illegitimate organizations (as well as advocacy groups) can play a major role in such matters, as can pressure applied by supranational organizations.  Public Policy Developing public policy is like squeezing a long balloon Formal Informal influences influences Public policy implementation reflects the structure and Rival political Economic power flow of the state parties changes Formal and informal Other branches Grassroots influences affect of government movements policy decisions Domestic and Changes in international social Examine policy issues organizations values/beliefs (especially persistent ones) and the impact of decisions made Developing public policy has been likened to squeezing a long balloon: though it relieves pressure at the squeezing point, it creates more pressure in the rest of the balloon. In order to keep pressure from becoming too great at any one point on the political “balloon,” policymakers and political leaders constantly move to address different issues and the desires of various constituencies. Public policy implementation relates closely to a state’s structure and flow of power. A top- down system like the one in the United Kingdom takes a very different approach than does a system in a country with an active political base, such as Mexico. It’s important to understand how the state confronts policy issues along with the steps involved in implementing them, since these can indicate the extent to which a government can adjust to pressure and change. When examining a country’s public policy process, consider what influences policy decisions. Formal influences such as rival political parties, other branches of government (legislative or executive action, or judicial decisions), and both domestic and international organizations can play a role. Informal influences (such as changes in economic climate, grassroots movements, or swings in society’s values and beliefs) can also have an effect on public policy. In general, issues can range from minority rights to environmental concerns, to economic measures, to the institution of social programs. However, in most countries a few major issues persist for many years. Its important to identify these issues, their historical background, and the impact of pertinent policy decisions on society, government, and the international community.  The Black Box Analytical Approach Illustrates how different segments of society influence a government to make decisions Society gives feedback on the government’s decision, which becomes input for the next decision Input Decision makers Output Feedback Adapted from “Concepts and Issues in Comparative Politics” by Frank L. Wilson An alternative method of analyzing policymaking combines multiple aspects of the comparative approach: citizens, society, and the state; political and economic change; and public policy (with a nod to political institutions). The “black box analytical tool” illustrates how segments of society influence governments to take action, then studies society’s feedback to the government to understand the next round of government actions. At the center of the model sit the decision makers—those in government with the power and authority to make policy. (The box is described as “black” owing to the lack of clarity in some countries as to the process of decision making, including who actually makes the decisions.) Input from different segments of society—citizens, businesses, political parties, the media, etc.—goes to the decision makers, who respond with the output: a new policy, law, program, regulation, or court decision. Once the new policy is announced or implemented, the people or parties (depending on the scope of the decision) most affected by that policy provide either positive or negative feedback. The feedback then returns as new input for next round of decision making, putting pressure on the decision makers to either keep the policy, abandon it, or modify it.  The Black Box Analytical Approach (continued) Input: Trade unions ask for New input: Change desired because health care of (A) increased business costs, or (B) higher taxes Decision makers Decision makers (pass laws) (pass laws) Output: Health care is Output: (A) tax relief for provided (A) by employer, or business, or (B) reduced scope (B) by government of health care plan Feedback: Change desired Feedback: (A) program because of (A) increased considered a success, or (B) business costs, or (B) considered a failure higher taxes The layout in this slide shows a more detailed view of the cycle of input-output-feedback, illustrating two rounds of decision making. This example examines how two countries might experience different levels of success in improving health care for their citizens. In both countries, trade unions put pressure on their governments to provide health care for their citizens. In country A, the decision makers pass a law mandating that businesses provide health insurance for their employees through private companies. This creates increased costs for businesses and therefore less profit. As a result, businesses insist that something be done to lower their costs. This feedback leads the government to consider tax relief for businesses. If country A can provide tax relief and reduce the pressure on business, the decision to provide business-sponsored health care system may be deemed a success. However, if the government cannot provide the tax relief or accommodate business in some other way, it could affect the economy and result in negative feedback from other segments of society, or businesses might join forces to lobby for new laws. In country B, the government responds to the trade unions’ request by increasing taxes to establish government-operated health care programs. This further burdens the taxpayers, who complain to the government. The feedback leads the government to consider modifying or abandoning the health care program. If the government limits the program’s scope in order to decrease taxes but cannot provide adequate health care, the program may be deemed a failure. On the other hand, if the government can reduce taxes and still maintain an adequate level of care, the program may be considered a success.  Discussion Questions 1. What is Comparative Government, and how does it help us understand international politics? 2. What do the terms “nation-state,” “cleavage,” and “command economy” mean? 3. What five aspects make up the comparative approach to examining different governments? 4. What is the “black box analytical tool” used for, and how does it work? 1. Comparative Government is a discipline for examining and analyzing countries’ political structures, actions, and interactions with others; it also “connects the dots” to help make better sense of world events. Comparative politics can give insight into both the American political system as well as other governments’ political systems. From this, one can better understand why governments make particular decisions and take certain actions; comparative government also helps in predicting the potential consequences of these actions. 2. A nation-state is a territorial unit controlled by a single state and governed by a single government. Cleavage is the separation of groups within a society along cultural, historic, geographic, ethnic, economic, or racial lines; such separations may cause tensions between these groups and can weaken their bonds. A command economy is a political/economic system in which the government, rather than market forces, determines the levels of production. 3. The five aspects are a government’s (1) legitimacy through its sources of sovereignty, authority, and power, (2) its political institutions, (3) the social context of politics via the interactions of citizens, society, and the state, (4) the factors which influence political and economic change, and (5) development and implementation of public policy. 4. The “black box analytical tool” illustrates the process of government policymaking. It examines how certain segments of society influence decision makers (input), the actions the government takes (output), and how the affected parties respond to that action (feedback, which becomes the input for the next decision).  