Sustainable Edible Packaging Systems Based on Active Compounds from Food (PDF)

Received: 26 May 2021 Revised: 15 October 2021 Accepted: 19 October 2021 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12870 COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY Sustainable edible packaging systems based on active compounds from food processing byproducts: A review Imen Hamed...

Received: 26 May 2021 Revised: 15 October 2021 Accepted: 19 October 2021 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12870 COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY Sustainable edible packaging systems based on active compounds from food processing byproducts: A review Imen Hamed Anita Nordeng Jakobsen Jørgen Lerfall Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, NTNU - Norwegian University of Abstract Science and Technology, Trondheim, The global food processing industries represent a challenge and a risk to the envi- Norway ronment due to the poor handling of residues, which are often discarded as waste Correspondence without being used in further sidestreams. Although some part of this biomass Anita Nordeng Jakobsen and Jørgen Ler- is utilized, large quantities are, however, still under- or unutilized despite these fall, Department of Biotechnology and Food Science, NTNU - Norwegian Uni- byproducts being a rich resource of valuable compounds. These biowastes con- versity of Science and Technology, 7491 tain biopolymers and other compounds such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, Trondheim, Norway. pigments, micronutrients, and minerals with good nutritional values and active Email: [email protected] and [email protected] biological properties with applications in various fields including the develop- ment of sustainable food packaging. This review offers an update on the recent advancement of food byproducts recy- cling and upgrading toward the production of food packaging materials, which could be edible, (bio)degradable, and act as carriers of biobased active agents such as antimicrobials, antioxidants, flavoring additives, and health-promoting compounds. This should be a global initiative to promote the well-being of humans and achieve sustainability while respecting the ecological boundaries of our planet. Edible films and coatings formulations based on biopolymers and active compounds extracted from biowastes offer great opportunities to decrease the devastating overuse of plastic-based packaging. It has become evident that a transition from a fuel-based to a circular bio-based economy is potentially beneficial. Therefore, the exploitation of food discards within the context of a zero-waste biorefinery approach would improve waste management by mini- mizing its generation, reduce pollution, and provide value-added compounds. Most importantly, the development of edible packaging materials from food byproducts does not compete with food resources, and it also helps decrease our dependency on petroleum-based products. Practical Application Almost 99% of current plastics are petroleum-based, and their continuous use has been devastating to the planet as plastic-derived compo- nents have been detected in all trophic levels. Besides, the increasing amounts of This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2021 The Authors. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Institute of Food Technologists 198 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2022;21:198–226.  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Edible active packaging from food byproducts 199 food by-products are a socioeconomic and environmental challenge, and halving food loss and waste and turning it into valuable products has become necessary to achieve sustainability and economic circularity. The development of new pack- aging systems such as edible materials could be one of the solutions to limit the use of persistent plastics. Edible films and coatings by-products-based could also enhance food packaging performance due to their compounds’ bioactivities. KEYWORDS biopolymer, circular bioeconomy, edible active packaging, food byproduct, sustainability 1 INTRODUCTION bioactive compounds that include proteins, lipids, pig- ments, phenolic molecules, micronutrients, and dietary According to the Food and Agriculture Organization fibers. Moreover, these residues have properties such as (FAO), about one third, that is, 1.3 billion tonnes per year antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, of all edible food intended for human consumption is lost immunostimulant, and prebiotic activities (Guil-Guerrero throughout the food chain (FAO, 2011). The global vol- et al., 2016; Faustino et al., 2019). ume of food wastage goes up to 1.6 billion tonnes when To address the issues related to the food packaging inedible parts are included (Goossens et al., 2020). This sector regarding the excessive use of petrochemical plas- 2011 FAO study offers a broad indication and cannot be tics, innovative solutions have been investigated includ- replicated due to a certain number of assumptions that ing the use of biowaste-based materials. Recycling could were made due to a lack of data. Therefore, for a more also be a solution; however, it is limited due to technical precise assessment, a recent report by FAO (2019) intro- and economic challenges. Around 9% of the wasted plas- duced two new indices that measure food lost in the supply tics worldwide have been recycled, 12% have been incin- chain before it reaches the retail level (Food Loss Index) erated, and 79% have accumulated in landfills or directly and food wasted by consumers or retailers (Food Waste discarded in the environment (Geyer et al., 2017). There- Index). FAO (2019) reported that around 14% of the world’s fore, it has become important to move toward renewable, food is lost globally, and estimates for the Food Waste nonfood resource alternatives, as not only plastic materi- Index are still under preparation by the United Nations als are persistent in the environment but they also rep- Environment Programme. These indices will help moni- resent a great risk to the fauna and flora. Plastics have tor progress toward one of the targets of the Sustainable been observed in the digestive tract of organisms from dif- Development Goals (SDG) namely SDG target 12.3, which ferent terrestrial, freshwater, and marine food-webs (Jâms aims to halve