Communication Skill Book PDF - Nnamdi Azikiwe University

COMMUNICATION SKILL SCHOOL OF GENERAL STUDIES NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA EDITED By ONYEBUCHI JAMES ILE PhD & EMMANUEL CHUKWUDI UGWU PhD 1 DEDICATION This book is dedicated to all who genuinely seek knowledge 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We acknowledge our partner university, Westfaelische Wilhelm University, Muenster and especially, Prof. Dr. Klaus Stierstorfer of the Englishes Seminar of the University of Muenster, Germany, for making us see the need to introduce this skill to our university. We appreciate the efforts of the former Vice Chancellor, Prof Charles Esimone FAS as well as the former Director of The School of General Studies, Prof. Alex Asigbo in making sure this programme took off in our prestigious university. We also acknowledge the current Director of the School of General Studies, Prof. Charles Nweke, for seeing the need to sustain the tradition of his predecessor. We acknowledge the entire directorate past and present for their dogged efforts to sustain this programme. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication 2 Acknowledgements 3 Chapter One Critical Thinking: An Introduction and Overview John Amarachukwu Egole 5 Chapter Two Prerequisite Structures and General Approaches to Critical Thinking Uche Nnyagu PhD 11 Chapter Three Introduction to Reading and Reading Skills Ngozi Dora Ulogu, PhD 18 Chapter Four Reading Readiness Sylvanus Chimenka Onyeachulam, PhD 23 Chapter Five Teaching Listening Skills Basic Knowledge for Listening Skills Michael Uyanne, PhD 26 Chapter Six Listening to Understand the Connections between Ideas, Opinions, Feelings Attitudes and Implied Information in Spoken Contexts Adaobi Olivia Ihueze, PhD 32 Chapter Seven Enhancing Writing Skills through Effective Writing Practices and Understanding the Purpose of a Text Ekene Godfrey Okafor, PhD 39 Chapter Eight Grammatical Structures Abigail Onowosemenmen Oaikhena, PhD 55 Chapter Nine Communication Skills: Speaking Adaorah Stellamaris Nweke 72 Chapter Ten Speaking as Communication Skill Luke Ndudi Okolo, PhD 98 4 CHAPTER ONE CRITICAL THINKING: AN INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW John Amarachukwu Egole Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Introduction As humans, especially, with the constantly evolving time and society we are in, it has become largely imperative and necessary for people to engage in critical thinking if they are to overcome the enormous challenges that constantly confront them on daily basis. It is against this backdrop that Critical Thinking is introduced to for teaching and learning activities in tertiary institutions. Remarkably, the importance of thinking and teaching thinking will therefore become clearer if we consider Descarte Rene’s statements, “I think, therefore I am” and, “I will disappear if I do not think.” What these expressions mean is that it is very important to always engage in critical thinking in whatever thing we do or any situation we find ourselves for effectiveness and productivity. This idea undoubtedly correlates with the general phenomenon or common sensical perception that a man is always the product of his thoughts. For instance, consider this expression, “If you want to be a millionaire, you have to think like a billionaire.” So, it is very important to teach high level thinking skills in our societies today, especially in higher institutions. One of these thinking skills is Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is a disciplined and self-controlled way of thinking which brings out a perfect thinking related to a special domain or form of thinking. According to Doğanay and Ünal3, Critical Thinking comes from the word “reasoning” whose root is “reason” and having its etymology in Latin word “ratio”, which means “balance”. In this context, critical thinking means coming to a balanced decision after studying the previous experiences, information and thoughts. Critical thinking can be summarized as making a judgment after reasoning on a problem or a state (gathering information related to a current state, determining assumptions and evidences, discussing the previously- determined evidences, deducing and synthesizing individually). Critical thinking is generally the process of perceiving the facts objectively; but, the facts may not be what we see. So, Critical Thinking means coming to a decision after analysing the fact wholly with all positive and negative sides that are visible or invisible to us. Critical thinking is the process of reasoning depending on information. It is the process of being rational in our perceptions or thoughts concerning something. Critical Thinking is the means or process of arriving at a decision having wholly analysed significant factors and considered both the positive negative sides to those factors. But, the process of getting information is a crucial one. The Process of Getting Information During this process, it is always necessary to interrogate and/evaluate the source(s) of our information, cross-check the information by means of questioning it in different sources, determine the premises and prejudices. A person who thinks critically is aware of why and how they think. They are not only aware of their own thinking process but they also consider others’ thinking processes. Two of the important concepts that define critical thinking are independent and original thinking. A person who thinks critically does not accept others’ views and thoughts passively without objection or reaction, rather, he/she analyses them and thus creates his/her own independent thought. This sort of independence enabled by critical thinking liberates the mind, heart and actions of a person. Why Critical Thinking? 5 There are significant reasons people should engage in critical thinking some of which shall be outlined below. When information or situations develop and change very quickly, Critical Thinking helps the individual adopt new ideas that could enable them to quickly and immediately find solutions for new problems/challenges. As a matter of fact, educational activities play an important role in growing up such individuals. Such activities play invaluable role in shaping and sharpening our minds and equipping us with the mental strength to confront certain situations. As students, learners, teachers or scholars, we must be very critical of all things in the quest for a new path/knowledge/idea. It is always important to think outside the box for creative and innovative ideas, especially, in dire situations. Critical Thinking also helps us to eliminate the handicaps of passivity, individuals must be enabled to acquire skills to process and assess the information and states which they encounter, thus, adopting them to new situations. For this enablement to be possible, individuals must have to examine the information presented to them instead of just accepting it as it is; they must consider the fact that there is always a possibility for a state or information to change in the future instead of accepting everything as a fact, they must avoid giving up looking for a second way and keep in mind that there may always be an alternative. Intense mental activities are needed for all the processes mentioned above. In fact, it is imperative that individuals who think should be raised for all the possibilities mentioned above for positive outcome. Thinking Process and Critical Thinking Thinking means reasoning, racking brain, having a view, reconsidering it, meditating on a subject; guessing, having in mind; remembering, calling back to mind, imagining, dreaming; worrying, getting anxious, saddening, being troubled; being interested in something, making tiny distinctions; designing, planning; holding a view, thinking in a way; examining, evaluating; keeping all the details in mind; evaluating, supposing, assuming; bringing to mind, etc Thinking is the reflection of the outer world on people’s minds. Moreover, thinking means object and idea that are designed, shaped and imagined mentally, Demir (2006) in Unalan (2006). Thinking is all the intentional mental behaviours geared towards eliminating the situations that disturb the individual in terms of internal or external factors and situations that unbalance the individual physically and psychologically (Kazancı, 1989). Thinking is a process of symbolic mediation. “Mediation” means that thinking fills in the blank between the stimulant event and the behaviour of the individual for this event. In other words, thinking is processing the information about our surrounding (Morgan, 1984). Thinking is generally acknowledged as a complex cognitive process that makes figuration possible while this kind of figuration necessitates information, skill and attitude, and is more effective than instinctive figuration (Gibson, 1998). Thinking is used to describe states of mental process aiming at attracting attention, alerting, imaging, dreaming, looking up in mind, remembering and dreaming of wishes that reflect inner world; mental process that means believing in a certain thing or things, or belief; mental process addressing reasoning, problem solving and criticizing (Thomson, 1969). Thinking is the disciplined form of conceptualization, implementation, analysis and evaluation of information received through observation, experience, instinct, reasoning and other channels (Armay, 1981). 6 Thinking is reaching something with the current information and transferring of the current information to the other one. It is using information in new situations by means of noticing the practicality of the previous information. It is a fact of logic (Yıldırım, 1988). Thinking is to review mental skills in order to shape the ideas and arriving at a decision: reasoning consisting of the logical series of idea is reaching to a certain conclusion through inference and starting from the point that is known or assumed: reflecting one’s backward ideas on a subject or calling quietly-going-on thinking back to mind (Paul, 1995). Map of Thinking Domains Philosophical Approach: It focuses on the norms of thinking well, and the concept of human thinking and mental skills necessary for a realistic and objective world view. Psychological Approach: It focuses on experimental studies which are grounded on thoughts and thinking, individual differences about learning complex views, and the concept of problem solving which is a part of critical thinking. The Relationship between Critical Thinking and other Types of Thinking Low level thinking requires routine and mechanical implementation of information in a simple way. The examples of low level thinking are: memorization exercises such as completing a formula with numbers or listing the remembered information. On the other hand, high level thinking requires students to manipulate information when they come across a problem or question that is difficult to solve by means of interpretation, analysis or routine implementation of the previously learnt information (Mirioğlu, 2002). This involves taking charge/control of situations by applying acquired knowledge Types of Thinking and Relationship between Different Thinking Skills A Critical Thinking Purpose: To evaluate the opposite states or clarity of ideas. Thinking Skills: Helps in defining states or ideas, analyzing opposite views, evaluating evidences. Relationship between Them: Critical Thinking is needed for all thinking skills. B Creative Thinking Purpose: To produce new ideas and products. Thinking Skills: Helps in determining ideas, restructuring the problem, determining new possibilities. Relationship between Them: The newly created product which