Systems of Government: Feudalism A political and economic Feudalism system of government Lord provides Vassal provides Government and law land and loyalty and established by the lord protection service Economy based on farming Feudal hierarchy: In time, powerful lords became kings and employed King knights to lead their armies Lord Feudalism declined in Knight Europe as peasants became Peasant skilled workers Feudalism was a political and economic system practiced in Europe between the ninth and 15th centuries and in Asia between the 12th and 19th centuries. It consisted of three parts: a lord, a vassal, and a fief (a landholding). The lord, who owned the land, would grant the vassal possession of the land in exchange for a particular service. In most feudal societies, government was based on the law of the individual lord, landholdings were small, and the economy primarily agrarian. The lord controlled the land with the help of his army, composed of his vassals. The lord granted use of the land and provided protection in exchange for military service and a portion of the vassal’s production (crops, livestock, or some kind of skill or service such as blacksmithing, weaving, or carpentry). The vassal swore an oath of loyalty to the lord that sealed the bond between them. If a vassal broke that oath, the lord could take back all the privileges granted and, in extreme cases, could even take the vassal’s life. As lords gained more power, they employed the services of knights (trained mounted warriors) to help enforce their laws, defend their landholdings (as well as the vassals), and seize other land nearby, if necessary. In time, knights became lords themselves, and the most powerful lords became kings, controlling vast areas of land. This created a hierarchy with the kings on top and peasants (who physically worked the land) on the bottom. Survival was one of the main goals of the feudal system: kings would build large stone castles to protect themselves, family members, and any vassals who could find refuge in the castle or within the village walls. The feudal system in Europe eventually broke down as vassals developed sufficient skills and acquired enough property to break their oaths and follow the lord or king who best met their needs. Improvements in technology and a greater sense of political and social stability also contributed to feudalism’s demise. In its place, the nation-state emerged; it was characterized by a strong executive (a monarch) and, over time, a legislative body that helped the leadership address the needs of the population.  Systems of Government: Monarchy Oldest form of government Absolute Monarchy Term comes from Greek, Monarch meaning “one ruler” In past, most monarchies held absolute authority Lesser political figures (counts, dukes, administrators) Population A monarchy is a form of government in which one person (the monarch) holds the power of the state. The term derives from the Greek word monos, meaning “one,” and arkhein, meaning “to rule.” As one of the oldest forms of government, it most likely evolved from the leadership of tribal chiefs. In most cases, a monarchy serves as a symbol of the state’s continuity. In the past, monarchs have held absolute power and claimed legitimacy through divine right, ruling either by a god’s will or as gods themselves. All power and authority flows from the top and descends downward according to the wishes of the monarch or to the monarch’s immediate family (usually males) and close relatives such as uncles and cousins. Monarchs hold power for life and pass it on to their firstborn or by decree. Monarchies thrived in the feudal system and gained great power in Europe (after the fall of the Roman Empire), in central and east Asia, and in many parts of Africa. Pre-Colombian North and South American civilizations also had monarchical governments led by a great chief. Many monarchical rulers held absolute power and authority. Though some countries in the Middle East still have absolute monarchies, most of the monarchies that remain today are constitutional ones in which rulers can exercise only limited power.  Systems of Government: Constitutional Monarchy Government actually Constitutional Monarchy established under Constitution a constitution Power of monarch separate from government; often Monarchy limited or ceremonial Executive Legislature Judicial People In constitutional monarchies, the power of the monarch remains separate from that of the rest of the government. In some constitutional monarchies, the monarch still serves as head of state; in others, the monarch only has a symbolic role. Most constitutional monarchies operate under a parliamentary form of government in which a legislature represents the people and develops policy to meet its needs. The position of monarch may be hereditary or elected. Constitutional monarchies are mostly found in western European countries, though Malaysia, Cambodia, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, and Vatican City also have one. In some constitutional monarchies, the monarchs hold “reserve” or “prerogative” powers to be executed in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crisis. In the case of national emergency, a monarch often serves in an advisory role in cooperation with the elected government; during a constitutional crisis, the monarch tries to stay above partisan political rivalries and takes a more neutral stance regarding internal political issues. Monarchs in constitutional governments remain in their positions for a number of reasons. Royal families tend to enjoy great popularity in their countries, and can serve as a symbol that unifies the nation. Monarchs also serve well in charity and social functions.  Systems of Government: Parliamentary Government Parliament chooses the head Monarch (optional) of state, who must answer to the legislature Parliament Political party in power chooses the prime minister Upper house Lower house Legislature Prime Minister usually bicameral Originated in England Judiciary around 1066 Limited the power of the Supreme Court monarchy over time Lower courts Parliamentary government is a form of representative democracy in which the legislature chooses the head of government (usually known as the prime minister), who then must answer to the legislature. Some parliamentary governments also have a monarch with limited or only ceremonial powers. In most cases, the legislative body is bicameral (made up of two houses), but some parliaments have a unicameral (or one-house) legislature. In bicameral legislatures, most bills originate in the lower house (which usually directly represents the population) and then get approved by the upper house. The leader of the majority party in the lower house almost always serves as prime minister and holds office while that party is in power and while he or she has the legislature’s support. When warranted, the legislature can call for a vote of “no confidence” in order to force the prime minister’s resignation. Parliamentary government originated in England and became formalized after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Parliaments arose from what was known as the tenants-in-chief, who were the greatest landholders of the king’s army. They often struggled with the monarch and local spiritual leaders for power. In 1215, a group of 39 barons (making up the bulk of the tenants- in-chief) secured from King John the Magna Carta (or “Great Charter”), which established some limits on the power of the monarchy. In later years, this group (with a few additions) evolved into the Parliament, in which the House of Lords represented the royalty and the House of Commons represented everyone else. Over time, this body further limited the power of the monarchy. Today many different countries in all parts of the world have a parliamentary government (especially in former colonies of European powers).  Systems of Government: Democracy “Rule by the people” Direct democracy Works best when it reflects The people vote directly on the culture of the people policy decisions Two forms: – Direct (for smaller areas) – Representative Representative democracy Representatives can use The people vote for their own judgment in government officials who making decisions make policy for them Democracy literally means “rule by the people,” from the Greek words demos (or “people”) and kratos (or “rule”). Democracy essentially reflects the will of the people and can occur in many different forms. Most importantly, in order for democracy to be successful its institutions and operation must reflect the culture of the people practicing it. The two basic forms of democracy are direct and representative. In a direct democracy, citizens themselves vote on all major policy decisions. For logistical reasons, this works best in small communities (such as the ancient Greek city-state of Athens) or in small organizations. Some U.S. states allow a limited form of direct democracy through initiatives and referenda, which allow citizens to petition for and place on the ballot policy changes they wish to implement or have referred back to the voters. Most of the world’s democracies function as representative democracies, in which the people determine who serves as their officials via a majority vote. In most democracies, the voters of a defined district or in particular constituency elect their representatives. While the people in theory choose representatives to act in their interests, these representatives also retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment in making decisions.  