the global food waste per capita and to reduce et al., 2020). The next generation of food packaging should the overall food loss. SDG were introduced in 2015 by the therefore be based on new materials, which have inher- United Nations and are expected to be reached by 2030. ent edibility or (bio)degradability. Edible packaging sys- Seventeen goals with 169 targets were identified to help tems, which are made using only food-grade compounds achieve a better and more sustainable future for people and should have bioactive properties (antimicrobial, antioxi- the planet (https://sdgs.un.org/goals). dant, and antibrowning) in addition to other attributes Generation of byproducts from food processing is including functional (barrier to water, vapors, oxygen, inevitable and disposal is one of the major challenges carbon dioxide, and ultraviolet (UV) light), mechanical (Fierascu et al., 2020). Food biowastes are recognized (strength), and physical (opacity and color) characteristics as a serious environmental and socioeconomical threat (Silva-Weiss et al., 2013). Edible packaging should proba- when not properly managed. Residual raw materials are bly not completely replace conventional ones as they are usually thrown into landfills, burned, or simply left out meant to be used as primary packaging together with to spoil. If not treated well, these residues could release nonedible materials as secondary packaging to provide toxic pollutants and be converted to greenhouse gasses proper handling and hygienic conditions (de Azeredo, (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogenous compounds) 2012; Bharti et al., 2020). To make the whole packaging (Ishangulyyev et al., 2019). Food biowastes can also create system sustainable, bio-based and biodegradable plastics other ecological hazards such as leachate production. as secondary packaging would be preferred over persistent However, residual materials have also been shown to plastics. Commercialization on a large-scale of sustain- be highly nutritive since they can be a rich source of able packaging remains challenging because conventional  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 200 Edible active packaging from food byproducts (petrochemical-based) plastics have a well-established and as brains, bone marrow, and spinal cords. Those byprod- mature technology for their production and management ucts are for disposal only. Category 2 are of lesser risk, (Filiciotto & Rothenberg, 2021). The complete removal of although still not suitable as feed, but they could be used conventional packaging is still in its infancy and to achieve for other purposes including organic fertilizers or compost. that goal sustainability assessment is a field that should Category 3, which represents no risks, can be used as ani- be investigated more to ensure that this substitution by mal feed and petfood (Aspevik et al., 2017). There are also “greener” materials will be safer, beneficial, and will not byproducts from other food processing industries such as lead to unintended consequences in the long-term (Geras- fisheries and aquaculture (frames, heads, skin, tails, and simidou et al., 2021). viscera), dairy (whey), cereals (bran), vegetables, and fruits Change of mindset concerning food production and con- (peels, pomaces, bagasses, stones, pits, grape skins, and sumption has become critical to decrease global hunger seeds) that are considered as secondary products gener- and avoid an environmental collapse. Therefore, the tran- ated during the manufacturing of primary products. These sition to a circular and bio-based economy is important products find many applications as food and feed and are and is being encouraged by policy-makers such as the also utilized in cosmetics and as nutraceuticals (Kasapidou United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development et al., 2015). and the European Green Deal to support more companies The term food wastes is used when liquid or solid and start-ups to acknowledge their creation of more sus- residues obtained from food processing are discarded tainable businesses (European Commission, 2019; United as undesirable materials. However, when these wastes Nations, 2015). have the potential to be recovered and revalorized in the This study reviews the different biological byproducts food chain they might be called “food byproducts” to that are generated by the food processing industries and denote the possible development of new products with their possible applications in the food packaging sec- a market value (Galanakis, 2012). The European Union tor. The sometimes-confused plastic materials terminol- project FUSIONS considers wastes as byproducts “only ogy is explained along with the effects of persistent plas- if the following conditions are met: (a) further use of tics on the environment. The development of innovative the substance or object is certain; (b) the substance or biowaste-based materials as active edible food packaging is object can be used directly without any further process- extensively reviewed as well as their creation and proper- ing other than normal industrial practice; (c) the sub- ties. Furthermore, future trends and challenges for their stance or object is produced as an integral part of a pro- utilization are explored. duction process; and (d) further use is lawful, that is, the substance or object fulfils all relevant product, environ- mental and health protection requirements for the specific 2 BYPRODUCTS AND COPRODUCTS: use and will not lead to overall adverse environmental or DEFINITIONS AND REGULATIONS human health impacts” (Östergren et al., 2014). The distinction between by- and coproducts is not always made and there may be many definitions. As stated by the 3 FOOD BYPRODUCT ORIGINS Commission of the European Communities “there is not a black and white distinction, but rather a wide variety Industries and scientific communities are giving special of technical situations with widely differing environmen- attention to byproducts of food processing because they tal risks and impacts and a number of grey zones.” How- have been shown to contain large amounts of valuable ever, it is necessary to identify clearly the biomass con- compounds that could be recovered and used as biologi- cerned to handle it properly and in some countries the law cally active ingredients as replacement for synthetic