has been produced through creative thinking is evaluated by means of critical thinking. C Decision Making Purpose: To make informed decisions. Thinking Skills: Thinking the Information through, defining the alternatives and making a strong and final decision. Relationship between Them: Critical Thinking is one of the basic processes necessary for making a decision. D Problem Solving Purpose: To find one or more solutions to a problem. Thinking Skills: Defining, explaining, choosing, implementing and evaluating a strategy Relationship between Them: while problem solving starts with a problem, Critical Thinking encompasses evaluation of all information, ideas and events that one comes across. (Source: Mehmet Kaan Demir, 2006:43) 7 Different Opinions of Scholars on Critical Thinking Bittner and Tobin state that the process of critical thinking is multi-dimensional and they compare critical thinking to an umbrella under which there are different types of thinking depending on the situation. According to Skinner (1976), the concepts such as “scientific method,” “scientific thinking,” “reflective thinking,” “productive thinking” and “critical thinking” which are often used in books and articles have the same meaning although there are some tiny differences between them. Critical thinking cannot be equated with other types of thinking. Although it is a part of making a decision, it cannot be deemed to be just decision-making. It is also not only a brainstorm. According to Kazancı (1989), all types of thinking generally necessitate criticism to some extent. Almost none of the types of thinking can do without the help of mental activities used during criticism. The Qualities of Teaching Critical Thinking 1. Teaching critical thinking can be achieved easily without needing much equipment in terms of technology and physical conditions. 2. Critical thinking can be implemented by all of the teachers having the principles and methods to it. 3. As it requires all the students to participate, teaching activities take much time. 4. The attitudes and tendencies of students at the beginning of teaching critical thinking are important. So, before teaching critical thinking, some activities that will enable students to gain positive attitudes in terms of critical thinking should be done first. 5. Teaching Critical Thinking depends on students’ activities. The students should definitely be active about learning. 6. Teaching should be carried out through intentional, goal-oriented and well-designed activities. 7. It can be taught at all ages and levels. The teacher should be careful about which critical thinking strategies and skills should be taught at which level and age. 8. All subjects are suitable for teaching critical thinking. However, critical thinking strategies and skills which are more suitable for each subject should be chosen carefully. 9. In teaching critical thinking, out-of-school contents can also be used as well as lesson contents. 10. In teaching critical thinking, teaching through research and study, strategy of collaborative learning, group discussion and problem-solving activities can be used. Strategies of Critical Thinking There are some qualities that differentiate critical thinking from other types of thinking. These qualities are very important in teaching critical thinking skills as well as determining and evaluating the form of thinking that the individual presents. The qualities of critical thinking can get clearer by means of thirty-five critical thinking strategies which are divided into three main groups by Paul, R. W., A. Binker, K. Jensen. H. Kreklau. (1990). These strategies are listed in thirty-five different dimensions as below: Affective Strategies – Mental Habits S-1: Independent thinking S-2: Developing egocentric or socio-centric insights S-3: Realizing objective thinking S-4: Understanding the relationship between feelings and thoughts S-5: Developing mental modesty and delaying judgment 8 S-6: Developing mental bravery S-7: Developing mental good faith and honesty S-8: Developing mental tenacity S-9: Developing trust in thinking skill Cognitive Strategies – Macro Skills S-10: Clearing up generalizations and avoiding disturbing their meaning through simplifying S-11: Comparing similar states: Transferring insights into new contexts S-12: Developing the individual's perspective: Creating/Exploring beliefs, views, theories S-13: Clearing up problems, results or beliefs S-14: Clearing up and analysing words or word phrases S-15: Developing standards for evaluation: Clearing up values and standards S-16: Evaluating the credibility of information sources S-17: Asking basic and important questions, ensuring the continuity of questions S-18: Analysing or evaluating views, interpretations, beliefs, theories S-19: Producing solutions or evaluating solutions S-20: Analysing or evaluating activities or policies S-21: Critical reading, clearing up or probing texts S-22: Critical listening S-23: Establishing relationships between disciplines S-24: Implementing Socratic discussion S-25: Thinking in terms of dialogues S-26: Dialectical reasoning Cognitive Strategies – Micro Skills S-27: Comparing and differentiating real implementations and ideals S-28: Thinking perfect about thinking: Using critical vocabulary S-29: Paying attention to important similarities and differences S-30: Probing and evaluating premises S-31: Differentiating related events from unrelated ones S-32: Creating rational inferences, estimates and remarks S-33: Evaluating evidences and claimed events S-34: Noticing contradictions S-35: Exploring products and results. Critical Thinking Skills In teaching critical thinking, some skills should be taught besides critical thinking strategies. Although these skills are used together and within each other during thinking process, these skills can be addressed under separate titles in order to make it easier to teach these skills. According to Swartz and Park (1994), these skills are: A. Reliability of Sources B. Causal Explanation C. Prediction D. Generalization E. Reasoning by Analogy F. Conditional Reasoning 9 These skills can be taught in teaching lesson contents through the approach of integrating to the subject or through using contents apart from specific subject matters with a skill-based approach. Paul (1984) accepts critical thinking as a set of integrated macro mental skills. Similarly, Facione (1990) accepts critical thinking as cognitive skills such as interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation and self-discipline. Ennis (1991: 68-71) classifies the critical thinking skills as stated below. Clearing Up Skills: Focusing on a question Analysing discussions Asking various questions at various levels in order to clear up the states Supporting Skills Judging the reliability of a source Judging observation reports Inference Skills Being able to make inferences from the current data Being able to think deductively (thinking from general to specific) Being able to create value judgments High-level Clearing Up skills Being able to define the terms and judge the definitions Being able to determine the premises. Significant Qualities of Critical Thinking 1. Evaluating prejudice and consistency, 2. Differentiating primary and secondary sources, 3. Evaluating inferences and their causes, 4. Differentiating premises, ideas and claims, 5. Noticing the deficiencies of the argument and uncertainties of explanations, 6. Evaluating the sufficiency of definitions and suitability of results (Özden, 2002) Opinions of Scholars Watson and Glaser address the critical thinking skills as defining a problem, determining the suitable alternatives or strong premises for the solution, inferring available results for the solution and evaluating them, and they explain these skills as below: Inference: It can be defined as reasoning, getting a new information from the current state or information, deducing from the proposals that are known to be true. Noticing premises: Premise is defined as “theoretical proposal that has to be confirmed practically” (Hançerlioğlu, 1994). Noticing premises is the skill of knowing structured and unstructured premises, deciding whether a premise inferred from a given state can really be inferred from that state Deduction: “Through deduction, new proposals that necessarily come from true proposals or proposals that are thought to be true are produced. If the initials are true in this process, the result is logically true.” Interpretation: Evaluating the evidences related to a state, inferring valid result depending on these evidences or from the information related to the state, deciding whether the inferred results are true or false. Evaluation of discussions: The power of determining the weaknesses or strengths of the necessary inferences or statements about this situation. According to (Richetti and Tregoe 2001:, Sternberg and Spear-Swerling 1996), effective thinking skills are as below30: 10 1. Observing 2. Defining problems 3. Defining relations, premises, mistakes of reasoning, cause and effect relation, mistakes of logic, prejudices, charts 4. Classifying and developing standards 5. Comparing and contrasting 6. Making inferences and interpretations 7. Summarizing 8. Making analysis, synthesis and generalizations 9. Creating and imagining hypothesis 10. Differentiating related information from the unrelated one, verifiable information from unverifiable one. References Armay, U. (1981). Bilimsel Araştırma El Kitabı. İstanbul. Kültür Matbaacılık. Demir, M.K. (2006). Demokrasi Eğitimi ve Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Demokratik Davranışları. National Congress of Primary School Teaching Bulletin Book 1. Volume. Ankara. Kök Yayıncılık. Doğanay, A., Ü. Figen. (2006). Eleştirel Düşünmenin Öğretimi. Ali, Şimşek (Editor) Teaching Based on the Type of Content. Ankara. Nobel Yayın-Dağıtım. Ennis, R. H. (1991). Goals for a Critical Thinking Curriculum. A. Costa (editör). Developing Minds, Volume 1. Alexandria: Virinia. Ascd. Gibson, C. (1998). Teaching Strategies: A Guide To Better Instruction. Usa. Orlichharder Collation. Kazancı, O. (1989). Eğitimde Eleştirici Düşünme ve Öğretimi. İstanbul: Kazancı Kitap Aş. Mirioğlu, M. (2002). The Relationship Between Proficiency in A Foreign Language and Critical Thinking Skills. Adana: Çukurova University Institute of Social Sciences (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Morgan, C. T. (1984). Psikolojiye Giriş. (Translated by Sibel Karakaş and OÖzden, Y. (1998). Öğrenme ve Öğretme. Ankara. Second Edition. Pegema Yayıncılık. Paul, W. R. (1995). Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Chaning World. Paul, R. W., A. Binker, K. Jensen. H. Kreklau. (1990). Critical Thinking Handbook: 4. – 6. Grades A Guide for Remodelling Lesson Plans in Language Arts, Social Studies and Science. Rohnert Park, Ca, Foundation for Critical Thinking. Shania State University. Swartz, R., J.S. Parks (1994). Infusing the Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinkinginto Content Instruction. USA. The Critical Thinking Co. Thomson, R. (1969). The Psychology of Thinking. Maryland: Penguin Books. Yıldırım, C. (1988). Eğitim Felsefesi. Eskişehir: Anadolu University Faculty of Open University. 