Systems of Government: Totalitarianism Nearly all aspects of life are controlled to benefit the state Employs secret police, widespread surveillance, and terror to maintain control Restricts people’s liberties and freedoms Established by force Employs a cult of personality to represent the regime “Totalitarian” describes regimes in which the state controls nearly every aspect of the people’s lives. The government regulates the activities of business, labor, religion, and education so that they benefit the state. Totalitarian regimes maintain their power by tightly controlling mass media and using secret police and other surveillance methods to gain knowledge of all potentially subversive actions. These regimes greatly restrict liberties and freedoms and employ mass surveillance and terror tactics to keep the population in line. Usually only one political party may legally participate in elections, which themselves may be optional or suspended. Though monarchies throughout history that held absolute power could be classified as totalitarian, the term itself refers to governments developed since the 20th century. Loose and sometimes contentious coalitions of military, political, and business leaders would often constitute these regimes. Examples include Germany under Hitler, Italy under Mussolini (although a special case), and communist regimes in the USSR, China, and North Korea. Totalitarian regimes often are established by force—either political or military, or a combination of both. They often develop a “cult of personality” around a central figure or leader who embodies the ideology of the regime. This tactic creates an almost godlike public figure for the citizenry to respect and even worship. In turn, the regime often takes on human characteristics, demonstrating compassion, anger, and revenge in order to convince the people that they owe their very existence to the will and mercy of the regime.  Systems of Government: Fascism Similar to totalitarianism Seeks to improve society through nationalism and Roman fasces rejection of liberal values Fasces in U.S. House of Representatives chamber Comes from Italian word for “union” and from the Roman fasces Movement led by Benito Mussolini in Italy (1922–1943) The term today carries a Italian dictator Benito Mussolini negative connotation with German Führer Adolf Hitler Some scholars use the terms “fascism” and “totalitarianism” interchangeably. Both operate in similar ways, maintaining total control of all aspects of society, denying basic rights, and intimidating opponents. Fascism seeks to improve social, economic, and cultural life through a heightened sense of national or ethnic identity. However, these improvements focus on benefiting the state itself and not the individual. The term “fascism” comes directly from the Italian word fascio (or “union”) and also from the ancient Roman symbol of state power, the fasces. This symbol, comprised of e bundle of sticks with an axe in the center, represents civic unity and the authority of the state to punish criminals. Owing to its classical connotations, several U.S. government buildings and monuments display the fasces. The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini initiated fascism with the political movement he led from 1922 to 1943, which emerged in response to widespread social and political unrest following World War I. Scholars view fascism differently, with some confining the use of the term to Italy under Mussolini, while others use the term more broadly to describe any movement that pushes for social renewal based on national or ethnic unity and rejects liberal or democratic institutions. In most cases, the term negatively describes an oppressive and reactionary regime.  Mercantilism Practiced by European powers from 16th to Triangular trade system 18th centuries Government control of industry and trade Nation’s wealth measured in holdings of gold and silver Closed trading system between colonies and parent country Required military power to protect interests, resulting in large-scale wars Mercantilism as an economic policy was predominantly practiced in Europe from the 16th through 18th centuries. This system seeks an abundance of exports over imports, measures a nation’s wealth by its accumulated supply of gold and silver, and justifies government regulation of the economy in order to reach these goals. Mercantilism evolved during the 1500s as Europe’s kingdoms began to emerge as strong nation-states. They established trading systems closed to the other major players, relying on the extraction of raw materials from their respective colonies for the production of goods back in the home country to meet the needs of the empire’s population. Countries prohibited the shipment of indigenous colonial products on foreign vessels or to foreign ports, thus establishing monopolies in various industries. Governments induced national industries to assist in the expansion of colonial trade and pay taxes to support large armies and navies that would help maintain the country’s economic empire. As a result, large-scale “world wars” like the Seven Years’ War between France and Britain broke out as countries sought to acquire territory and achieve dominance in world trade. Global conflict and principles of the Enlightenment later created anti-mercantilist movements. At the same time, it became apparent to many European industries that they could operate without mercantile protection and would in fact benefit by trading more openly with other countries. Over the 19th and 20th centuries, countries began to institute freer trade policies as economists counseled nations to allow individuals the freedom to pursue their economic interests with less interference or regulation.  Communism Modern communism developed by Karl Marx Theoretically, communism creates a classless society Proletariat (working class) controls all means of production Marx thought communism would replace capitalism In practice, most communist states were authoritarian and repressive Karl Marx Communism is an ideology as well as a form of government. Though some earlier forms of communism date back to classical times, German philosopher Karl Marx articulated modern communism in the Communist Manifesto, first published in 1848. Theoretically, communism aims to create a classless society in which people enjoy equal status and where the proletariat (the working class) owns all means of production. Marx saw communism as the inevitable outcome of capitalism, and envisioned that capitalist societies would be the first to transition to communism after social and political revolution. He believed that capitalism would ultimately fail because it exploited the working class and created a wide socioeconomic gap between property owners and workers. The people would rise up against a capitalist regime, overthrow it, and then establish a “dictatorship” (meaning it would be given absolute powers) to run the government and economy; however, members of the dictatorship would come from the working classes. The motto, “From each according to his ability, to each according to his need,” became the communist creed, explaining that people would receive compensation for their labor based on their needs, not on what they produced. Under the system Marx envisioned, a society run by laborers would produce enough goods and services everyone to satisfy the needs of all. In practice, no communist state ever evolved out of a capitalist society. Most communist states replaced monarchies or took control of countries in chaos and became totalitarian dictatorships with little concern for the working class; leaders focused mainly on preserving their power. Communist states usually had only one political party and allowed no real dissent or political disagreement; to have any political voice, one had to belong to the party.  