com- provides two clear meanings (Figure 1). The term coprod- ponents. This approach contributes to food chain sustain- ucts often concerns the products that are intended for ability and system circularity (Schieber, 2017). Despite, the human consumption, while byproducts will not be valued diversity of byproduct applications, the focus in this review as suitable for human consumption and are mainly used in is on the potential development of active edible packag- sidestreams for production of bioenergy and animal feed. ing. Consistent with that, byproducts were categorized into Byproducts resulting from processing of animals (livestock three groups depending on their source: marine, agricul- and poultry industries) are categorized further into three tural, and animal. Table 1 summarizes the biopolymers and groups based on their origin and potential risk to humans, bioactive compounds that could be extracted from food animals, and the environment (Penven et al., 2013). Cat- byproducts and used in the development of edible pack- egory 1 is represented by animal parts that are not eligi- aging. ble for either food or feed use and are risk materials such  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Edible active packaging from food byproducts 201 FIGURE 1 Byproducts generated during food processing (modified from Aspevik et al., 2017) 3.1 Marine processing byproducts yield so that they could be used as food in domestic and export markets. Then, the rest of these byproducts that 3.1.1 Residual materials from fish and could not be used for direct consumption could be further shellfish processed into other high-value products for human use such as protein powders, oil supplements, nutraceuticals, Food discard amounts vary depending on origin, species, and pharmaceuticals. This strategic use of byproducts and processing techniques. Seafood byproducts are could result in the increase of food production from formed throughout the supply chain starting with by- aquaculture by 61% and a possible increased byproduct catch/harvesting, onboard processing, other processing, revenue by approximatively 800%. transport, storage, retailers, and finally consumption. Most residues are generated during the capture and processing steps (Ghosh et al., 2016). For shellfish such as crustaceans 3.1.2 Residual materials from algae and molluscs, byproducts could reach 80% that include mainly heads and shells (Suresh et al., 2018). Discards The seaweed industry for human consumption is grow- from finfish generally constitute 25%–50% of the raw ing globally. It is estimated to be worth US$ 5.5–6 billion material (Rustad et al., 2011). Canning operations of fish annually, with US$ 5 billion destined for humans and the such as tuna could result in 70% waste consisting of dark rest used for a wide range of application such as food and meat, belly flaps, head, backbone, and skin (Sasidharan feed supplements, fertilizers, cosmetics, and pharmaceuti- & Venugopal, 2020). In Norway, for aquaculture and wild cals (Tedesco & Stokes, 2017). Macroalgae are a source of caught pelagic fish, the degree of byproducts utilization proteins (5%–47%), lipids (1%–5%), polysaccharides (15%– could reach 91% and 100%, respectively (Richardsen 76%), and minerals (7%–36%). Other compounds with bio- et al., 2017), while wild captured white fish that generates logical and biochemical functions are found in seaweeds about the same amount of byproducts (319,000 tonnes) as as well including pigments and polyphenols. Polysaccha- salmon aquaculture (400,842 tonnes) has only 44% uti- rides from seaweeds have been used in various industries lization (Hjellnes et al., 2020). Stevens et al. (2018) showed commonly as hydrocolloids and the most prevalent are that the best way to use fish byproducts, in terms of food alginates (brown macroalgae), and carrageenans and agar security, environmental, and economic benefits would be (red macroalgae). The minor storage polysaccharides are to maintain their food grade quality and maximize edible fucoidans and laminarin (brown macroalgae), xylans and  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 202 Edible active packaging from food byproducts TA B L E 1 Biobased materials from food byproducts that could be used in active edible packaging Food byproduct origin Discarded parts Biopolymers1 Bioactive compounds2 References Marine Fish Head, trimmings (skin, fins, Myofibrillar Omega-3 mainly EPA Nawaz et al. (2020) bones, scales, and muscle), and Proteins and DHA Olsen et al. viscera (liver, kidney, and roe) Collagen Peptides (2014) Gelatin Protein hydrolysates Khalili Tilami Iodine, and Sampels Vitamin D (2018) Selenium PhosphorusCalcium Crustaceans Shells Chitin AstaxanthinCalcium Tan et al. (2020) carbonate Algae Remaining biomass after Carrageenans Omega-3 mainly EPA Leandro et al. compounds extraction or Agar and DHA (2020) drifted biomass at coastal Alginate Proteins and peptides Pardilhó et al. regions Polyphenols (2021) Pigments (β-carotene, Mathiot et al. astaxanthin, (2019) fucoxanthin) Polysaccharides (xylans, fucoidans, laminarin, floridean starch, and ulvans) VitaminsMinerals Agricultural Vegetable and Peels, seeds, pulps, pomaces, Cellulose Polyphenols, for Bas-Bellver et al. fruits bagasses, grape skins, and Pectin example, (2020) stones/pits Starch anthocyanins Ni and Dumont Proteins Pigments et al. Essential oilsDietary (2017)Macagnan fibers et al. (2015) Dilucia et al. (2020) Cereals Brans, husks, bewers’ spent Starch PhytosterolsPolyphenols ElMekawy et al. grain, and corn cobs Cellulose MineralsVitamins (2013) Hemicellulose Verni et al. (2019) Lignin Animal Meat Skin, blood, bones, meat Collagens PUFAVitamins Toldrá et al. (2016) trimmings, fatty tissues, horns, Gelatin Jayathilakan hoofs, feet, skull, feathers, et al. (2012) tripe, liver, lung, heart, kidney, and tongue Dairy Liquid obtained after milk Whey Water-soluble Ryder et al. (2017) curdling Casein VitaminsLactose Mazorra- Manzano et al. (2020) Abbreviations: DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids. 1 Biopolymers refers to the compounds with filmogenic properties that constitute the base of edible films/coatings. 