11 CHAPTER TWO PREREQUISITE STRUCTURES AND GENERAL APPROACHES TO CRITICAL THINKING Uche Nnyagu, PhD Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Prerequisite Structures Necessary for Critical Thinking In communication, the aim is basically to pass information across. Obviously, every utterance contains information, but the intended information cannot be hewed out of the utterance if the receiver (reader or the listener) does not sieve the collocation as to get the expected message. This process is not possible without the listener or the reader engaging in critical thinking. Critical thinking, therefore, is a systematic evaluation and analysis of information and ideas to form a judgment or decision. It is a process in communication that entails the receiver trying to decode what has been encoded by the giver (speaker or the listener), with the aim to arrive at the expected message. Critical thinking is something that should be taken very seriously if quality learning must take place. This chapter delves into the pedagogical aspect of critical thinking with the aim to point out the requirements necessary for proper teaching of the concept. It should be pointed out at this point that for critical thinking skills to be developed, critical thinking training should start at early ages. This is the period when the mind of the child is still developing and any knowledge acquired in this age almost becomes indelible in the mind of the individual. If critical thinking skills are taught in early stage, learning becomes easier for the individuals as they grow. Scholars believe that when this is done early enough, the individual will structure his or her own habits, ways of thinking and attitudes related to thinking. According to Richard Paul critical thinking is classified it into two dimensions: Critical Thinking Skills and Critical Thinking Habits. Critical Thinking Skills: This dimension, as postulated by Paul, encompasses the cognitive abilities and techniques used to analyse, evaluate, and construct arguments, such as: - identifying biases and assumptions - Analysing arguments and evidences - Recognizing ambiguity and uncertainty. - Making sound inferences and deductions. Critical Thinking Habits This dimension involves the consistent and intentional application of critical thinking skills in everyday life. It includes: - A commitment to intellectual curiosity and lifelong learning - A willingness to question assumptions and challenge prevailing views - A tendency to approach problems and decisions with a critical and open-minded attitude. Allowing the mind to attain positive attitudes and habits makes it easier to use skills and strategies. For example, the fact that one has attitudes and habits such as being open to alternatives, empathizing and being open-minded will make one to pay attention to different views in the process of getting information. Three Important Attitudes Toward Critical Thinking The first is to be ready for and enthusiastic about reasoning. People should perceive the need of making sense of their experiences as a requirement. 12 The second attitude is the desire to struggle. People ought to develop thinking habits by means of producing thoughts against their own thoughts. In other words, they should examine their own thoughts. Critical Thinkers should desire to come to a conclusion through considering contrasting thoughts while they are shaping their own thoughts. Critical thinking demands that the learner, should be free-minded. Fisher (1995) suggests how to be free-minded to include the below: By making decisions and taking the evidences and evaluating evidences as the basis. Considering the thoughts that contrast with one’s own decisions and thoughts. Being open to others’ thoughts that contrast with one’s own thoughts. Always keeping in mind, the possibility of being wrong. Four Basic Approaches to Teaching Critical Thinking While educators agree on the importance of developing critical thinking skills within educational systems, there is no common view about how to teach these skills. However, to ensure understanding and appreciation of Critical thinking, below are the four major approaches that must be considered while teaching critical approach: A. Subject-Based Educational Approach: B. Integrating-to-the-Subject Approach, C. General Approach (Skill-Based Approach), D. Blended Learning Approach A. Subject-Based Educational Approach: This approach defended by Glaser (1984) and McPeck (1981) envisages that critical thinking should be taught together with the content planned to be taught. According to this approach, the principles and rules of critical thinking are clearly presented to the students in parallel to content unit. Integrating-to-the-Subject Approach This approach, integrating-to-the-Subject Approach (Content-Based Critical Thinking Teaching) entails focusing on a specific subject as to delve deeper into the topics. Although this approach is similar to the first approach, it envisages integrating content unit and critical thinking principles and rules. However, these rules and principles are not presented explicitly. On the other hand, some thinkers and educators do not agree. John McPeck, an American philosopher and educator, is of the view that critical thinking begins with a problem or question that needs to be addressed. According to him, it involves actively seeking information, asking questions, and exploring possibilities. Critical thinking therefore requires breaking down complex information into smaller parts, examining relationships and identifying patterns. To him, since good reasoning is dependent upon the epistemological and logical norms of subject field, critical thinking may change from one field to another. Scholars are of the view that it is more meaningful to teach critical thinking skills through integrating it to the subject field instead of teaching independently from the field. Resnick (1987), Pauker (1987), Vincent Ryan Ruggiero (1988), Paul (2001) and Elder (2001) are some of educators whose study on critical thinking claim that critical thinking should be taught with an approach that envisages integrating the subject. According to Paul and Elder a good critical thinking demands the below: All thinkings have a goal. All thinkings focus on at least one question. All thinkings require information. All thinkings require concepts. 13 All thinkings include inferences. All thinkings include some premises. All thinkings include perspectives. All thinkings include a point of view. General Approach or Skill Based Teaching of Critical Thinking Skill-Based Teaching (General Approach) is structured completely different from subject-based teaching. Critical thinking skills have the characteristics of a skill-based programme which has been developed depending on a non-school context apart from the contents presented at school. Kruse and Prenssesisen (1987) and Sternburg and Bhanaar are advocats of this approach. Skill-based Teaching of Critical Thinking Ennis (1991), one of the pioneers of critical thinking, states that there are twelve dimensions of critical thinking, and that these are teachable and transferrable skills. Critical thinking should be taught through a skill-based approach. When critical thinking is taught through a skill-based approach, repetitions of basic disciplines within the subject are avoided while it gets easier to apply the attained cognitive skills to other lessons and to support these skills by these lessons. Skill-based Approach A skill-based approach is a method of training or developing individuals and it focuses on specific skill and competencies required for a particular job or task and not based on qualifications gained through schools. In this approach, skills are clearly defined and identified as necessary for success rather than qualification. This entails that individuals are appraised based on demonstrated skills rather than the certificates they possess. This approach helps in improving job perfection and productivity as individuals’ capacities have been ascertained based on their demonstrated skills. One of the educators who claim that critical thinking should be taught through a skill-based approach is Matthew Lipman. According to Lipman (cited in Fisher, 1995), thinking is made up of individual skills and one should start to teach critical thinking with these skills. According to Lipman, when critical thinking is taught with a content-based approach, subjects get attention and critical thinking skills are ignored during the lesson. Thus, the development of such critical thinking skills of the students are limited. Although the programme offered by Lipman is basically designed for elementary school pupils, it can be adapted to all levels of education. Lipman believes that a skill-based approach to teaching philosophy involves focusing on the development of critical thinking problem-solving and communication. Methods to be Followed in Teaching Critical Thinking As I have stated earlier in this chapter, critical thinking entails the systematic evaluation and analysis of information and ideas to form a judgment. Here, facts are separated from biases and ideas statements and inferences are sieved to arrive at a comprehensive understanding. Swartz and Parks believe that for the importance of critical thinking, its method of teaching should be taken seriously. He suggested methods to follow in teaching critical thinking to include: 1. Encourage Active Learning: Here, the students are engaged in discussions, debates, and problem-solving activities. 2. Use Open-Ended Questions: The students are posed with certain questions that would prompt them to think deeply and explore different perspectives. 3. Forster a Growth Mindset: The fact that critical thinking skills can be developed over time is emphasised. 4. Model Critical Thinking: The teacher demonstrates critical thinking skills behaviours such as questioning. 14 5. Encourage Collaboration: Here, students are paired here to work together for actualization of result. Processes to follow for Actualization of Goal: Thinking Skill or Process: It is important to define the thinking skills or processes that the students are going to learn Methods and Materials: Using Teaching Methods in order to Teach Thinking Process Effectively Strategy of structured questioning Tables of organizing data Collaborative learning comprising small group works Explaining the thinking process directly or inductively Cognitive Maps (pictures or drawing) produced by students Active Thinking Process An active thinking process involves engaging with information or a situation in a systematic manner with the aim to deepen understanding and solve a problem effectively. It includes verbal messages and graphic maps (tables of organizing data). Students should be helped with thinking activities through verbal messages and tables of organizing data. They are directly asked questions to explain their own way of thinking. The prepared cognitive maps guide the formation of questions that will be asked to the students. Students explain which way of thinking they use, how they do this and how they can display (reflect) this thinking skill. Applying Thinking to Other Fields and Daily Life Critical thinking can be applied to various fields and daily life in various ways including: 1. Decision making 2. Problem-solving 3. Science and research 4. Media literacy 5. Health and wellness 6. Personal finance 7. Education 8. Relationship 9. Environmental issues 10. Ethics and morality Learning and Skill Transfer Skill transfer is a means of taking what has been learnt and using it in a very practical way in order to achieve a goal. It entails the process of applying the skills learnt, activities or any form of knowledge in a new context, or situation. Scholars identify the below as the types of transfer 1. Instant Transferring: Instant transfer occurs when learners apply what they have learnt immediately after it has been learnt. It is a short-term application which is demonstrated immediately after it has been learnt often in a controlled environment. 