Communism (continued) Russia (later the USSR) became the first communist country in 1917 After World War II, communism spread to eastern Europe, China, southeast Asia, and Cuba Soviet communism collapsed in 1990 China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam only practicing communist countries today Marx’s theories inspired social reformers across Europe concerned about the growing disparity in wealth and political power between rich and poor. Most sought to reform rather than overthrow capitalism. However, in czarist Russia a political party known as the Bolsheviks succeeded in controlling the country following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and by 1922 they had established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). During the post–World War I recession and the subsequent worldwide depression of the 1930s, many Bolsheviks attempted to spread communism to nearby countries. Capitalist countries warily watched the rise of the Soviets, hoping that the USSR would not be able to export communism elsewhere. In the turbulent period before World War II, governments in Britain, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United States all in their own way took actions to resist the spread of communism. After World War II, the USSR consolidated its power in the countries of eastern Europe by establishing “satellite states” that followed the Soviets’ lead. In 1949, the long-running Chinese civil war ended with the establishment of the People’s Republic of China under Mao Zedong’s own brand of communism. China and Russia attempted to establish communist regimes in countries in Asia (North Korea and Vietnam) and Africa (the Congo and Angola). Communist societies (especially the USSR and those in eastern Europe) underwent tremendous social and economic change during the late 1980s and finally collapsed in the early 1990s. Today only China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam remain communist.  Socialism Property, major industries, natural resources, banking, public utilities largely controlled by state Socialism has roots in classical, Renaissance, and Enlightenment thought Campaign poster for Eugene Debs, an American Many different forms socialist who ran for president several times during the early 20th century Socialism is a doctrine whereby society or government controls much of the country’s property and the means of production in order to ensure a more equal distribution of wealth. The government also controls the country’s natural resources and nationalizes (i.e., places under the control of the state) major industries, banking facilities, and public utilities. The essence of socialism as an economic/political concept can be found in classical literature (Plato’s Republic), the early Renaissance (Sir Thomas More’s Utopia), and during the Enlightenment (in the work of the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau). Modern socialism has its roots primarily in working-class movements of the late 19th century, which criticized the excesses of capitalism and private property. During the Industrial Revolution in Europe and later in the United States, private entrepreneurs managed to amass huge individual fortunes, creating a huge gap between rich and poor. Government corruption, too few rights for the working class, and poor living conditions prompted reformers and philosophers (including Karl Marx) to look beyond capitalism. In practice, socialism can take many different forms, depending on the amount of centralized control. For example the Labour Party in Britain advocates state ownership of major industries and utilities with less-vital enterprises held by private owners; others believe that socialism should allow no private ownership of business and have all enterprises operated by the state. In addition, some non-socialist countries (including the United States) incorporate socialism in selected parts of the economy, such as education, some forms of insurance, and public services.  Structures of Government: Federalism Political system Federal Powers State Powers with two levels Establish Regulate of government military local trade Each level has exclusive powers in Print money Establish local some areas and Make treaties governments overlapping powers Provide for public in others health and safety Uncommon form of government Shared Powers Disputes occur, which Establishing courts are usually settled by Making and enforcing laws the courts or Borrowing money through negotiation Taxation Building roads Federalism refers to a political system that has two levels of government: a central government that controls and is responsible for issues concerning the whole country, and smaller political units (usually called states, provinces, or territories) concerned with local matters. The smaller political units give up some of their political power to the central government for the common good (such as national defense). In the United States, federalism has three parts: (1) a central government with exclusive responsibilities, such as printing money, making international treaties, and providing for a national military; (2) the states, which have the power to regulate trade within their borders, establish local governments, and provide for public health and safety; (3) shared authority (known as concurrent powers) that both political units have, allowing them to establish their own courts, make and enforce laws, borrow money and tax, and build roads. Federalism is not a common form of government around the world: instead, most countries have unitary systems with power concentrated primarily in a central government. In addition to the United States, Australia, Brazil, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nigeria, and Switzerland have federalist systems. Conflict often occurs in federalist governments, sometimes with cataclysmic effects (for example, when the American Civil War broke out in part because of the issue of “states’ rights”). Most often, conflict blossoms from smaller debates over issues of who has the authority to regulate or establish particular functions of government. While the courts usually settle such debates, negotiations between the different levels of government can also lead to compromise.  Structures of Government: Confederation Confederal System for Confederation A loose alliance between individual states State or State or regional Central regional Central government government government government granted less power; individual states retain authority and sovereignty Original form of the Citizens Citizens U.S. government The United Nations as a modern-day example A confederation is a loose union of states that have come together for a common cause. In a confederation, the central government holds little power. Instead, the smaller units establish alliances, with each retaining much of its sovereignty and authority. Political units often form confederations around a set of common interests, such as trade or maintaining peace. A constitution or charter establishing a confederation provides maximum authority to the individual units over their own citizens and territory. The central government only presides over issues that affect all members of the confederation. A confederation carries with it certain advantages and disadvantages. On one hand, member states retain their sovereignty and can make decisions and take independent action; on the other hand, they may be restricted from making certain decisions and actions that involve other confederation members. Also, a confederation is only as strong and effective as its members allow: political and philosophical disagreements among participants can render confederations impotent and ineffective, since many decisions require unanimous or supermajority approval. The United States first adopted this form of government soon after declaring its independence from Britain; during the Revolution and for some years afterward, America’s government operated under a document known as the Articles of Confederation. Eleven Southern states later formed the Confederate States of America when they seceded from the Union right before the Civil War. On an international level, the victorious nations of World War II formed the United Nations as a confederation with the purpose of promoting world peace.  