2 Bioactive compounds refer to the compounds that are used in association with biopolymer-based materials due to their proven activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulant, and prebiotic. floridean starch (red macroalgae), and ulvans and xylans able quantity of biowastes with potential use for the pro- (green macroalgae) (Lourenço-Lopes et al., 2020; Leandro duction of fiber, glycerol, biofertilizers, and organic acids. et al., 2020). Polysaccharides from macroalgae have been The composition of seaweed residues depends on their ini- used for the formulation of edible packaging either alone tial composition and the type of compounds extracted dur- or combined with other biopolymers (Ganesan et al., 2018; ing the industrial processing (Barbot et al., 2016). Seaweed Patel, 2019). The seaweed industry generates a consider- wastes are also obtained from biomass that drifts ashore  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Edible active packaging from food byproducts 203 and is accumulated on the beach. These are usually sent (Bas-Bellver et al., 2020; Ni & Dumont, 2017). Fruit and to landfill or are left abandoned to degrade and eventu- vegetable wastes have a good potential for application in ally cause problems related to disease vectors and methane the preparation of edible films and coatings. Biowastes release by anaerobic degradation. This untapped resource could reach 20%–40% of processed materials. For instance, is a potential source of bioactives including natural pig- annually grape and wine processing generates around 5– ments. Therefore, the appropriate management of these 9 million metric tonnes (MMT) of solid waste, and can- industrial and/or shortline seaweed wastes could provide ning and freezing of fruits and vegetables generate approx- economic returns with new products (Pardilhó et al., 2021). imately 6 MMT of residues (Sagar et al., 2018). The bioac- The cultivation at an industrial scale of cyanobacteria tive components present in the discarded parts are rich in and microalgae has been well-established, and bioprod- valuable compounds and sometimes even more; the peels ucts originating from them are available on the market as of citrus fruits, grapes, and apples, and the seeds of man- food supplements, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and also as goes, avocados, longans, and jackfruits have been reported feed for aquaculture and possibly other production ani- to contain >15% more phenolics than in the pulp (Ben- mals (Bhalamurugan et al., 2018; Hernández et al., 2018). Othman et al., 2020). Packaging prepared using byproducts To be economically viable, it is better to use a sustainable from fruit and vegetable processing wastes offers a feasi- biorefinery model that consists in the further use of the rest ble alternative to reduce the production cost of edible films of the biomass, which is still rich in high-value compounds and coatings and to add value to food byproducts. Besides, after recovery of the primary product (Mishra et al., 2019; due to their recognized biological properties namely Mobin & Alam, 2017). dietary fibers (oligosaccharides), antioxidants (polyphe- Cyanobacteria and microalgae have been investigated nols and pigments), and antimicrobials (essential oils), for their use as part of active packaging. With stress con- these residual components can enhance food packaging ditions, they adapt by storing biopolymers such as lipids, performance (Dilucia et al., 2020; Macagnan et al., 2015). proteins, pigments, polysaccharides including starch, and other metabolites, for example, vitamins and minerals (Mathiot et al., 2019). However, most of the species have 3.2.2 Residual materials from cereals been studied for the production of bioplastics mainly based on polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), which are natu- Cereals, which are processed by the milling and brewing rally accumulated by microalgae. Although, PHA-based industries, result in large amounts of byproducts such as materials are biodegradable and they are not edible (Abdo brans, husks, bewers’ spent grains, and corn cobs. Despite & Ali, 2019; Hempel et al., 2011; Rumin et al., 2020; Zeller being highly nutritive, cereal byproducts are mostly used et al., 2013). Compared to seaweed-based edible packaging, as feed or as substrates for bio-refineries or even just the information is limited regarding the use of microal- discarded. Bioactive compounds from cereal byproducts gae in edible films and coatings. Edible materials were include lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins; plus phy- produced after the incorporation of microalgae with other tosterols, polyphenols, starch, and dietary fibers such as biopolymers. To achieve that, the whole microalgal cell hemicellulose (β-glucans and arabinoxylans), cellulose, could be used or compounds could be extracted such as and lignin (ElMekawy et al., 2013; Verni et al., 2019). Some protein concentrates from Spirulina platensis or Chlorella applications of cereal brans in food products include baked vulgaris (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Moghaddas Kia et al., 2018; items in which brans are incorporated to increase the fiber Morales-Jiménez et al., 2020; Stejskal et al., 2020; Tais Car- contents. However, their utilization is limited (5%–10%) doso et al., 2017). due to their negative impact on overall acceptability caused by textural changes and some cases of bitterness (Hemdane 3.2 Agricultural processing byproducts et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2020; Luithui et al., 2019). Various methods have been investigated to improve their incorpo- 3.2.1 Residual materials from vegetable and ration into food items (Grasso, 2020). fruits 3.3 Animal processing byproducts Processing of vegetables and fruits for beverages (juices, ciders, wines, and coffees), ready-to-eat precuts, and 3.3.1 Residual materials from the meat foods (jams, olive oils, and sauces) generates a sub- industry stantial amount of residues in the form of peels, seeds, pulps, pomaces, and stones/pits. These byproducts are Slaughtering results in large volumes of byproducts that rich in bioactive compounds including biopolymers such are both nonedible such as skin, blood, bones, meat trim- as polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, pectin) and proteins mings, fatty tissues, horns, hoofs, feet, skulls, feathers,  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 204 Edible active packaging from food byproducts and viscera or edible such as tripe, liver, lung, heart, kid- worldwide is recovered and used for multiples