2. Immediate transfers: Immediate transfer happens when learners apply what they have learnt within a relative short period after it has been learnt often in a similar environment. It is a relative short-term application of newly acquired skill or knowledge 3. Distant Transfer: This transfer is also known as far transfer and it occurs when learners apply what they have learnt in a new and unfamiliar context after quite a long period has passed. It is therefore, a long-term application as it didn’t take place immediately after it was acquired. Distant transfer is considered ultimate goal of learning as it demonstrates the ability to apply knowledge easily and naturally in real word situations. 15 Statements and activities of teachers should be diminished while students’ activities are increased in both kinds of transfers. The Role of the Teacher in Teaching Critical Thinking Teachers have very serious roles to play to ensure that the learners acquire necessary skills. One of the most important things that a teacher can do in class is to make students able to notice their own operating cognitive processes which means that students can form their own opinions regardless of the subject and level of the class. The teacher is like a pilot at the helm of a plane, the fate of the crews to a great extent, lies in the hands of the pilot. In the same vein, the fate of the learners lies in the hands of the teachers. If a child is wrongly taught by the teacher, the negative effect lives with the learner for so long. This is why the teacher needs to be very meticulous with his or her roles for positive acquisition of knowledge by the learner. For better learning of critical thinking, below are two major roles of the teacher in teaching critical thinking: The teacher should have the students attain the skills of learning how to learn and think. The students should be able to try thinking, classifying and comparing, defining the wrong things about their thinking and correcting their own mistakes by themselves. Teachers are both planners of learning-teaching activities and organizer of the classroom environment. Oppressive and authoritative environments prevent learning to take place in class. Over oppression, fear and excitement cause some hormones to be excreted more in the brain, and this causes mental processes to slow down. Demirel and Şahinel go further to advance more points he believed that would further enhance teaching critical thinking as below: Encourage Active learning: The teacher should engage students in discussions, debates and problem-solving activities to foster critical thinking. Use Open-Ended Questions: The students should be asked questions that would prompt them to think deeply. Emphasize Inquiry-Based Learning: The teacher should encourage students to explore and make investigations on topics taught. They should be encouraged to research further on the topic as that would enhance understanding. Forster a Supportive Learning Environment: It has to be understood that environment is a major contributing factor to learning. Therefore, to ensure better learning, a safe and inclusive space for students to share ideas should be enabled. Model Critical Thinking: As a student eager to learn, you must demonstrate critical thinking skills yourself. The best way to learn is by observation so as a student, you observe and demonstrate the positive learning you have observed. Encourage Feedback, Not Answers: As a teacher, encourage the students by guiding them to towards finding solutions and understanding concepts rather than providing straightforward answers. In the light of these understandings, a teacher: should let students participate in determining the classroom activities and even their goals through discussion and preference. should let students ground their own ways of behaving on their own decisions in a gradually increasing manner and should prepare opportunities for them. should display some certain ways of behaviours to the students through examples, criticism and explanations or have the students do them instead of repeating the necessity of these behaviours, should give students chance of revealing, improving and making use of their abilities as an individual. 16 should work with students in a nice environment collaboratively through encouraging student participation and individual initiative. How to Move from the usual Thinking to Critical Thinking A teacher should arrange educational activities that go: 1. from assuming to hazarding guesses 2. from preferring to evaluating 3. from grouping to classifying 4. from believing to supposing 5. from mere deducing to logical deducing 6. from remembering concepts to perceiving principles 7. from giving importance to relations to giving importance to relations between relations 8. from presuming to hypothesizing 9. from Suggesting without thinking to presenting an opinion after thinking 10. from judging without evaluating with standards to judging through evaluating with standards. To Facilitate Critical Thinking, a Teacher Must do the following: Cause a mental transformation in students Be able to go beyond course books and course plans. Transforming the atmosphere of the class ensuring a class free of violence and force. Carry out all educational activities considering human rights, respecting students and their opinions, for example, giving students time to think, decide, express their opinions. Use interactive methods, understand and believe in the students’ contribution to the critical thinking skills. Correlate information and life. Participate in the discussions in class without being bossy. Demonstrate capacity to facilitate critical thinking skills Should not humiliate students by means of using age, status and position of being a teacher (in other words, not misusing power). Be aware of the fact that one can force his/her own opinion involuntarily. Thinking reflectively about topics and themes Set goals among students in the class Dialogue reflectively with colleagues or student about issues. Create a conducive atmosphere that enables interaction in class. Advantages of Teaching Critical Thinking 1. It ensures the subjects are learnt thoroughly. 2. Learning thoroughly creates interest in and motivation about the subject in the student. 3. It increases the level of active participation of students to a great extent. 4. It facilitates transferring of the learnt skills and subjects to other lessons and life. 5. In-class communication and interaction increases as a result of attaining skills. 6. Teaching critical thinking skills contributes to creating a democratic atmosphere in class. 7. It contributes to the socialization of students. 8. It helps the students to develop self-evaluation skills. 9. Especially in skill-based teaching, choosing extracurricular subjects helps students to be more active in class. Challenges/Difficulties in Teaching Critical Thinking 1. There is usually a need for an orientation period in order to properly teach critical thinking. 17 2. The teachers should be well-trained about teaching critical thinking skills. 3. It requires a good planning. This planning should be composed of a yearly plan that covers a whole educational year and daily plans that show how to get students attain the critical thinking skill in each lesson. These plans may require to be prepared by people having specialized in critical thinking especially in our country until teaching critical thinking becomes widespread. 4. Stationery expense is more than usual activities. 5. Critical thinking activities take longer time. 6. Teaching critical thinking should be spread over a long period of time. Teaching critical thinking should be planned with a spiral sense that is distributed to all levels of education starting from pre-school period instead of teaching in one or a few years Works Cited Bittner, N., and Fisher, R. Teaching Children to Think. Stanley Thornes Publishers, 2006. Demirel, O, & Sahin, M. “Critical Thinking in Education: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of Educational and Instructional Studies in the World. 7(2), 2017105 – 115. Ennis, R. H. Critical Thinking: a Streem of Thought. Routledge, 2018. Gibson, C. Teaching Strategies: A Guide to Better Instruction. Orlichharder, 1998. Glaser, E. M. & McPeck, J. E. “Critical Thinking and the Education of the Gifted” in Gifted Child Quarterly, 27(2), 1983, 34 -35. Kruse, S. D. & Prenssissen, K. “Fostering Critical Thinking in the Classroom: The Clearing House” in A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 88 (4), 2015, 119 – 124. Lipman, M. Thinking in Education (1991) (cited in Fisher, A. Critical Thinking: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Paul, R. W, & Elder, L. “Critical Thinking: The Nature of Critical and Creative Thought” in Journal of Developmental Education 30(2), 2006, 34 – 35. Pauker, R. “Critical Thinking: A Review of Literature.” in Journal of Educational Psychology 79(3), 1987, 302 – 311. Sternberg, R, J. & Bhana, K. Critical Thinking in the Classroom: a Practical Approach. Routledge, 2018. 18 CHAPTER THREE INTRODUCTION TO READING AND READING SKILLS Ngozi Dora Ulogu, PhD Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Reading gives us a place to go when we have to stay where we are. Introduction The volume of information in the world is rapidly increasing, and the ability to read critically becomes central to education. Reading critically helps one make good choices, evaluate what to read and understand key points. Some native speakers cannot read or write but they speak English fluently. Reading is something that one can do which greatly broadens ones vocabulary. Reading is the third out of the four main language skills alongside listening, speaking and writing. Reading helps in speaking, and in listening and writing and it is therefore a highly valuable skill and activity. It is therefore, recommended that students and English language learners try to read as much English reading texts as possible. This chapter introduces us to the different definitions of reading and reading skills. Definitions of Reading There are many definitions of reading, some which include: i. Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to arrive at meaning. ii. Reading is an active process of constructing meanings of words. iii. Reading is a receptive skill that allows us to receive information. iv. Reading is the process of looking at written symbols and letters and understanding the meaning of them. v. Reading is making meaning from print. vi. Reading is the process of looking at a series of written symbols and getting meaning from them. vii. Reading is when someone looks into a written text and starts to absorb the information from the written linguistic message. Reading is therefore a mental process. Reading entails the use of vision to understand several words in a sentence and make them meaningful. When we read, we use our eyes to receive written symbols such as letters, punctuation marks and spaces, and we use our brain to convert them into words, sentences and paragraphs that communicate something to us. Perceiving a written text in order to understand its contents can be done silently in for of silent reading, while the understanding that results from it is called reading comprehension. When we say a written text aloud, it is called oral reading. This can be done with or without understanding of the content. Reading words accurately is complex, it requires the integration of visual, auditory, and cognitive skills. Why is Reading Important? A lot of benefits accrue from reading, these include. I. Reading provides access to a wealth of information that wasn't accessible to the reader before. 2. Reading helps the reader to learn and discover new things as well as widen vocabulary. 