Structures of Government: Unitary Greatest authority held by Central central government government Central government can grant and retract power from local political units States Unitary governments come in different forms: dictatorships, monarchies, parliamentary Citizens systems, or democracies Most countries operate under a unitary form of government, with virtually all authority vested in the central government. The central government may grant provinces, states, or cities the authority to handle certain local matters, but it retains most of the power and can take back any it has granted. Unitary governments may take different forms, including dictatorships, monarchies, parliamentary systems, or even democracies. Countries that have unitary systems include Cameroon, France, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Morocco, South Korea, Sweden, and Uruguay. The central government may hold varying degrees of authority. Sometimes the country’s military establishes the central leadership; civilian political leaders take care of day-to-day concerns, but the military ultimately retains power. Other times, the unitary government may have elements of checks and balances, such as multiple political parties that can help ensure the government doesn’t become totalitarian. With no single party able to establish a majority, the parties tend to form short- and long-term coalitions in order to conduct government business. Unitary governments tend to operate very efficiently, since fewer checks and balances exist to slow the decision-making process, and the bureaucracy is closely tied to the central government. However, the centralized nature of a unitary government can lead to the unchecked consolidation of power and neglect of minority factions. Democratic unitary governments can counterbalance this with multiple political parties and public pressure; Autocratic governments don’t usually allow for such conditions.  Globalization and Interdependence Basic definition Historical examples: – The Silk Road and others – Mercantilism as an early form of globalization The Silk Road The concept of globalization has received much notoriety in recent years. Today, globalization is characterized by increased interdependence throughout many parts of the world driven by advancements in technology, trade and cultural dispersal. Though the term is new, its concepts are not, and in fact people have engaged in globalization for thousands of years. The Silk Road, camel caravans, the Ambassador’s Road, and the Appian Way linked the regions of the Middle East, Africa, China, India, and eventually Europe to each other from the time of the ancient Romans to the Middle Ages. Mercantilism, discussed earlier, was also a form of globalization in which major countries traded exclusively with colonies and declared war on each other in order to obtain territory and natural resources.  Globalization and Interdependence (continued) Contemporary concepts: “Farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper” More-open trade policies – Freer markets – International agreements Impact of technology – Transportation – Information technology Since the fall of the Berlin Wall and crumbling of the Soviet Union, the old power-politics model of East versus West/free world versus communism has given way to a new wave of globalization described by author Thomas Friedman as “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.” Today, not only the states of the world but also international organizations, businesses, and even individuals are shaping the current wave of globalization. Many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements for promoting trade in goods, services, and investments. Taking advantage of new economic opportunities, corporations have built factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. New technology has played an important role in making the world “smaller,” as jet travel has made any point on the globe accessible within 24 hours. Information technology has given states, businesses, and even individuals the tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, analyzing trends more quickly, easily transferring assets, and collaborating with virtually any person in any part of the world.  Globalization and Interdependence (continued) Supporters claim that globalization: Gives consumers more choices Lowers prices Can raise the standard of living in less developed countries Critics argue that globalization: Favors large corporations over local producers Homogenizes cultures Puts economic development ahead of national sovereignty and environmental concerns Globalization, however, has provoked its share of controversy. Few people oppose every form of globalization, so often the debate concerns the rules that should govern a global economy but still allow it to reach its full potential and solve problems along the way. Supporters of globalization emphasize how removing trade barriers can provide consumers with more choices and opportunities. With more choices comes more competition, benefiting the consumer and stimulating innovation. Goods and services can move more easily from wealthy countries to less developed ones, resulting in less expensive products and a greater chance of raising standards of living. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows people all over the world to exchange and adopt knowledge, technology, investments, and resources. Opponents argue that globalization has given multinational industrial and agricultural corporations unbridled access to the world’s markets at the expense of local businesses and farmers. They fear that cultures will become homogenized as larger, more productive states bombard them with goods and services. Critics also assert that the policies of rapid growth adopted by less developed countries will put the environment at risk; some say the open access to trade enables the rapid spread of diseases, illicit drugs, crime, and terrorism. They also claim that international trade agreements can put too much emphasis on keeping the global machine moving and therefore undermine local or national regulations and laws. Many feel this threatens national sovereignty, leaving countries unable to enforce their own environmental laws because they might restrict the flow of trade, thereby violating global trade agreements. States, international organizations, businesses, and individuals will need to find ways to work through these issues in the 21st century. Finding the right balance between social and cultural values and economic growth—as well as determining how much autonomy countries should have when their decisions might have global repercussions—will be ongoing, difficult tasks.  International Organizations Definition and purpose Examples: – European Union (EU) – United Nations (UN) The EU flag The UN flag International organizations (also known as intergovernmental organizations) are established by treaty among their members to achieve a specific purpose. Subject to international law, international organizations can enter into agreements with other organizations and states. Membership might be open to all states or to only a select few, depending on the organization’s function and scope. Such organizations address a wide range of issues, such as protecting human rights or the environment, or promoting economic development, education, or health care. The European Union originated during Europe’s recovery from the devastation of World War II. The countries of western Europe sought to cooperate in order to rebuild Europe and to prevent another such ruinous war from ever breaking out again. In 1952, six European nations formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which evolved into the European Community and later became the European Union. As the 21st century began, several formerly communist states (including Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania) also joined. The EU aims to establish the rights of European citizenship; ensure freedom, security and justice; promote trade and economic growth and stability; and assert Europe's role in the world. The EU operates as a democracy with a European Parliament and Council of Ministers as its legislative branch, a European Commission that acts as its executive branch, and a European Court of Justice. Various committees and organizations help run the EU’s daily operations. After World War II, 50 nations formed the United Nations in order to maintain international peace and security; develop friendly relations among nations; solve international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems; and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms. The UN operates through six principal organizations: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.  