applications ney, and tongue (Toldrá et al., 2016). Valorization of these (foods, nutritionals, and pharmaceuticals). However, large residues increases the profitability of the meat industry as volumes are discarded daily without any prior treatment it was estimated that 11.4% and 7.5% of the income from (Mazorra-Manzano et al., 2020). Milk proteins are ideal for beef and pork, respectively, come from byproducts (Jay- the production of biomaterials since they have good barrier athilakan et al., 2012). The use of byproducts that are still and filmogenic properties (Campos et al., 2011). considered edible in some countries could help decrease malnutrition since these parts, usually discarded, contain 4 PLASTIC PACKAGING good amounts of essential nutrients such as proteins, min- TERMINOLOGY erals, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and vitamins, which are similar to those in muscle tissues. The nonedible residues Before discussing the potential use of food processing have also found many industrial applications as animal byproducts in developing new packaging materials, the feed or for humans as well; for example, skin/hide and diverse and sometimes confusing definitions of packag- feathers are used in the leather and textile industries. ing, namely plastics, need to be explained. European Bio- As for the food sector gelatins, derived from collagens, plastics (2016) gave clear definitions of the various types which are abundant in animal skin, bones, and hooves, of plastics, which are often confused due to their inter- are used as gelling, stabilizing, thickening, and texturiz- changeable use. Plastics could be either fossil-based or bio- ing agents in confectionery, yogurt products, and dessert based and in both groups, there are non-(bio)degradable creams (Saha & Bhattacharya, 2010). Although most com- and (bio)degradable materials. Biodegradability depends mercial gelatins have mammalian origins, mainly pigs and on the chemical structure rather than on the type of cattle, other sources include fish and even chicken feet resource that was used to make the material. Biodegrada- (Santana et al., 2020). Gelatin is an important biopolymer tion of plastics is done through the enzymatic action of nat- used for edible packaging. When used alone it showed urally occurring microorganisms during which materials good barrier properties; however, due to its hygroscopic are broken down to basic elemental components such as nature, combinations with other biopolymers are preferred water, gas (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, and sulfur), to improve the functional properties of packaging and the and biomass (Folino et al., 2020). This process depends on shelf-life of food products (Hanani et al., 2014; Ramos et al., the surrounding environment (location, temperature, and 2016). humidity), on the material and on the application. Plas- tic may also be degradable if its breakdown is catalyzed 3.3.2 Residual materials from the dairy by sunlight (photodegradable) or water (hydrodegrad- industry able). Compostable plastics, which are usually mixed with biodegradable ones, require controlled conditions in com- The dairy industry transforms raw milk into an array of posting facilities to breakdown through a biological pro- products that include cheese, yogurt, butter, cream, ghee, cess that also involves microorganisms without leaving condensed milk, dried milk, and ice cream and generates any toxic residues, which should lead to nutrients being various byproducts such as whey and buttermilk. These returned to the soil (Ciriminna & Pagliaro, 2020). Degrad- dairy residues have high nutritive value and have many able or compostable plastic materials are not necessar- applications (Rafiq & Rafiq, 2019). ily biodegradable with ambient environmental conditions From these dairy byproducts, large volumes of proteina- (Lambert & Wagner, 2017). Bioplastics, which are often ceous waste specifically caseins and whey are produced. In mistakenly thought to be fully biodegradable, could be bovine milk, caseins are the most abundant group of pro- divided in three categories: bio-based and nonbiodegrad- teins, comprising ∼80% of the total protein (Ryder et al., able, bio-based and biodegradable, and fossil-based and 2017). Whey protein concentration increases when derived, biodegradable. Bio-based and (bio)degradable could even for example, from cheese or yogurt manufacturing. Whey be edible when all the ingredients used are food-grade is the liquid obtained after milk curdling. Besides proteins, (Gutt & Amariei, 2020), and this will be discussed in it also contains water-soluble vitamins and lactose. The more details in the following sections. The prefix “bio” cheese sector produces more whey than any other dairy does not necessarily mean eco-friendly, and sometimes the industry. For each kilogram of cheese, ∼8–9 L of whey term is used for marketing reasons. Therefore, to ensure is generated, which represents globally 180–190 million environmental sustainability, further testing and ecotoxic- tonnes/year. When advanced technologies are available in ity assessments must be done. Eventually, the authorities factories, whey is transformed into valuable coproducts should standardize rules to have consistent definitions and such as whey powder, protein concentrates, isolates, and labeling as “compostable and/or (bio)degradable plastics” lactose. It is estimated that ∼50% of the whey produced to avoid misleading the public with false environmental claims (Haider et al., 2019).  