19 3. Reading provides access to stories from around the world. These stories help to shape people and make them more empathetic. Reading stories lets us step into somebody else's shoes and presents us a new perspective of the world that we might have never seen or even considered before. 4. Improves vocabulary and writing skills. 5. Improves memory, boosts knowledge and brainpower. 6. Improves focus and concentration and increases imagination and creativity. To be able to read, we need to be able to: identify the words we see (word recognition); understand what they mean (comprehension); connect words and their meaning so that reading is automatic and accurate (fluency). A reader can also identify words without understanding the meaning of them. This can happen when a new word is encountered. It's possible to decode it and sound it out, but the only way to make meaning from it is to look at the context in which the word is used or to look up the definition of it in a dictionary or on the Internet. However, in some cases, it is impossible to make any meaning from new words encountered in the course of reading. The Simple View of Reading: Accurate, Fluent Reading Learning to read consists of developing skills in two critical areas: Reading each word in texts accurately and fluently and, comprehending the meaning of texts being read. This is known as the Simple View of Reading. Reading Accurately To read words accurately and fluently, involves strategies to read words that have never been seen before in print as well as words that have not been previously encountered. To understand the meaning of texts, students must have sufficient language comprehension skills. For example, if a text says, "the little dog barked at the big cat," a proficient reader must be able to read each word accurately and also know what the words mean in this specific sentence. Learning these skills does not come naturally. Both accurate word reading and text comprehension require careful, systematic instruction. Reading words accurately is complex, it requires the integration of visual, auditory, and cognitive skills. For example, reading the word “cat” accurately in print requires the following: Seeing each letter (three different letters in “cat”—visual acuity); Producing the sound each letter makes (in “cat,” each letter makes a distinct sound— auditory perception); Putting the individual sounds together to pronounce the word (the three sounds are put together quickly to produce “cat”—a cognitive skill). Fluency improves as students become familiar with seeing the same words in print over and over. They begin to recognize these words automatically and can pronounce them quickly and easily. Reading words accurately with increased fluency helps set the stage for figuring out what the text means. Reading “dig” for “dog” or “baked” for “barked,” or not having any idea how to accurately read or decode these words hinders comprehension. 20 Comprehending the Meaning of Text To understand the example sentence about “dogs and cats,” students must know what dogs and cats are. They must know what “bark” means and understand that “little” and “big” refer to size concepts. Background knowledge also assists comprehension. Understanding will be improved if students know something about why a dog might bark at a cat, which the sentence does not say explicitly. Students might also sense the irony of a little dog barking at a big cat. Reading Comprehension Strategies: Skimming and Scanning These reading techniques are skills that help students, needing to get information from the written texts access the required information more effectively. They are fast reading abilities but in effect different methods, serving different purposes. Skimming Skimming is a speed-reading technique whereby the reader browses through the reading material to look for main or general ideas in a text without going into detailed and exhaustive reading. In skimming, a reader reads only important information, but not everything. Skimming is like lifting the cream off the top of the milk or the fat off the top of the liquid. The skimmer only takes the top part of the liquid. In skimming, the reader reads the first passage or the introduction, to know what the topic is all about. Then, reads the first one or two sentences of the following paragraphs as well as the concluding sentence. Here the reader gauges the direction of the explanation or arguments and aims to pick up the broader concepts and significance of the text. The last paragraph contains a conclusion or summary. Advantages of Skimming Helps to source relevant information in texts and articles quickly. It helps to save time. It is an excellent technique to review a lot of practice material for an upcoming test or competitive exam. Scanning Scanning is a reading skill that enables the reader to look for a specific piece of information within an item of text. Scanning is called search-reading. It can be used to locate specific facts, words or details in a particular text. Here, a reader focuses his attention on the reading activity with the sole aim of getting the required information. For example, a reader can scan for a particular number in a phone directory, or a name on a list. The scanner has the key words in mind as they scan the list. The reader focuses on the information being looked for and turns to the section of the book, chapter, newspaper or magazine where the information is likely to be seen. The search ends as soon as the information is reached. Extensive Reading Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment or leisure. Extensive Reading” or “ER” for short, is an approach to language learning that encourages students to read a large number of books, or other reading material, that is relatively easy for them to understand. In this type of reading, readers do not read to acquire specific information, rather, they read in order to acquire general knowledge. These are the benefits of extensive reading: 21 Extensive reading enhances general language competence.... Extensive reading helps develop general knowledge. Extensive reading extends, consolidates and sustains vocabulary growth. Helps readers to read widely both the text pertaining to their discipline and those outside their discipline. Increases the amount of material one reads Increases one’s reading speed by reading widely. It creates Pleasure and relaxation; Intensive Reading Intensive reading involves the detailed reading of texts with the two goals of. Understanding the text and learning language features through a deliberate focus on these items. Typically, the text chosen for intensive reading is one that the learners would have difficulty in reading unassisted, or short texts that are read thoroughly and with clear goals, such as to answer comprehension questions. Intensive reading is known: i. To develop one’s ability to think critically and improve analytical skills. ii. To have a positive effect on vocabulary development and grammatical knowledge and understanding. iii. It is a great tool for improving fluency and reading speed. iv. To understand subject matter, and the authors’ intentions. v. Learning new skills such as making inferences and identifying main ideas vi. Paying attention to text features such as genre structure and cohesion. Critical Reading Critical reading is a more active way of reading. It is a deeper and more complex engagement with a text. It is a process of analysing, interpreting and, sometimes, evaluating. When we read critically, we use our critical thinking skills to question both the text and our own reading of it. Different disciplines may have distinctive modes of critical reading (scientific, philosophical, literary, etc). Learning how to read critically involves becoming actively engaged in what you read by first developing a clear understanding of the author's ideas, then questioning and evaluating the arguments and evidence provided to support those arguments, and finally by forming your own opinions. It implies also judging the writer in terms of your own personal standards and understanding. You work at such issues as: Is the author biased. Is he telling the truth? Is he knowledgeable in the subject? Has he said all he is supposed to say: if not, why? It involves full concentration and makes the reader a perfect intellectual. It leads to innovation, invention or propounding of a theory or principle. It helps judge the author’s character and level of education. Conclusion Reading is a receptive skill through which information is received. Reading involves a complex integration of skills. Proficient readers seem to make the process look effortless but reading instruction for all students requires systematic instruction in both word reading and comprehension. Readers need different techniques to develop their reading skills. Developing 22 appropriate reading skills minimizes waste of time and energy. For students in the early stages of reading, or for those who struggle, reading is particularly difficult and requires careful instruction and intervention. Problem areas must be determined, and instruction and intervention to address these areas must be carefully planned and delivered as contained in this discourse. References Agha, Bahn. Reading Principles. https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/3/3_2021_05_ 09!11_44_51_PM.pdf. Accessed, 24/7/24 English Club. What is Reading? https://www.englishclub.com/reading/what.php Koaah, Jeremy. What is intensive reading? EduMaxi. https://www.edumaxi.com/blog/what-is- intensive-reading. Accessed, 24/7/24. Odinye, Ifeoma Ezinne and Akujiobi, Odochi Silver. Basic English for Academic Competence, GST 102. School of General Studies, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. FAB. Anieh, Nig. Ltd. 2021. “Reading”. National Centre on Improving Literacy. https://improvingliteracy.org/brief/learning- read-simple-view-reading/index.html. Accessed, 24/7/24 Stetson Universiy. Reading Critically. https://www.stetson.edu/other/writing-program/media program/media/CRITICAL%20READING.pdf. Accessed, 24/7/24 23 CHAPTER FOUR READING READINESS Sylvanus Chimenka Onyeachulam PhD Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka This is the third language skill. it is usually acquired formally that is taught within the classroom /school environment. It involves getting information from books and sources on specific items studied /read. The reader tries to understand the material reads hence it forms another basic study activity. Reading Readiness (Psychological Preparation) This is the stage in which a learner is psychologically prepared to learn immediately and without delay from what he has seen or found in writing or printing. When the learner is prepared to acquire the necessary knowledge or skills in a book or recommended text to become acquainted with or look over the content of a book immediately. To peruse, check or study so as to know the hidden knowledge in a book or printed material. It can also be seen as the stage in which the teacher prepares the student to start reading or studying to acquire the knowledge in a writing or printed material or book. The language experience is one way to create reading readiness. However, there are things to be done before actual reading starts, usually called pre – reading. Even reading readiness is seen as first stage of pre- reading. Here the teacher and the learner get the necessary material - books, pictures, object etc. And the guidelines / rules to be adopted for effective reading and understanding. Pre –Reading Activities /Skills These are things done, guidelines followed to help the learner acquire the habit of reading with the concentration and