International Organizations (continued) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) World Bank The IAEA flag The World Bank logo The United Nations established the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957 as the “Atoms for Peace” program. The IAEA works with member states and other international partners to promote safe and peaceful nuclear technologies. To accomplish these goals, the IAEA pursues three main functions: inspections of existing nuclear facilities, dissemination of information and standards to ensure the stable operation of nuclear facilities, and the pursuit of peaceful applications of nuclear technology. Established in 1944, the World Bank provides financing and advice to countries for the purposes of economic development and eliminating poverty. Much of its efforts focus on Third World countries in the areas of human development, agriculture and rural development, environmental protection, infrastructure, and governance. The bank gets its funds by issuing bonds and through contributions from member states. It then loans out that money to countries for educational, economic, and industrial projects; it also provides experts who advise the borrowers on how to successfully complete these projects. The release of funds is often contingent upon compliance with the World Bank’s advice and reform measures. While the World Bank wants to ensure its loans get put to good use, critics accuse it of imposing reform policies that place economic development above human needs and of undermining local labor unions and health systems.  International Organizations (continued) International Monetary Fund (IMF) Map of IMF member states The United Nations set up the International Monetary Fund in 1945 as one of its specialized agencies to help restore order to the world economy. The IMF operates as a lender of last resort, regularly loaning money to governments in times of economic crisis. Member states deep in debt and unable to make payments on even the loans’ interest, or states that have experienced steep financial downturns may receive loans from the IMF. In return, the IMF requires borrowing countries to launch economic reforms (sometimes called “structural adjustment programs”) intended to ensure that the loans prevent financial crises rather than perpetuate financial irresponsibility. As with the World Bank, the IMF has also faced criticism for certain policies and actions. In the past, some have accused the IMF of supporting capitalist military dictatorships friendly to Western business interests. Also, some of its policies have allegedly put economic considerations far ahead of social concerns. Some have also criticized the managers of both the World Bank and the IMF for imposing reform policies that benefit developed countries at the expense of developing countries. These critics argue that developing nations are forced to reduce services to citizens in order to balance their budgets, further increasing poverty and dependence on developed nations to make up the difference. The wealthy countries that provide much of the funding for loans control both the World Bank and the IMF, and voting power in both organizations depends on the amount of funding a nation contributes, not on its population. Therefore, the nations who contribute the most funds have the most say and often work to protect their interests.  International Organizations (continued) The Organization of Petroleum OPEC flag Exporting Countries (OPEC) Map showing current (dark green) and former (light green) OPEC nations The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries was formed in 1960 in order to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among its member countries. It aims to secure fair and stable prices for producers, ensure an ample supply for consumers, and yield a good return on investment in the industry. OPEC nations account for about two-thirds of the world’s known oil reserves and about 40% of the world’s oil production, giving them considerable control over the global market and sizable influence in world affairs. In the 1970s, as the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict erupted into another war (the Yom Kippur War) and Western governments gave support to Israel, the Arab members imposed an oil embargo against the United States and western Europe. This influence had a tremendous short-term impact, resulting in massive oil and gasoline shortages and near hyperinflation in many Western nations. However, the influence was short-lived, as many of these Western nations developed closer ties with non-OPEC nations and increased offshore drilling in the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico. This expanded exploration of oil reserves, internal dissension between OPEC member states, and continued conflict in the Middle East has caused a slight decline in OPEC’s ability to control oil prices and influence world politics as it once did.  International Organizations (continued) Group of Seven (G7) Canada France Germany Italy Japan United Kingdom United States The Group of Eight (popularly known as the “G8”) is an organization of the eight leading industrialized democracies that meets annually to address major economic and political issues facing their respective countries and the international community. The organization was founded in 1975 as the Group of Six to discuss large-scale management, international trade, and relations with developing countries. The original members included France, the U.S., the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and Italy; Canada joined in 1976 and Russia in 1998. In addition, the European Union has had representatives at the meetings since 1977. Owing to the economic power of its members, the G8 is often the target of criticism and protest. Critics insist it bears responsibility for international issues ranging from poverty in Africa to global warming to the AIDS crisis. The G8 no longer represents the concentration of economic power it did when it conceived, since India and China (two of the world’s economic powerhouses) aren’t members. This lack of Eastern countries has led many critics to label the G8 an institution that perpetuates Western economic domination. The G8’s continuing issues involve Eastern and Western economic relations, energy policy, and terrorism. More recently, the G8 has discussed employment in member and non-member nations, as well as the Internet, global environmental concerns, international crime and drug trafficking, human rights, and arms control.  Discussion Questions 1. What is globalization, and why it is not considered a new concept? 2. What are some arguments that supporters of globalization make? What are some of globalization’s negative effects, according to its critics? 1. Globalization is characterized by increased interdependence throughout many parts of the world driven by advancements in technology, trade and cultural dispersal. The Silk Road, camel caravans, the Ambassador’s Road, and the Appian Way linked the regions of the Middle East, Africa, China, India, and eventually Europe to each other from the time of the ancient Romans to the Middle Ages. Mercantilism, discussed earlier, was also a form of globalization in which major countries traded exclusively with colonies and declared war on each other in order to obtain territory and natural resources. 2. Supporters of globalization claim that it can provide consumers with more choices and opportunities, stimulate innovation, and allow goods and services to move more easily from wealthy countries to less developed ones, resulting in less expensive products and a greater chance of raising standards of living. Opponents argue that globalization has given multinational industrial and agricultural corporations unbridled access to the world’s markets at the expense of local businesses and farmers. They fear that cultures will become homogenized, that the policies of rapid growth adopted by less developed countries will put the environment at risk, and that globalization can undermine local or national regulations and laws.  Discussion Questions 3. Name several major international organizations and describe the purpose of each. The European Union (EU) seeks to bring about cooperation in rebuilding Europe and avoid another war. The EU aims to establish the rights of European citizenship; ensure freedom, security, and justice; promote trade and economic growth and stability; and assert Europe's role in the world. The United Nations (UN) was formed after World War II by 50 nations with the goals of maintaining international peace and security; developing friendly relations among nations; solving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems; and promoting human rights and fundamental freedoms. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established in 1957 as the “Atoms for Peace” program of the United Nations. It works with member states and other international partners to promote the safe and peaceful use of nuclear technology. The World Bank was established in 1944 to provide financing and advice to countries for the purposes of economic development and eliminating poverty. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established in 1945 as a specialized agency of the United Nations. The IMF operates as a lender of last resort, regularly loaning money to governments in times of economic crisis. The IMF requires the countries launch economic reforms intended to prevent future financial crises. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was formed in 1960 in order to coordinate and unify petroleum policies among member countries, secure fair and stable prices for producers, ensure an ample supply for consumers, and yield a good return for those who invest in the industry. The Group of Eight (better known as the G8) is an organization of the eight leading industrialized democracies that meets annually to address major economic and political issues facing their respective countries and the international community. United Kingdom  United Kingdom: Sovereignty, Authority, and Power No written constitution Historical events helped legitimize sovereignty, The Magna authority, and power Carta Established rule of law and a limited and representative government The British people believe strongly in the country’s political institutions The territory of the United Kingdom includes Great Britain (comprising England, Scotland, and Wales), Northern Ireland, and territorial possessions flung all across the world. Within these geographical divisions are the national configurations of English, Welsh, Scots, and the Protestants and Catholics of Northern Ireland. Though the UK does not have a written constitution, it has a long and rich political history that has influenced many other countries for centuries. The UK’s political evolution has been marked by a sequence of events that laid the foundation for its sovereignty, authority, and power. The Magna Carta of 1215 (based on unwritten common law) established the rule of law and limited government, and the Glorious Revolution in 1689 firmly entrenched Parliament as the center of government. In the 19th century, the UK led the world in abolishing slavery and promoting women’s suffrage. In between these events, the UK also dealt with conflicts between church and state, the Industrial Revolution, and several wars. The British strongly believe that their political institutions can effectively deal with problems and conflict. This, coupled with the belief that the government is accountable to the people, gives the UK’s political system a strong sense of legitimacy.  United Kingdom: Political Institutions Political institutions – Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy – Executive (prime minister) elected by majority party in the House of Commons – Strong party discipline: votes fall along party lines Labour Party Conservative Party Liberal Democrats While considered a constitutional monarchy, the United Kingdom technically has no written constitution, but instead relies on several key historical documents and many centuries of pragmatic governance. While the monarchy serves a mostly ceremonial function, it also acts to unify the people and give them a single figure that represents the state. The royal family enjoys great popularity, and the British follow the lives of its members with avid interest. The British government functions as a parliamentary democracy, with the executive forming part of a bicameral legislature. Members of the upper house, the House of Lords, are drawn from the aristocracy and hold seats passed down hereditarily. The people vote for members of the lower house, the House of Commons; each member represents a particular district. The party holding the majority in the House of Commons chooses the prime minister, who then selects other ministers (collectively known as the Cabinet) to hold responsibilities in areas such as foreign policy, education, finance, commerce and industry, and others. As long as the prime minister’s party holds the majority in the House of Commons, the prime minister stays in power. Elections come at least every five years, but may occur sooner if the prime minister and his government lose support in the House of Commons. Parties enforce strong discipline, with nearly all votes falling along party lines. The UK’s two major parties are the Labour and Conservative parties. A third party, the Liberal Democrats, have considerable support, but hold a clear minority in Parliament. Support for the Conservatives comes from the upper and upper-middle classes and the more traditional segments of society. The Labour Party generally has the support of the middle and working classes and progressives. All three parties also seek support from the center of the political spectrum.  United Kingdom: Political Institutions (continued) Lobbyists focus on party leadership and on garnering public support Government has a long tradition of economic influence Headquarters of the Trades Union Congress in|London Members of the opposition party can influence the government by promoting alternative policies. They can confront the prime minister and members of the cabinet or the public directly. Political pressure groups operate differently in the UK than in the United States: owing to the strong sense of party loyalty, lobbyists focus their efforts on party leaders rather than on individual members of Parliament. Most lobbying groups concentrate on single national or economic issues. Such groups include the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, the Confederation of British Industry, the National Farmers' Union, and the Trades Union Congress. The British government has long played a role in the economy. After World War II, the British took on the huge task of rebuilding its economy and infrastructure in a time of shrinking overseas holdings and a declining economy. Government spending became an integral part of the economy, establishing or funding improvements in social security, public housing, and national health care. The government also played a major role in helping to prevent the recurrence of an economic depression.  United Kingdom: Citizens, Society, and the State UK mostly an ethnically homogeneous society U.K. population Historic tension in Northern Ireland and recently with new immigrants White Prominent social class cleavages and class consciousness Social mobility, social safety nets, and upper-class social responsibility keep tensions in check Non-white Whites make up the vast majority (91%) of the population, while blacks, Indians, and Pakistanis collectively make up a little more than five percent. Religious differences have been most prominent in Northern Ireland, with attendant economic disparities and historic discrimination, though the violence that has accompanied it has dramatically subsided in recent years; this type of conflict has not been a major factor in the rest of the country. Recently, racial tensions have flared between newly arrived Muslim immigrants and the indigenous population, but not to the degree that has been experienced in continental Europe. Traditionally, Britons have had prominent social-class cleavages and class consciousness. However, avenues exist for social mobility and for the different classes to receive political representation in government. Other factors that keep class cleavages in check include social- service safety nets that ward off extreme poverty, and a strong sense of upper-class social responsibility. Recognizing the importance of the middle class and its role in society, the government supports it with a broad range of educational opportunities and by accepting its members in the higher levels of society and government.  