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Edible active packaging from food byproducts 205 5 THE BIOWASTE-BASED VERSUS 6 EDIBLE PACKAGING PLASTIC-BASED FOOD PACKAGING ECONOMY The difference between films and coatings consists in their manufacture and application (Figure 3). Edible films Globally, the production of plastics reached 407 MMT in are dried, preformed thin sheets usually between 50 and 2015 according to Rabnawaz et al. (2017). The packaging 250 μm thick that are used to wrap the food products, or industry alone uses a substantial share of these materials which could be turned into pouches and bags, as well as (∼44%), and nearly 99% of these plastics are petroleum- applied between layers of foodstuffs. Whereas edible coat- based (Rabnawaz et al., 2017). Undoubtedly, plastic mate- ings even if they are also defined as thin layers of edi- rials are useful and convenient due to their valuable char- ble materials are applied as a liquid of varying viscos- acteristics, such as transparency, permeability, flexibility, ity onto the surface or between layers of the product by tensile strength, thermal performance, ease of steriliza- spraying, dipping, or brushing. They are allowed to dry on tion, and affordable costs (Luzi et al., 2019). However, their the food product to do their targeted functions (Coma & excessive usage is not sustainable and has been shown to Bartkowiak, 2019; Pascall & Lin, 2013). eventually be catastrophic to the planet. Plastics withstand Edible films and coatings have been used to improve degradation due to their backbone structure, which con- the gas and moisture barriers and to protect the product tain stable carbon–carbon bonds that lead to global envi- from damage including mechanical, chemical, and micro- ronmental pollution and threaten the life of various organ- biological contamination. They can also enhance sensory isms (Rabnawaz et al., 2017). Not only does it take hundreds perceptions and extend the shelf-life, especially of perish- of years for synthetic plastics to degrade but they also leak able products such as seafood (Dehghani et al., 2018). Their out into the environment, and it is estimated that 8 MMT use in association with bioactive compounds such as vita- of plastics find their way into the ocean each year (Guillard mins, minerals, and polyphenols could lead to additional et al., 2018). Once in the ocean, plastic materials spread and functions (Falguera et al., 2011). Other benefits of these edi- slowly degrade until they become micro- and nanoplastics, ble packaging are their environmental friendliness, as they which are ingested by various species including marine are derived from renewable sources. Food products can mammals, fish, crustaceans, mollusk, zooplankton, and be eaten without the need to unpack and throw away the phytoplankton causing a negative impact on their phys- package (Trinetta, 2016). Biodegradable materials are not iological functions (Kögel et al., 2020). Considering that necessarily edible. Thus, edible packaging is made using ∼70% of the world’s oxygen is produced by photosynthe- only food-grade components, that is, plasticizers and any sizing marine organisms (seaweeds and microalgae), this other additives for the film-forming matrix and the sol- could have major consequence on climate change and vent must be generally recognized as safe, a formal process global warming (Lamberti et al., 2020). Bioaccumulation established by the US FDA (Otoni et al., 2017). has also been reported and due to trophic transfers, human health is of concern since people consume plastic parti- 6.1 Edible packaging composition cles via the uptake of terrestrial and aquatic food products, drinking water, and by inhalation (Carbery et al., 2018). Edible packaging should have at least two components: Consequently, the transitioning of food packaging from a biopolymer-based matrix able to form a cohesive struc- a linear economy to a circular bio-based economy is impor- ture and a solvent, which is usually water. The biopolymers tant (Figure 2). The bioeconomy tries to convert renew- extracted from biomasses are polysaccharides, proteins, able biological resources into economically viable prod- and lipids (Otoni et al., 2017). Additives are often intro- ucts (food, feed, bioenergy, and other bio-based materials). duced to the formulation to improve mechanical, func- It addresses issues that include natural resources deple- tional, organoleptic, and nutritional characteristics. For tion, increasing global food demand, and climate change example, the incorporation of plasticizers increases flexi- with the goal of developing new, low emission, resource- bility, the addition of active compounds improves quality efficient, and sustainable materials (Ravindran & Jaiswal, (antibrowning agents), extends shelf-life (antioxidants and 2016). The bioeconomy generated 2.2 trillion euros in antimicrobials), enhances sensory properties (flavor, color, Europe with 18.6 million people employed in 2014 (Teigis- and texture), and adds health benefits (prebiotics, pro- erova et al., 2019). The next generation of food packaging biotics, vitamins, and minerals) (Guimaraes et al., 2018). should be from nonfood renewable resources to avoid con- Byproducts from food processing have many components cerns related to food security (Guillard et al., 2018). Edi- known for their filmogenic properties that include chitin ble polymers with short-lifespan should be investigated as and their derivatives from crustacean shells, polysaccha- packaging replacements. rides (alginates, carrageenan, and agar) from seaweeds, whey protein from cheese production, corn zein from  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 206 Edible active packaging from food byproducts FIGURE 2 A comparison of (a) linear and (b) circular economy of food packaging ethanol production, collagen and gelatin from animal relative humidity and temperature to which products are skins, and potato starch from potato chip waste. There are exposed during distribution and storage (Chen et al., also many other functional ingredients found in vegetable 2019). Based on the biopolymer, edible packaging could and fruit peels and pomaces from agri-food processing be divided into three categories: hydrocolloids, lipids, and plants and beverage production; for example, grape skins composites (Velickova et al., 2015). Hydrocolloids, com- from the wine industry are abundant in anthocyanins (Jan- posed of hydrophilic polymers, include proteins from jarasskul & Krochta, 2010; Kalli et al., 2018). gelatin, corn zein, soybean, wheat, caseins, peanut, and rice and polysaccharides (starch, pectin, carrageenan, algi- 6.1.1 Biopolymers nate, cellulose derivatives, and chitosan). Lipids include oils (palm, cocoa, lard, butter, coconut, and fatty acids The choice of packaging materials depends on the char- (FA), waxes (beeswax, jojoba, and paraffin), resins (chicle acteristics of the food, for example, light sensitivity and and olibanum), and essential oils and extracts, for exam- acidity, desired properties such as appearance and bar- ple, mint, cinnamon, and oregano (Shit & Shah, 2014). rier functions, and environmental factors, for example, Polysaccharide- and protein-based packaging