understanding, means of preparing a learner for proper and worthwhile studying habits. Some of these habits are: i. Listening: Paying maximum attention during studies / discussion ii. Identifying Learning Materials: The teacher and the learner identify the books, pictures, object etc. for use and how they are used. iii. Modelling: The learner watches and imitate the teacher in reading the words / names of pictures, object and other learning materials. They work or act in imitation 0f a particular form, pattern, fashion or model learning techniques / habit designed by the teacher, their role model. iv. Recognition and association: The ability to recognize the letters, words, shapes, colours, different sizes, symbols, expressions, (phrases, clauses, sentences) and associate them with object, pictures, printed letters, sounds, activities, etc. v. Formation of letters into words and expressions. vi. Accurate /good pronunciation of words. vii. Posture and places: the learners are taught and shown good reading passages or positions, places, corners and situations that will help them concentrate and understand what is read. Bad Reading Habits According to Ogbazi, Osakwe and Ekpunobi in there book titled ‘English For Communicative Competence’ listed the following as bad reading habits : 24 a. Pointing at Words: This means using finger, ruler, pencil or stick to point at the words we read. The balls of the eyes are supposed to move fast along the lines of print. If we use a ruler i.e. we want eyes to move slowly as does the finger or ruler, attention is focused on the location of words rather than on their meaning b. Head Movement: When we read it is faulty to move the head sideways along the lines of prints. It is only the ball of the eyes supposed to move. Moving the head strains, the muscles and makes the reader tired and bored. c. Regression: making backward movement along the same line of print is referred as to regression. Constant repetition of words can be caused by dizziness or tiredness either caused by excessive reading, regression can be purposeful if the reader comes across important and good point. d. Vocalisation: Vocalization is pronouncing words to yourself while reading. When vocalizing entails you are talking, thereby reducing the speed of your reading. e. Sub-Vocalisation: In this case the lips and tongues are intact and no movement but inside the reader, speech is made to himself. f. Word to Word Reading: Word by word means one engaging in excessive word analysis. g. Flexibility: When one reads all materials in exactly the same way weather bible, newspapers etc. This are some people who are really rigid in their approach to reading and they read by word. Flexibility in reading means you read certain materials like literature faster than you will read Mathematics, Chemistry etc. h. Lack of Motivation: Lack of urge to do something in a better way like lack of interest to read When you are eager to get a good grade in your B.A or BSC degree is a great motivation for reading. To pass your exam is a great motivation but social media including WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook, telegram etc. has caused students to lack interest in reading. (pg. 284 – 286) Barriers to Effective Reading Some major causes of poor reading ability are difficult text, limited vocabulary, working memory deficit, and more. People may also have trouble with comprehension due to boredom or disinterest in what they are reading. Speed reading has proven to help deal with poor reading and comprehension skills. The following are the main factors that hinder reading comprehension. These are classified thus” Language Barrier, cognitive, physical barriers, learning style, emotional barriers and cultural barriers. 1. Language Barrier i. Limited or unfamiliar vocabulary: every reader who desires to be an active reader should be a voracious reader so as to increase his or her linguistic repertoire. ii. Complex sentence structure iii. Lack of language proficiency 2. Cognitive Barrier Cognitive barriers to reading arise when individuals struggle with interpretation, concentration, or processing information, leading to misunderstandings. These barriers can result from cognitive biases, information overload, or differing perspectives and can inhibit effective reading. These include, limited perceptual span. 3. Physical Barrier A reader may struggle with reading for a variety of reasons, including limited experience with books, virtual impairment or reading difficulty. 25 4. Learning Style Barrier i. Incompatibility with the reader’s learning style (E.g. Visual, auditory or kinaesthetic) ii. Limited use of multimedia or interactive resources. 5. Emotional Barrier i. Lack of interest or motivation. ii. Anxiety or stress related to reading. iii. Fear of failure or judgment. 6. Cultural Barrier i. Unfamiliarity with cultural references or context. ii. Biases or stereotypes in the reading materials. iii. Limited representation or diversity in the text. Other barriers to reading include: Faulty eye movement. Faulty attention and concentration habits. Lack of practice. Lack of interest. Poor evaluation of important and less important parts. Reasonable wholesome remembering rather than selective remembering. Conclusion, for effective reading a student is expected to concentrate and do away with distractions which includes; the environment, peer group, and social media. Works Cited Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. 1987. Odinye, Ifeoma Ezinne and Akujobi, Odochi Silver. Basic English for Academic Competence, GST 102. FAB Anieh Nig. Ltd. 2021. Ogbazi, J. I., Osakwe, N. N. and Ekpunobi, D. C. English for Communicative Competence. Enugu: John Jacobs Publishers Ltd. 2003. Otagburuagu, E. J., Enuesike, J. O. and Okwor E. O. (ed). Comprehensive English for Higher Education. Enugu; Acena Publishers. 1992. Ujowundu, O. English Usage For Higher Education. Nkpor: Cesmart Publishers. 2010 Udoh, S. O. Reading to Remember. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. 1969. 26 CHAPTER FIVE TEACHING LISTENING SKILLS BASIC KNOWLEDGE FOR LISTENING SKILLS Michael Uyanne, PhD Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Introduction Listening is an essential communication skill. The task of listening effectively requires being familiar with the various aspects and intricacies of this all-important skill, If you are not familiar with them, particularly as a second or foreign language learner learning to use English for local and international communication, you will find it extremely difficult to follow discussions at seminars, lectures, speeches, and during conversations. You will also not find it easy to understand what people say to you or to others. Similarly, your response to what people say to you will be affected by your inability to listen well. Unfortunately, although listening is an important skill used and needed at every moment of daily living by all and sundry. It is the most neglected in the teaching of language arts, especially in Nigeria. In this chapter, we shall try to explain what listening is all about, outline various contexts in which people listen, look at the problems that militate against effective listening, identify skills needed for effective teaching, practicing, and testing listening skills. The listening habit is as old as man on earth. If you do not listen, you will neither hear nor understand. Adam and Eve listened and heard God's call in the Garden of Eden. They then tried to take refuge because they knew they had offended God. Among many other things, listening is necessary for the acquisition of self-protective strategies. If you are a good listener, you will be able to hear what you need to hear at the appropriate time. You will then be able to discriminate between the sounds you hear. For instance, during the Nigerian civil war, careful listening was essential in order to be able to know when danger was imminent. A good listener at the time was able to discriminate between the sound of a war plane and that of a relief or passenger plane a good distance cc. He could also distinguish between the sound of artillery guns of different makes and the sound of various types of small firearms. This made it possible for targets to start in time to take refuge. What is Listening? Task 1 – Discussion in Pairs or Small Groups Listening is a common place word. You have heard it many times over. Now, try to discuss the following questions with your neighbour sitting to your right. You could be 3 persons in a group if you can't be Record your agreed answers in a piece of paper. Listening means paying auditory attention with a view to getting meaning from the oral messages and e spoken linguistic exchanges carried out with people around you or far away from you. It is a communicative language learning activity. Anderson and Lynch (1988:4) describe listening as reciprocal skill because among other things, while u acquire the skill to get meaning from your interlocutor, you must ensure that you have some knowledge of the content of his subject-matter, related vocabulary, the sounds he produces, and the grammar the language he is speaking. Our focus, in their book, is on effective listening to the English language. It is important to note that "listening skills" in our context here mean the same as "listening comprehension skills". It is 27 also necessary to point out that the traditional belief that listening is a "passive" and mere "receptive" skill can no longer be sustained. Listening is clearly an active communicative skill. This is so because in the process of listening, what the listener hears is neither automatic nor pre- determined. The speaker can change from one main point or idea to another and in order to understand the sounds and meanings the speaker has conveyed, the listener changes his disposition accordingly. We further agree with Anderson and Lynch that listening is reciprocal because it involves the exchange of roles between a speaker and a listener. Even when the interaction is not between two persons physically facing each other as in the case of listening to a radio programme, tape recorded information or music, or telephone message, listening still involves an exchange of roles between speaker and listener. There is, therefore, close relationship between listening and speaking such that it is unrealistic to talk of teaching listening skills in isolation of the features of the spoken language. Indeed, listening and speaking are inseparable It is generally believed, and research reports confirm that people get meaning more easily when they listen to people speaking to them in their mother tongue than they do when they listen to people speaking to them in a second or foreign language. Except for variations in dialects, accents, and background knowledge of topics which could sometimes create problems for native speakers, listening to someone who speaks the same mother tongue with them it is easier than listening to a native speaker who speaks to you in a language that is your L2 or a foreign language to you. This is mostly so because in your mother tongue, you have fewer problems to contend with. We hope to look at some problems that militate against effective listening later. Meanwhile, let us consider the reasons and contexts in which listening takes place. For What Reasons and in What Contexts Does Listening Take Place? Task 2 – Whole Class Activity Every member of the class should get ready to volunteer an answer to the following questions. The teacher should offer a chance to 4 or 5 volunteers for the first question and about 10 volunteers should be offered a chance for the second question. Reasons for Listening i. There