United Kingdom: Political and Economic Change Relatively peaceful throughout its history, since events occurred sequentially, not simultaneously Post-WWII era saw substantial, rapid change The weak economy in the 1970s brought on change in the 1980s, with government privatization of industries, housing, and public services Most political movements are locally inspired and operated, though some rise to national and international prominence New challenges face the UK: participation in the EU, the government economic role, and the global economy Political and economic change has occurred relatively peacefully throughout much of Britain’s history, due in part to that fact that political developments took place gradually and not all at once. Government and society generally dealt with internal policy issues at different times than major political and social events. However, the period following World War II simultaneously presented the challenges of reconstruction, loss of empire, and a shift to a post-industrial and global economy. Postwar policies that improved education and social services helped cushion some of the difficulties of transition. By the 1970s, however, the UK found itself with a weakened economy, high taxation, and few answers within the existing system for addressing new problems. In the 1980s, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher instituted a less-involved government that relied on market forces to run the economy, resulting in greater privatization of industries, housing, and public services. Prime Minister Tony Blair came into office in 1997 with a government that blended both of these views, allowing privatization to continue but having the government contribute where it could. The UK currently has one of the strongest economies in Europe, low inflation, and unemployment rates around three percent. Though as a nation, the UK has historically participated in large-scale political movements (the abolition of slavery, women’s suffrage, and nuclear disarmament), most of this political participation has been conducted by a vocal minority, with much of the citizenry remaining somewhat politically disengaged. Issues are more likely to get addressed on a local level but may reach national or even international prominence as events unfold. Thus, much of the UK’s grassroots political activism has been reactive, rather than proactive. Britain faces some challenging issues in the coming years in deciding on its level of involvement in the European Union, determining its government’s economic role, and transitioning to a global economy.  United Kingdom: Public Policy Directed from the top down Lobbyists pressure party leaders and public Environmental issues addressed at local, national, and international levels UK’s historic involvement in international affairs Parliament and Big Ben, London obligates it to address these issues in the future Public policy is directed from the top down in the UK: high-level civil servants and party leaders develop most initiatives. While lobbyists and pressure groups may focus on these officials or appeal to public sentiment in order to influence policy decisions, the bureaucracy creates policy and the members of Parliament decide whether to implement it. The public has no direct participation in the decision making process. Britain faces environmental issues it needs to address on the local, national, and international levels. The UK continues to reduce greenhouse gases (having met its Kyoto Protocol target), has cut down the amount of industrial and commercial waste it creates, and recycles nearly 30% of household waste. It has signed a number of international environmental agreements that will continue to keep the UK in a leading role, but that also necessitate improvements at home (which local governments will largely deal with). The UK continues to play its historically prominent role in international affairs. It is a charter member of a number of international organizations in which it holds great influence. The British government has taken on a number of international issues, from global warming, to aid for Africa, to addressing the threats of terrorism.  Discussion Questions 1. Without a written constitution, from where does the United Kingdom draw its sovereignty, authority, and power? 2. What are the major institutions of British government? How do the roles of its monarch and its prime minister differ? 3. While strong social-class divisions exist in the UK, what factors help reduce conflicts among the different classes? 1. The UK has a long political history. It began with Magna Carta, which established rule of law and limited government. The Glorious Revolution established representative government and the supremacy of Parliament. The British people strongly believe that their political institutions can effectively deal with problems and conflict. 2. The legislative branch is made up of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The majority party in the House of Commons selects the executive: the prime minister, who (along with his cabinet ministers) actually runs the UK’s government. The monarch is the head of state, but in reality only has a ceremonial function. 3. Avenues exist for social mobility and political representation. Social service safety nets keep people out of extreme poverty. A strong sense of social responsibility among the upper class and strong support by the government for the middle class through educational opportunities and social acceptance of its members also helps reduce conflicts.  Discussion Questions 4. Why has political and economic change been relatively peaceful throughout much of Britain’s history? Why did the situation change after World War II? 5. How is public policy developed in the United Kingdom? 4. Political and economic change has been relatively peaceful in the past because political developments came in sequence and not all at once. Government and society dealt with internal policy issues generally at different times than major political and social events. However, the period post-WWII simultaneously presented the challenges of reconstruction, loss of empire, and a shift to a post-industrial and global economy. 5. Public policy is developed by top-level civil servants and government leaders. Lobbyists and pressure groups appeal to these people or gather public sentiment in order to influence policy decisions. Since policy is created by the bureaucracy and decisions are made by the members of Parliament, the public has no direct participation in the decision making process. Russia  Russia: Sovereignty, Authority, and Power Largest country in the world Abundant in natural resources, though difficult to acquire Government policy has been to assimilate different ethnic groups into Russian culture Historically, Russians have believed in the supremacy of their culture as the last best hope for Christian civilization Western culture’s influence has created a tug-of-war between modernists and traditionalists Russia, the largest country in the world, spans 11 time zones. Most of the country lies in a cold and rugged climate above the 49th parallel, the same latitude line that defines the border between Canada and the U.S. This vast area contains an abundance of natural resources, but mostly in inhospitable regions. Though many different ethnic groups inhabit the country, longstanding Russian government policy has been to encourage its people to move eastward and to assimilate the different groups into the Russian culture. Russia is as much an old state as a new one. The country has existed in some form for nearly a thousand years—its capital, Moscow, was founded in 1147. For centuries, most Russians believed their civilization was the cultural epicenter of the world and would protect them from outside evils. Having withstood the Mongol invasions, rejected the humanist influences of the European Renaissance, and repelled conquest by the Muslim empire, Russians have looked upon themselves as the last best hope for civilization and Christianity (hence the strong and enduring presence of the Russian Orthodox Church). They have also looked to their government to protect them from these evils. Russian culture from the tsars through the communist era has generally rejected Western society. However, Western ideas have had a significant influence on Russia. Today, Western influences create an internal tug-of-war between those who feel Russia needs to modernize and those who cling to traditional Russian culture.  Russia: Sovereignty, Authority, and Power (continued) 1990 collapse of Soviet economy plunged the country into political and economic chaos. Russia struggles with tsarist and communist legacies A sense of the unknown surrounds Russia’s immediate future Mikhail Gorbachev Boris Yeltsin Russian history has been marked by tumultuous events rather than smooth transitions. Today, as Russia struggles to find its new identity it wrestles with several internal forces vying for control. In 1991, the Soviet regime was in chaos: The “satellite states” in eastern Europe had gone into rebellion and Soviet leadership refused to crack down as it had so many times in the past. Soon, the Soviet economy collapsed and with it, the government and its control over the Soviet republics. Privatization of the economy occurred soon thereafter, as former state-run companies fell into the hands of private entrepreneurs, members of the vast bureaucracy, and organized crime—all of whom now struggled for control. Leaders (including Mikhail Gorbachev, and later Boris Yeltsin) tried to introduce democratic principles, but creating a new political culture so different from that of the past proved difficult. The Russian people had virtually no experience with civil liberties, the rule of law, true representative government, or tolerance for min