have effi-  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Edible active packaging from food byproducts 207 FIGURE 3 Preparation steps of active edible films and coatings cient gas barrier and mechanical properties but have a poor multi-component films, that contain both hydrocolloids moisture barrier, and thus allow movement of water vapor and lipids (Senturk Parreidt et al., 2018). across the film, which may avoid water condensation, which is needed for microbial spoilage. On the other hand, packaging composed of lipids is efficient against mois- 6.1.2 Plasticizers ture movement but shows reduced mechanical strength and increased oxygen permeability (Bharti et al., 2020). To Edible films and coatings are too fragile and brittle due to overcome these limitations, combinations could be made, extensive interactions between polymeric chains, mainly which result in the formation of composites, also called hydrogen, hydrophobic, disulfide, and electrostatic inter-  15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License 208 Edible active packaging from food byproducts actions. To make them more processable, plasticizers, Casting involves three steps: (1) production of a film- which come between the polymers and decrease polymer– forming solution by solubilizing biopolymers in a suit- polymer interactions, are added (Suhag et al., 2020). able solvent (water, ethanol, lactic acid, or acetic acid) Hence, plasticizers are usually necessary to maintain the with the addition of appropriate plasticizers and bioac- film or coating integrity. Films prepared without plasti- tives, (2) pouring the solution into leveled predefined cizers are stiff and have high tensile strength, while plas- molds (acrylic, silicon, teflon, or glass), and (3) drying ticizers increase flexibility, stretchability, and toughness of the cast solution at ambient or with controlled con- (Thakur et al., 2019). Commonly used food-grade plasti- ditions using a hot air oven, microwave, or tray or vac- cizers are mono-, di-, or oligosaccharides (e.g., glucose, uum driers (Suhag et al., 2020), which results in the for- fructose-glucose syrups, sucrose, and honey), polyols (e.g., mation of a film that could be peeled from the surface glycerol, sorbitol, glyceryl derivatives, and polyethylene (Shahidi & Hossain, 2020; Šuput et al., 2015). Uniform glycols), and lipids and their derivatives (e.g., phospho- and defect-free films (no mechanical damage and air bub- lipids, FA, oils and waxes) (Sothornvit & Krochta, 2005). bles) are necessary to optimize functionalities; therefore, degassing is done first using centrifugation, ultrasonica- tion, or vacuum degassing. A final moisture content of 5%– 6.1.3 Active compounds 8% is desired to produce a film without any tearing and wrinkling (Tavassoli-Kafrani et al., 2016). Active agents have been used to enhance the shelf-life, The wet process, also known as bench casting, is ade- quality, and safety of food products by inhibiting food quate for laboratory work and consists, as mentioned ear- oxidation and growth of spoilage microorganisms lier, in pouring a film-forming solution on rimmed or such as Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus spp., plain plates with production of a final film thickness that pathogenic microorganisms including Staphylococcus varies depending on the materials used. Nevertheless, at aureus, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria the industrial scale, a continuous casting could be done in monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, and molds and yeasts such which the film is prepared on continuous carriers such as as Aspergillus and Candida (Ahmed et al., 2017; Vilela steel belt conveyors or a disposable mold such as release et al., 2018). The use of edible films and coatings as carriers paper that offers an effective control system to regulate the of bioactive compound such as antimicrobials (phenolic film thickness (de Moraes et al., 2013; Rossman, 2009). compounds, organic acids, nisin, and bacteriocin) and Extrusion is based on the thermoplastic behavior of antioxidants (plant extracts and essential oils) could be polymers when plasticized and heated above their glass- more effective than the direct incorporation into the food transition temperature (Verbeek & van den Berg, 2010). formulation, which is characterized by an immediate but This process is called “dry” since it can operate without short-term action (Eça et al., 2014; Valdés et al., 2017). The water or any other solvent. It can also produce a large vari- incorporation into packaging materials could however ety of forms that are not possible using the solvent casting maintain the bioactive compound activity for a prolonged method. However, the standard extrusion conditions are period of time due to a more gradually release on the food restricted to certain polymers that are temperature toler- surface (Benbettaïeb et al., 2019). ant and have a low moisture content (Kamal, 2019). Other Edible packaging could also enhance sensorial proper- processing methods such as injection molding and thermo- ties by introducing some flavoring, coloring, sweetener, pressing are often combined with extrusion to produce the spice, or seasoning agents. Moreover, the market value final films (Mellinas et al., 2016). could be improved by the addition of health-promoting components such as prebiotics, probiotics, vitamins, and minerals (Senturk Parreidt et al., 2018). 6.2.2 Edible coating-forming methods Edible coatings are thin layers of edible material applied 6.2 Edible film- and coating-forming directly to the food surface by dipping, spraying, or brush- procedures ing (Dhall, 2013). Dipping is done by immersing food products into the coating-forming solution for a specified 6.2.1 Edible film-forming methods amount of time, followed by draining and drying before the coated products are ready to be stored. Multiple dippings The same equipment used for conventional plastics could may be necessary to ensure a full coverage of the product also be applied to produce edible films (García-Cruz et al., due to the draining effect that makes it difficult to have 2020). The two main processes that have been used are a good adhesion on the product surface. Thus, this tech- solvent casting (wet process) and extrusion (dry process). nique is more appropriate for irregularly shaped products.  