is usually one reason or another for listening. You may listen so that you could gather some information. For instance, if there is a noise out in the street near your house, you may wish to get information regarding the noise. It could be that a dancing group is rejoicing as a result of a happy event that has occurred. On the contrary, it could be that the dancing group is mourning a deceased friend or relation. Alternatively, the noise could be the result of a brawl, a heated argument or brawl. If you go out to the neighbourhood and ask questions about the cause of the noise which you had heard by listening, you may be able to gather the cause of the noise which you had heard. ii. You may as well listen in order to satisfy your interest. If you are interested in politics, footballing, current affairs, etc for instance, where news about these events is broadcast, you will occupy a place close to the source of the news, with keen interest so as to get it at source. iii. Furthermore, sometimes you listen because you want to have pleasure or entertainment. For example, if there is going to be a radio, television, or live drama programme that you enjoy, you will draw up your daily programme in such a way as to find yourself beside your radio, television or at drama at the time scheduled for the programme in order not to miss it. 28 iv. Most of the time too, you may listen so as to understand a situation and be fully informed about it. Take for instance where a national broadcast by the head of administrator, it is likely that by the announcement, the situation understood by many. If you wish to understand the details of the broadcast, you are likely to listen in to the analysis by the appropriate officer. Similarly, a person wishing to understand a lecturer or a speech fully has to listen carefully while the lecture/speech is going on. Also, in order to avoid getting involved in one form of danger or another, it is necessary that you listen always. As is the practice in the Nigerian society, when a high government official is traveling on the highway with his entourage, it is mandatory for other motorists to get out of the road so that there are no accidents. Usually, the approach of these high officials is heralded by the sound of a siren. The same thing happens when the fire service vehicle or an ambulance is racing along the street for a rescue operation. You can only avoid possible danger that may ensue if you listen, hear and understand what is happening. In doing so, you will be able to react in such a way as to avoid getting into danger. Summary Listening takes place in order to gather information, satisfy one's interest and curiosity, be pleased or get entertained, understand what you wish to know, and take steps to avoid impending danger. Listening Contexts Occasions during which listening takes place are many and varied. An outline may include: 1. News broadcast — radio and television. 2. Announcements at Airports and Railway stations informing passengers about arrival and departure times, delays and changes. 3. Talks on topical and contemporary issues. 4. Football, horse race and news commentaries. 5. Interviews 6. Documentaries 7. Telephone messages 8. Stories 9. Discussions 10. Live music or music from radio, television, or tape recorders. 11. Speeches and public addresses 12. Conversation 13. Lectures 14. Seminars 15. Tutorials 16. Instructions 17. Live or recorded radio and television entertainment 18. Weather forecasts 19. Exchange of social ritual pleasantries, etc. 20. Market bargaining 21. Radio and television advertisements 22. Eavesdropping 23. Quarrels 29 24. Gossips 25. Sermons 26. Incantations 27. Ritual worships, etc. The list of this outline can, in no way, be said to be exhaustive. Task 3 – Whole class discussion. Attach reasons to the above outline context. 5 volunteers to discuss theirs. Task 4 – Individual Activity. Check or tick off contexts among the above in which you have been personally involved in class discussion. Listening Comprehension Problems Task 5 – Individual activity. What problems did you encounter when you were involved in the contexts you checked above? Selected volunteers to discuss. Certainly, as an active process, you may not imagine that you could listen without having any problems. It is, therefore, natural that you had some problems. Listening problems could be diverse and intense. We shall attempt, here, to put them into three broad groups as follows: (i) Background problems; (ii) Language problems; and (iii) Physical listening problems. Background Problems Language is used by the people living in a community or geographical location to express facts, ideas, beliefs, rules, emotions, etc. Put precisely, language is used by people living in a geographical location to express their culture. The implication of this is that cultural differences between learners of a second language (L2) and the native speakers to whom the language is a first language (Ll) present obstacles for listening comprehension. What we are saying here, in effect, is that you have some listening comprehension problems which are results of the differences between your cultural background and those of the native speakers of the English language. Unconsciously, there are some attitudinal factors which may militate against your listening comprehension the English language. You may be unprepared to face the numerous challenges that the foreign sounds, strange vocabularies and unfamiliar syntactic rules may pose to you, dismissing them as not being worth the trouble since yours. Sometimes too, you allow emotional feelings and pre-judgments to prevent attention to your interlocutor. Such pre- judgment may emanate from the fact that the speaker to whom you have to listen has a background that is not the same as yours. It could also be that you do not simply like the way he/she speakers. Sometimes too, it could be that someone has made adverse comments to you about him/her. It could still be that you differ with the person to whom you have to listen in religious or political beliefs. All these or some of them could combine to create problems for you effective listening. Sometimes too, the problem of interpretation of the discourse may arise. Listeners should endeavour to interpret ideas and not just words. Poor pronunciation including defective intonation and stress patterns, and strange accents may lead to ineffective listening comprehension. Improper application of varieties of English usage such as the juxtaposition of formal and informal varieties at inappropriate occasions, mixing standard and non-standard varieties may also lead to poor listening comprehension. 30 Often, a speaker's mannerisms may be distracting and disturbing, and thus impede proper listening by his/her audience. Such mannerisms may be physical or oral, Physical mannerisms may take the form of twisting or wringing the fingers, grotesque gestures, and funny facial expressions. There could also be problems of physical listening and all these are referred to as physical listening problems because they involve physical listening facilities as well as poor auditory attention, in which case, they are 'purely listening problems. Listening problems in this class may include those created by Poor sound effects or lack acoustic facilities. For instance, a speaker/lecturer may have to speak to a large group or class foreign sounds, strange vocabularies and unfamiliar syntactic rules may pose to you, dismissing them as not being worth the trouble since the language is not yours, sometimes too, you allow emotional feelings and pre-judgments to prevent you from paying attention to your interlocutor. Such pre- judgments may emanate from the fact that the speaker to whom you have to listen _has a background that is not the same as yours. It could also be that you do not simply like the way he/she speaks Sometimes too, it could be that someone has made adverse comments to you about him or her, it could still be that you differ with the person to whom you have to listen in religious or political beliefs. All these or some of I them could combine to create problems for you in effective listening. Language Problems Apart from background problems, your listening comprehension ability could be impeded by primary linguistic or input problems. Such problems may include listening to (i) unfamiliar vocabulary or lexical items, unfamiliar syntactic structures and strange figurative expressions. Other problems in this Category may include stylistic factors. Listening to a text poorly organized and presented may make listening comprehension difficult. If a text is organized in such a way that the main points are logically and sequentially presented, and the thought pattern clearly articulated, with the relevant details following each main point, understanding the oral text will be facilitated. Sometimes too, the problem of interpretation of the discourse may arise. Listeners should endeavour to interpret ideas and not just words. Poor pronunciation including defective intonation and stress patterns, and strange accents may lead to ineffective listening comprehension. Improper application of varieties of English usage such as the juxtaposition of formal and informal varieties at inappropriate occasions, mixing standard and non-standard varieties may also lead to poor listening comprehension. Often, a speaker’s mannerism may be distracting and disturbing, and thus impede proper listening by his/her audience. Such mannerisms may be physical or oral. Physical mannerisms may take the form of twisting or wringing the fingers, grotesque gestures, and funny facial expressions. There could also be problems of physical listening and all these are referred to as physical listening problems because they involve physical listening facilities as well as poor auditory attention, in which case, they are purely listening problems. Listening problems in this class may include those created by poor sound effects or lack of acoustic facilities. For instance, a speaker/lecturer may have to speak to a large group or class in a big hall without a microphone. Problems of this nature can easily be solved by providing the necessary sound amplifying facilities it possible. Noisy environment listeners who have to listen in a place located near factory, open market or airport, among others, are bound to face this physical listening problem of not hearing everything 31 that is said. Solution to this problem is to change location or make the listening place sound proof where possible. Being naturally hard of hearing or having auditory problems. These could be medically treated. Where impossible, hearing aids could be acquired. Inability to listen with concentration as a result of unfinished & businesses such as domestic or emotional needs, wails and lacks. These may include hunger, fatigue illness, family quarrels, poverty or unstable love affairs. The source of the problem should be identified removed. Inability to control speaker’s speed. In such a problem, if the speaker cannot be convinced to reduce his/her speed to a manageable rate, then you, as the listener, should try, with practice to at adjust to the speed. With time you will be used to the situation. Not repeating what is said. Under normal circumstances and in conversation act, provision exists for repetition. Things said are repeated depending on the listener's reaction — e.g. sorry!, pardon!, eh!, come again! (a common parlance in Nigerian classrooms). Where things said cannot be repeated there is bound to be listening problems. If the situation cannot change, the listeners will, with time, get used to it. Lack of readiness and motivation. Sometimes, people of tender age are made to listen to materials too high for their level of maturity. In some cases, people are made to listen to topics in which they are not interested. Such situations create listening problems. To solve these problems, listening materials should be chosen with strict consideration for the age of potential listeners. They should also be made interesting in order to motivate listeners. At the tertiary level, however, students simply have to listen to their lectures, no matter how boring and uninteresting they may be, so long as the topic is part of their academic programme. Task 6- Whole class discussion: Which of the above problems most commonly affect your listening comprehension? – Individual members to identity and list theirs. A few selected volunteers to discuss. 