TA B L E 2 Effects of polysaccharides-based active edible packaging on food preservation Film/coating biopolymer-based Packaged food and material Active agents storage conditions Shelf-life extension Reported effects Reference Chitosan coating – Sweet cherries From 5 days to 25 days – Antimicrobial effects against Tokatlı and Demirdöven (Prunus avium L.) at 4◦ C fungi (yeasts and molds) and (2020) Stored at 4◦ C for 25 From 1 day to 10 bacteria (total MC aerobic days and at 20◦ C for days at 20◦ C bacteria, total PC aerobic 15 days compared to bacteria, and total coliform uncoated fruits bacteria) – Chitosan extracted from shrimp wastes (CH) had Edible active packaging from food byproducts higher antimicrobial activity than the commercial chitosan (C); CH < 2 log CFU/g, C = 4.69 log CFU/g – Reduction of respiratory rate at both storage temperature Chitosan film – Sea bream (Sparus From 5 days (vacuum Inhibition of spoilage bacteria Izci et al. (2018) aurata) fillets packed) to 15 days Improved quality indicators vacuum packed at 4 (vacuum packed + especially TVB-N ± 1◦ C for 20 days chitosan film) Chitosan coating and film Sonneratia caseolaris - In vitro analysis for Until the end of – Introduction of leaves extract Nguyen et al. (2020) (L.) Engler leaves the films storage period reduced transparency of extract - Bananas stored chitosan films, which atroom temperature provided good light barrier for 4 days properties to visible light and its oxidative action – Antibacterial effects against foodborne pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) improved greatly with the addition of leaves extract – Delay of bananas decay during storage due to the combination between chitosan and natural extracts (Continues) 209 15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License  210 TA B L E 2 (Continued) Film/coating biopolymer-based Packaged food and material Active agents storage conditions Shelf-life extension Reported effects Reference Chitosanand alginate Resveratrol Smoked sea bass NA – Antioxidant potential of Martínez et al. (2018) coatings (Dicentrarchus resveratrol labrax) fillets – Delay of chemical Vacuum packed and deterioration comparing to stored at 4 ± 0.5◦ C control groups with the lowest for 5 weeks TBARS values associated with chitosan coatings and resveratrol – Chitosan had a higher antibacterial effect than alginate displaying near complete inhibition of MC, PC, and anaerobic bacteria – Protective potential of alginate against oxidation Chitosan film Clove essential oil and Pork patties From 6 days for the – Nisin alone was not effective Venkatachalam and nisin stored at 4 ± 2◦ C for control groups to 12 against lipid oxidation Lekjing (2020) 15 days days for chitosan – Synergistic effects of nisin and wrapped samples clove essential oil combination with added with chitosan-based film, bioactive provided efficient compounds antimicrobial and antioxidant activities – Extended sensory characteristics (Continues) Edible active packaging from food byproducts 15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License  TA B L E 2 (Continued) Film/coating biopolymer-based Packaged food and material Active agents storage conditions Shelf-life extension Reported effects Reference Chitosan coating Hydrogen peroxide, Queso Fresco cheese NA – Enhanced control of Listeria Brown et al. (2018) lauric arginate, Vacuum-sealed and monocytogene acidified calcium stored at 7◦ C for 35 – Listericidal and listeristatic sulfate with lactic days activities noticed through 35 acid, and sodium days of storage mainly with caprylate the addition of hydrogen peroxide and mixture of lauric arginate + sodium caprylate Edible active packaging from food byproducts – Chitosan coatings without antimicrobial additives were more effective than controls but inhibition of L. monocytogenes growth did not occur beyond 7 days Pectin coating – Plum fruits (Prunus NA – Pectin-based coating was Panahirad et al. (2020) domestica cv. highly efficient in maintaining “Golden drop”) the antioxidative capacity by stored at 19 ± 2◦ C lowering polyphenol oxidase for 8 days activity and increasing peroxidase activity – Nutritional values enhanced due to higher contents of ascorbic acid, total phenolics, anthocyanin, and flavonoid Chitosan film Trachyspermum ammi Chicken filletsstored Until the end of the – Antimicrobial activities Karimnezhad et al. (2017) essential oil at 4◦ C for 12 days storage period improved considerably with the introduction of essential oil – Higher inhibitory effects on total aerobic, total PC, and coliform bacteria in comparison to the use of chitosan alone (Continues) 211 15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License  212 TA B L E 2 (Continued) Film/coating biopolymer-based Packaged food and material Active agents storage conditions Shelf-life extension Reported effects Reference Chitosan and carrageenan – Longan (Dimocarpus NA – Minimal quality changes and Lin et al. (2018) coatings longan) fruitsstored quantity losses were observed at 28◦ C for 4 days for coated fruits – Chitosan coatings had lower water vapor permeability than carrageenan coatings, thus weight loss decrease was higher with chitosan – Reduction in respiratory rate with chitosan/carrageenan coatings, which slowed down the fruits metabolism and prolonged their shelf-life Carrageenan film Olive leaves extract Lamb meatstored at NA – Excellent antioxidant activity Martiny et al. (2020) 7◦ C for 48 h of olive leaves extract due to their high phenolics content – Highly effective antimicrobial effects toward Escherichia coli, total aerobic MC counts, and total coliforms. – Lower water vapor permeability values for carrageenan films than commercial PVC, which increased food preservation (Continues) Edible active packaging from food byproducts 15414337, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1541-4337.12870 by Test, Wiley Online Library on [13/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License  TA B L E 2 (Continued) Film/coating biopolymer-based Packaged food and material Active agents storage conditions Shelf-life extension Reported effects Reference Agar film Fish protein Flounder (Paralichthys NA – Extension of fillets shelf-life Da Rocha et al. (2018) hydrolysate or clove orbignyanus) fillets when clove essential oil and essential oil storage at 5◦ C for15 protein hydrolysate were days added, which led to improved biochemical and