32 CHAPTER SIX LISTENING TO UNDERSTAND THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN IDEAS, OPINIONS, FEELINGS, ATTITUDES AND IMPLIED INFORMATION IN SPOKEN CONTEXTS Adaobi Olivia Ihueze, PhD Department of English Language and Literature Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Introduction The listening habit is as old as man on earth. If you do not listen, you will neither hear nor understand (Otagburuagu, E.T.; Obah, T.Y.; Onuigbo, S.M.; Okorji, R.I, 2007). Thus, this shows that listening is not “a passive and mere receptive skill, (Anderson and Lynch 1984) but is an active communication skill.” Listening is necessary and important because a good listener can understand the connections between ideas, opinions, feelings, attitudes and implied information in spoken contexts. Effective listening involves being attuned to all these elements. This means paying attention to the speaker's tone of voice, body language, and the context in which the conversation occurs. For instance, a speaker might use a calm and measured tone to imply seriousness or employ sarcasm to convey a different meaning than their words suggest. Understanding the connections between ideas, opinions, feelings, attitudes, and implied information while listening in spoken contexts is essential for grasping the full depth of communication. When we listen, we engage in a dynamic process that involves decoding not just the explicit content but also the subtler layers of meaning conveyed through various elements of speech. Listening to Identify a Speaker’s Ideas, Opinions, Feelings, or Attitudes Identifying a speaker’s ideas, opinions, feelings, or attitudes involves listening attentively to the content and context of their speech. According to Brownell (2012), effective listening requires not just hearing the words, but also understanding the underlying emotions and intentions. Listening to ideas involves understanding the main points or messages that the speaker is trying to convey. This requires cognitive engagement and the ability to process and organize information. Ideas also refer to the conceptual content or messages conveyed by the speaker. They form the foundational content of what is being communicated. They are the primary concepts or thoughts that the speaker wishes to convey. Recognizing the speaker's core message or main idea often involves paying attention to keywords and phrases that summarize the central point. For instance, a speaker discussing climate change might frequently mention terms like “global warming,” “carbon emissions,” and “sustainability.” Effective listening involves understanding and processing these ideas accurately. Example: 1. During a team meeting, John proposed an idea to streamline the project management process by using a new software tool. Active listening enabled his colleagues to understand and build upon his suggestions. Identifying the speaker's ideas is foundational for effective listening. It allows the listener to grasp the core content of the communication, facilitating a deeper understanding and better response. 2. During a lecture, a student must listen attentively to grasp the lecturer’s key ideas, which form the basis for further discussion and analysis. Opinions are the personal beliefs or judgments expressed by the speaker. These reflect the speaker's perspective and can provide insight into their stance on the topic. Listening to opinions involves recognizing and evaluating the speaker's personal views or judgments. This requires the listener to distinguish between objective information and subjective expressions. To understand 33 the speaker’s opinions listeners should note the tone, pitch, and pace of the speech. A speaker might express frustration or enthusiasm through changes in vocal inflexion or speed. Understanding opinions helps listeners appreciate diverse perspectives and engage in meaningful dialogue. Recognizing opinions also aids in identifying the speaker's stance on various issues. Example: In a meeting, understanding a colleague's opinion on a proposed policy helps in evaluating the policy's potential impact and fosters collaborative decision-making. When listening, recognizing opinions involves identifying the speaker's personal views or judgments about a topic. This requires distinguishing between factual information and subjective statements. Example: 1. In a debate, Jane expressed her opinion that remote work is more effective than traditional office work. Effective listeners acknowledged her viewpoint while considering other perspectives. Feelings are the emotional undertones that accompany the spoken words. They add a layer of emotional context that can significantly influence how the message is perceived. Listening to feelings involves being attuned to the emotional states expressed by the speaker. This can include verbal cues and non-verbal signals such as tone of voice and body language. It also entails being sensitive to the speaker’s emotional expressions, both verbal and non-verbal. This aspect of listening involves empathy and emotional intelligence. Recognizing feelings is crucial for building rapport and trust. It allows the listener to respond with appropriate empathy and support, enhancing interpersonal relationships. Examples: 1. When a friend expresses frustration about a personal issue, listening to their feelings helps in providing empathetic and supportive feedback. 2. When Tom talked about his frustration with the recent project setbacks, effective listeners picked up on his feelings of stress and disappointment, showing empathy and support. Attitudes indicate the speaker's disposition or stance toward the subject or the audience. They can reveal underlying biases, enthusiasm, scepticism, or other subjective views that shape communication. Listening to attitudes therefore involves perceiving the speaker’s predispositions or tendencies towards certain ideas, objects, or situations. This can affect how the listener interprets the message. It requires attention to the speaker’s tone and choice of words. Understanding attitudes can influence how a listener interprets and responds to the speaker’s message. It provides a perception of the speaker's biases and predispositions. Examples: In a discussion about environmental policies, noticing a speaker's positive attitude towards sustainability can shape the conversation constructively. During a discussion on environmental policies, Jane's positive attitude towards sustainable practices was evident. Attentive listeners noted this and engaged in a constructive conversation about green initiatives. The speaker’s attitude can often be inferred from their choice of words and the context in which they are used. For example, a speaker might show a positive attitude towards renewable energy by using terms like “innovative” and “promising.” Understanding the connections between ideas, opinions, feelings, and attitudes in both spoken and written contexts is crucial for effective communication. It involves recognizing linguistic markers, listening attentively, and interpreting the speaker’s intent. These skills can be developed through practice and awareness, leading to better comprehension and more meaningful interactions. 34 Understanding Implied/Inferred Information in Spoken Contexts Implied information refers to the underlying messages or intentions that are not explicitly or directly stated but are inferred from the context, tone, and non-verbal cues. It requires listeners to interpret subtleties and read between the lines to fully understand the speaker's intent. Listening for implied information therefore means being able to infer meanings that are not explicitly stated but suggested through context or manner of speech. This requires critical thinking and attention to detail. Detecting implied information enriches the listener’s understanding of the full message, including subtleties and suggestions that are not explicitly communicated. This skill enhances critical thinking and interpretation. Example: 1. When a manager says, “We could improve our efficiency,” the implied information might suggest current inefficiencies without directly stating it. Effective listeners will pick up on this and look for ways to address the issue. 2. When the manager mentioned, “We could improve our efficiency,” it implied that there were current inefficiencies without directly criticizing anyone. Attentive listeners understood the underlying message and sought ways to enhance productivity. Students must develop the skill to comprehend what is implied but not directly stated in spoken language. This involves understanding inferred information, recognizing the speaker's attitude or feelings, and deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases. These abilities are essential for effective communication and critical thinking. This analysis provides a detailed examination of these skills, supported by examples and exercises designed for assessment. Understanding Implied/Inferred Information Example 1: Information that is inferred but not explicitly stated often relates to the gist or purpose of a text or the speaker's overall intention. Goh (2008) projected that listening comprehension involves not only understanding the literal meaning of words but also grasping the underlying message. This means listening to not only what the person is expressing directly, but also the feelings, ideas or thoughts that underlie what is being said. Gist or Purpose: The gist of a conversation or text refers to its main point or purpose. For example, in a news report about environmental policies, the gist might be the government's efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Speaker’s Intention: The speaker's overall intention can be inferred from the context and content of the speech. For instance, in a motivational speech, the speaker’s intentions might be to inspire and encourage the audience. Recognizing Speaker’s Attitude or Feelings Example 2: Words and phrases can suggest a speaker's attitude or feelings even when not explicitly stated. As stated by Vandergrift and Goh (2008), intonation, stress, and context play significant roles in conveying emotions and attitudes. Attitude and Feelings: The speaker's choices of words, tone, and context can indicate their feelings. For example, the phrase “I'm so thrilled about this project” conveys excitement, while “I'm not sure this will work” suggests doubt or hesitation. Deducing Meaning of Unfamiliar Words/Phrases Example 3: Students should be able to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words or phrases by listening to the information around them and making inferences. Thornbury (2002) emphasizes the importance of contextual clues in understanding new vocabulary. 35 Contextual Inferences: By paying attention to surrounding words and the context, students can infer the meaning of un

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