Social Stratification: An Overview PDF

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: AN OVERVIEW Module I. Lecture 1. Jan 14 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B. Social stratification This course is about who gets what, and how. “Social stratification is concerned with the patterning of...

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: AN OVERVIEW Module I. Lecture 1. Jan 14 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B. Social stratification This course is about who gets what, and how. “Social stratification is concerned with the patterning of inequality and its enduring consequences on the lives of those who experience it. All of us live within pre-existing relations of unequal power, status or economic resources; and these unequal relations surround and constrain us, providing the context of our interactions, inevitably affecting the choices we make in life, opening some channels of opportunity, and closing off others. This is a condition of social life (individual choice is always limited by the choices of those around us), but stratification is concerned with how some have more freedom and choice than others. (…) The point of stratification analysis is to see how such inequalities persist and endure – over lifetimes and between generations.” Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/lib/ucalgary- ebooks/detail.action?docID=199385 Social stratification Institutionalized system of social inequality: the divisions and relationships of social inequality have solidified into a system that determines who gets what, when, and why. “Stratification” as a metaphor: horizontal layers found in rock (“strata”) are a good way to visualize social structure. Society’s layers are made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the layers. Little, William (2023). Introduction to Sociology – 2nd Canadian Edition. Chapter 9. Social Inequality in Canada  Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social The study of social stratification Division and Inequality “is (…) the study of how inequalities between individuals at any given point in time are reproduced between and across generations. As Otis Duncan argues, the difference between inequality and stratification is that ‘social stratification refers to the persistence of positions in a hierarchy of inequality, either over the lifetime of a birth cohort of individuals or, more particularly, between generations’ (1968: 681). The notion of inter-generational transmission is important here. Inequality in one generation affects inequality in the next.”  Social stratification The people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of stratification. Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources, represent the lower layers of our society. Social stratification assigns people to socioeconomic strata based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. The question for sociologists is how systems of stratification come to be formed. What is the basis of systematic social inequality in society? This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Little, William (2023). Introduction to Sociology – 2nd Canadian Edition. Chapter 9. Social Inequality in Canada Social inequality not individual inequalities… but systematic inequalities: o group membership, class, gender, ethnicity, and other variables that structure access to rewards and status. Sociologists are interested in examining the structural conditions of social inequality. How inequality becomes systematically structured in economic, social, and political life. Who gets the opportunities to develop their abilities and talents, and who does not? Introduction to Sociology – 2nd Canadian Edition. Chapter 9. Social Inequality in Canada  What are some examples of inequality? Women and children with lack of access to healthcare die each day from preventable diseases such as measles and tuberculosis or in childbirth. Older persons, migrants and refugees face lack of opportunities and discrimination – an issue that affects every country in the world. One in five persons reported being discriminated on at least one ground of discrimination prohibited by international human rights law. Source: The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 News - United Nations Sustainable Development https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/inequality/#:~:text=What%20 are%20some%20examples%20of,every%20country%20in%20the%20world. What are some examples of inequality? Watch the video (6 min) Global inequality https://youtu.be/KBsOwZRKzcE Definitions of social inequality “Social inequalities are differences in income, resources, power and status within and between societies. Such inequalities are maintained by those in powerful positions via institutions and social processes.” Warwick-Booth, L. (2013). Social inequality. SAGE Publications Definitions of social inequality “Inequality—the state of not being equal, especially in status, rights, and opportunities—is a concept very much at the heart of social justice theories. However, it is prone to confusion in public debate as it tends to mean different things to different people. Some distinctions are common though. Many authors distinguish “economic inequality,” mostly meaning “income inequality,” “monetary inequality,” or more broadly, inequality in “living conditions.” Others further distinguish a rights-based, legalistic approach to inequality—inequality of rights and associated obligations (e.g., when people are not equal before the law, or when people have unequal political power).” Bhandari, M.P., & Hanna, S. (Eds.). (2021). Inequality – the unbeatable challenge (1st ed.). River Publishers. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1201/9781003338543  Definitions of social inequality “Social inequalities are differences in human interactions, groups and institutions that are generated by a process of differentiation and domination, often built upon visible distinctions between one group and another. Frequently, biological cues such as skin color, sex, or appearance, are used as the basis for constructing ideas of difference. Then, exclusion from areas of work or social life, or differential pay rates, may be used to establish a pattern of domination. By this method one group establishes preferential conditions and dominates another. This is what happens with race and ethnicity, sex and gender, class, and age.” Preface. (2011). In B. Crow & S. K. Lodha, Atlas of Global Inequalities (1st ed.). University of California Press. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MzI1MzI0OA==?aid=102628  Implications of social inequality Race and ethnicity, sex and gender, class, and age are axes of inequality that sometimes are used in societies, with other differences, such as disability, language, and sexual orientation, to exclude some and benefit others. The practice of differentiation and domination influences social relationships, institutions, groups and much else. When biological cues are involved, it is common for difference and inequality to be naturalized in some way, such as the exclusion of women from certain occupations on the grounds of physical weakness. While biological differences can matter in some situations, broad claims based on nature, such as “women's place is in the home” frequently hide a long history of domination by the group, in This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY this case men, propagating the claim. Preface. (2011). In B. Crow & S. K. Lodha, Atlas of Global Inequalities (1st ed.). University of California Press. https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MzI1MzI0OA==?aid=102628  Implications of social inequality Dimensions of inequality - race, class and gender - interact with one another. So, poor peasant women in many parts of the world are subject to additive inequalities due to their class position and their gender. Minorities who are also working class or poor are subject to inequalities resulting from their This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC economic status and appearance or ethnicity BY-NC-ND (Intersectionality). Preface. (2011). In B. Crow & S. K. Lodha, Atlas of Global Inequalities (1st ed.). University of California Press. https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MzI1MzI0OA==?aid=102628 Implications of social inequality Inequality threatens long-term social and economic development, harms poverty reduction and destroys people’s sense of fulfillment and self-worth. © UNOCHA/Ala Kheir An internally displaced woman cooks in an open space in the El Ban Gadeed settlement in Sudan. Facing social inequality Global programs ▪Out of the 17 goals, thirteen goals address various forms of inequities: Goals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, and 17. ▪One goal (Goal 10) explicitly proposes to reduce various forms of inequalities. Facing social inequality Federal policy (Canada) The federal government has strengthened implementation of Gender-based Analysis Plus (GBA Plus) to support the development of responsive and inclusive initiatives, including policies, programs, and other initiatives, that meet the needs of diverse groups of people. Opportunity for All - Canada's First Poverty Reduction Strategy offers a bold vision for Canada as a world leader in the reduction of poverty. The Strategy seeks to reduce and remove systemic barriers, including for those communities that face unique barriers that can make them more vulnerable to poverty. This Strategy includes: o Canada Child Benefit o Guaranteed Income Supplement top-up for single seniors o National Housing Strategy.  Facing social inequality Social inequalities are experienced as a denial of freedoms and of respect. In response, some excluded groups establish collective identities and movements that open up previously excluded capabilities. Movements for national independence, for civil rights, and the gay and feminist movements worldwide, may provide examples for this process of struggle and This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND empowerment. Preface. (2011). In B. Crow & S. K. Lodha, Atlas of Global Inequalities (1st ed.). University of California Press. https://search.credoreference.com/articles/Qm9va0FydGljbGU6MzI1MzI0OA==?aid=102628  Concepts related to inequality Social exclusion is another term strongly related to inequality and again encompasses more than just a narrow focus on income. It has three domains (Levitas et al. 2007: 117): 1. Resources – material and economic, access to services (both public and private) and social resources 2. Participation – economic (i.e. usually via work), social, education and political participation (i.e. voting) 3. Quality of life – health and well-being, the environment in which you live and crime levels in the area in which you live. Definitions ‘Social exclusion is a shorthand label for what can happen when individuals or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown.’ (Social Exclusion Unit 1997) Warwick-Booth, L. (2013). Social inequality. SAGE Publications This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND Definitions “Social exclusion is generally discussed within the social cohesion and social inclusion framework. Social cohesion and social inclusion are often used as synonyms, however there are important differences between the two. Both focus on the importance of community but view it in different terms. Social cohesion focuses on the personal feelings and satisfaction of feeling like a person belongs as a member of society, whereas social inclusion looks at the non-psychological benefits of being a participatory member of society.” Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians. Sixty-sixth plenary session Geneva, 18–20 June 2018. Item 12 of the provisional agenda Outcomes of in-depth reviews carried out by the Bureau of the Conference of European Statisticians in October 2017 and February 2018  Concepts related to inequality Poverty. ❑Poverty and inequality are unsurprisingly closely related and are both consequently still widely measured across the world. ❑Poverty remains widespread in many parts of the world, within both high and low income countries. ❑ Poverty is also most often measured according to monetary terms. There are absolute measures of poverty and relative measures. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY  Definition: Absolute and relative poverty Social scientists generally define poverty in two ways: ▪ Absolute poverty is the condition in which people are unable to achieve the basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, and shelter. ▪ Relative poverty refers to some socially constructed norm of well-being in comparison to some proportion of a society thought to be lacking. “The ‘poor’ in the rich industrialized countries are not, for the most part, materially deprived in the absolute sense. With the help of government transfer programs, such as income support and food and housing subsidies, they may have an apartment to live in, enough food to eat, clothing, and even some amenities like television and cars. Yet in relation to the rest of the society, they are ‘poor.’ Their housing is substandard, their neighborhoods are run down and high in crime, their stores lack the variety and quality of more affluent sectors, their clothing is limited to cheap clothing chains or thrift store hand-me-downs, and their potential is limited by poor schooling and health care”. Parrillo, V. N. (2008). Poverty. In Encyclopedia of Social Problems (Vol. 2, pp. 698-701). SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412963930 Absolute and relative inequality Absolute inequality: Differences in income distribution Relative inequality: Subjective differences among members of a community (it is important in terms of our own levels of happiness.) Measuring social inequality in several ways Different ways to measure and understand social inequality. 1. Comparing gross domestic income per capita of each nation. 2. Comparing gross domestic income and population size. 3. Indicating the distribution of income across a population: a higher Gini index indicates greater inequality. 4. Considering individual incomes drawn by household surveys. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA But… …social inequality is not only unequal income Bauman (2011) argues that income inequality is a conceptualisation that is too narrow because social inequality encompasses poverty, vulnerability, danger and the denial of dignity. Bauman, Zygmunt (2011) Collateral Damage: Social Inequalities in a Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.  Needs and opportunities …when thinking about inequality and social stratification. Think about your needs and opportunities: What do you need in your everyday life? What do you have? What do you don’t have? How about other people you know? How about people living in other countries? Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. (A Theory of Human Motivation. A. H. Maslow (1943) Originally Published in Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.) Maslow’s needs: Critics Self- Physiological actualization needs The needs are Esteem needs Safety needs not progressive or Love and belonging needs hierarchical Contextual and relational Time-space Measuring social inequality Rather than measuring poverty by income level, Sen recommends calculating how much an individual can achieve with that income, taking into account that such achievements will vary from one individual to another and from one place to another. IDB. Amartya Sen and the thousand faces of poverty, July 01, 2001 https://www.iadb.org/en/news/amartya-sen-and-thousand-faces-poverty Capability approach Amartya Sen (1999): use other measures when examining inequality. - Capability approach: outlines standards of living as being important o Poverty, justice, quality of life and freedom within context. o When evaluating well-being, Sen argues, the most important thing is to consider what people are actually able to be and do. Capability approach The Capability Approach is defined by its choice of focus upon the moral significance of individuals’ capability of achieving the kind of lives they have reason to value. This distinguishes it from more established approaches to ethical evaluation, such as utilitarianism or resourcism, which focus exclusively on subjective well-being or the availability of means to the good life, respectively. A person’s capability to live a good life is defined in terms of the set of valuable ‘beings and doings’ like being in good health or having loving relationships with others to which they have real access. Amartya Sen Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ Amartya Sen “One of the better-known social exclusion models is Amartya Sen’s capabilities model. In Development as Freedom, Sen argues that social exclusion is a social justice issue that should concern everyone and that social exclusion, capabilities deprivation, and relative poverty are all synonymous with each other (Sen, 1999). In the book, Sen discusses the ideas behind his capabilities model, describing the history of economic justice theory and how social policy should focus on the limitations people face that prevent them from being full active members of society, instead of relying solely on income measures (Sen, 1999).” Economic Commission for Europe Conference of European Statisticians. Sixty-sixth plenary session Geneva, 18–20 June 2018. Item 12 of the provisional agenda Outcomes of in-depth reviews carried out by the Bureau of the Conference of European Statisticians in October 2017 and February 2018 Capability approach The Capability Approach was first articulated by the Indian economist and philosopher Amartya Sen in the 1980s, and remains most closely associated with him. It has been employed extensively in the context of human development, for example, by the United Nations Development Programme, as a broader, deeper alternative to narrowly economic metrics such as growth in GDP per capita. Here ‘poverty’ is understood as deprivation in the capability to live a good life, and ‘development’ is understood as capability expansion. Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ Sen’s Concerns The Capability Approach attempts to address various concerns that Sen had about contemporary approaches to the evaluation of well-being, namely: (1) Individuals can differ greatly in their abilities to convert the same resources into valuable functionings (‘beings’ and ‘doings’). For example, those with physical disabilities may need specific goods to achieve mobility, and pregnant women have specific nutritional requirements to achieve good health. Therefore, evaluation that focuses only on means, without considering what particular people can do with them, is insufficient. Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ Sen’s Concerns 2) People can internalize the harshness of their circumstances so that they do not desire what they can never expect to achieve. This is the phenomenon of ‘adaptive preferences’ in which people who are objectively very sick may, for example, still declare, and believe, that their health is fine. Therefore, evaluation that focuses only on subjective mental metrics is insufficient without considering whether that matches with what a neutral observer would perceive as their objective circumstances. Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ Sen’s Concerns 3) Whether or not people take up the options they have, the fact that they do have valuable options is significant. For example, even if the nutritional state of people who are fasting and starving is the same, the fact that fasting is a choice not to eat should be recognized. Therefore, evaluation must be sensitive to both actual achievements (‘functionings’) and effective freedom (‘capability’). Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ Sen’s Concerns 4) Reality is complicated and evaluation should reflect that complexity rather than take a short-cut by excluding all sorts of information from consideration in advance. For example, although it may seem obvious that happiness matters for the evaluation of how well people are doing, it is not all obvious that it should be the only aspect that ever matters and so nothing else should be considered. Therefore, evaluation of how well people are doing must seek to be as open- minded as possible. Thomas Wells. Sen’s Capability Approach. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://iep.utm.edu/sen-cap/ SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: AN OVERVIEW Additional Slides for Lecture 2 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B. Measuring inequality: Examples Top 10 Countries with the Highest Gini Coefficients Top 10 Countries with the Lowest Gini Coefficients (%) - (%) - World Bank: World Bank: Country Gini Coefficient Country Gini Coefficient South Africa 63.0 Norway 22.7 Namibia 59.1 Slovakia 23.2 Suriname 57.9 Slovenia 24.0 Zambia 55.9 Belarus 24.4 Eswatini 54.6 Ukraine 25.6 Botswana 53.3 Moldova 25.7 Belize 53.3 Netherlands 26.0 Brazil 52.9 Belgium 26.0 Colombia 51.5 Iceland 26.1 Angola 51.3 Czech Republic 26.2 https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/gini-coefficient-by-country But remember that… Amartya Sen: Rather than measuring poverty by income level, Sen recommends calculating how much an individual can achieve with that income https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI Human Development Index Country HDI Value Life expectancy at Expected years of Gross National Income birth schooling per capita Norway 0.935 80.7 17.4 $63,719 Canada 0.907 80.5 15.3 $44,670 China 0.619 73.4 10.9 $4,377 India 0.557 66.1 10.3 $3,680 Central Agrican Republic 0.352 50.9 6.3 $777 https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2023-24 Human Development Report The 2023/24 Human Development Report estimates the dangerous gridlock resulting from uneven development, intensifying inequality, and escalating of political polarization The report emphasizes how global interdependence is being reconfigured and proposes a path forward where multilateralism plays a pivotal role. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2023-24 Human Development Report Global interdependence No region in the world is completely self-sufficient Counties rely on imports from other regions for about 25% of major goods and services No country alone can tackle the challenges that spills across borders Instead of capitalizing our connections, we are failing to address shared challenges. It is urgent to: ✓reimagine global cooperation ✓strength well-being and people’s ability to determine their own future: close agency gaps ✓help bridge people across political divides ✓grow investments in public goods Global launch of 2023/24 Human Development Report (HDR). Watch in https://www.youtube.com/@UNDP SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: AN OVERVIEW Module I. Lecture 2. Jan 16 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B. Measuring inequality Capability approach (Amartya Sen): The Human Development Index is another way in which inequality can be measured and understood. The Human Development Index (HDI) introduced in 1990, was created to emphasize that people and their capabilities should be the ultimate criteria for assessing the development of a country, not economic growth alone. HDI is a composite measure of nearly 190 countries and territories as well as global and regional averages. Human Development ◦ The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living. Human Development The 2023/24 Human Development Report assesses the dangerous gridlock resulting from uneven development progress, intensifying inequality, and escalating political polarization, that we must urgently tackle. The report emphasizes how global interdependence is being reconfigured and proposes a path forward where multilateralism plays a pivotal role. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2023-24 Human Development Global inequalities are compounded by substantial economic concentration. As referenced in the report, almost 40 percent of global trade in goods is concentrated in three or fewer countries; and in 2021 the market capitalization of each of the three largest tech companies in the world surpassed the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of more than 90 percent of countries that year. https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_PR_EN.pdf Human Development at risk “The widening human development gap revealed by the report shows that the two-decade trend of steadily reducing inequalities between wealthy and poor nations is now in reverse. Despite our deeply interconnected global societies, we are falling short. We must leverage our interdependence as well as our capacities to address our shared and existential challenges and ensure people’s aspirations are met.” “This gridlock carries a significant human toll. The failure of collective action to advance action on climate change, digitalization or poverty and inequality not only hinders human development but also worsens polarization and further erodes trust in people and institutions worldwide.” Achim Steiner, head of the UN Development Programme. (https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23- 24_PR_EN.pdf) Photo: https://www.undp.org/our-leadership  Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) a) The global MPI is a key international resource that measures acute multidimensional poverty across more than 100 developing countries b) Computation of the global MPI begins by constructing a deprivation profile for each household and person in it covering 10 indicators of health, education and standard of living. 2024 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) | Human Development Reports (undp.org)  Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Use different data and information resources: o 2024 MPI overlays violent conflict data with multidimensional measures The report finds that MPI values tend to be much higher in conflict-affected settings. And in countries affected by protracted conflict, poverty reduction is reversed, stagnant or slower 2024 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) | Human Development Reports (undp.org) UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2024. 2024 Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): Poverty amid conflict. New York.  Global inequality 44 percent of the global population – around 3.5 billion people – live today on less than $6.85 per day, the poverty line relevant for upper- middle-income countries. The total number of people living under this poverty line has barely changed since 1990 due to population growth. 8.5 percent of the global population – almost 700 million people – live today on less than $2.15 per day, the extreme poverty line relevant for low-income countries. Three-quarters of all people in extreme poverty live in Sub-Saharan Africa or in fragile and conflict-affected countries. (…) Around one-fifth of the world’s population lives in economies with high inequality, concentrated mostly in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa. Only 7 percent of the global population lives in countries with low inequality. (…) https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview#:~:text=8.5%20percent%20of%20the%20global,fragile%20 and%20conflict%2Daffected%20countries. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND Global inequality Climate change poses a fundamental risk to poverty and inequality reduction. Nearly 1 in 5 people globally are likely to experience a severe weather shock in their lifetime from which they will struggle to recover. Climate change also threatens to increase global inequality, as poorer countries and people are likely to suffer more from the negative consequences. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview#:~:text=8.5%20percent%20of %20the%20global,fragile%20and%20conflict%2Daffected%20countries. Global challenges and patterns The 2007-2009 economic crisis (The Great Recession) resulted in large price increases for both energy and food, with the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2009) estimating that as a result another 115 million people were experiencing chronic hunger in 2007 and 2008, particularly in Africa. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY  Global challenges and patterns Covid-19 Pandemic COVID-19 has exacerbated existing inequalities. (…) The inequalities (…) take many forms and express themselves along various dimensions that interact with one another. Across the income distribution, pre-tax income inequalities, consumption and savings, job losses and opportunities for remote work have evolved very differently. Across genders, and across parents and non-parents, the toll of school closures, lack of childcare and additional housework has been uneven. Across regions, sectors and occupations, the pandemic has brought vastly different burdens and opportunities. Image: Patrick Chappatte, The Boston Globe “Inequalities in the pandemic”. Stefanie Stantcheva. Economic Policy 2022 pp. CEPR, CESifo, Sciences Po. Great Britain. Global challenges and patterns Covid-19 Pandemic “Global poverty reduction has slowed to a near standstill, with 2020-2030 set to be a lost decade. At the current pace of progress, it could take more than a century to eradicate poverty as it is defined for nearly half the world.” https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview#:~:text=8.5%20percent%20of %20the%20global,fragile%20and%20conflict%2Daffected%20countries Global challenges and patterns https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-022-01647-6/index.html Pandemics and inequality The impact of COVID-19 on poverty and global inequality | DW... YouTube·DW News·23 dic 2021 Watch the video (first 10 minutes) https://youtu.be/rx--hD2fHCE Discussion in groups 15 min Pandemics and social inequality Access to Work productivity Profits vaccination Think about the data on Lecture 2 and content of “The impact of COVID-19 on poverty and global inequality” and Covid discuss in groups: Health Pandemic Vaccine inequalities ▪ What positive consequences were brought? vulnerability For whom? ▪ What negative consequences were brought? Domestic and For whom? Unemployment gender violence SOCIAL DIFFERENCES, DIVISIONS, AND INEQUALITIES (Part 1) Module I. Lecture 3. Jan 21 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B.  are related to social Social differences and inequalities in complex divisions… ways. This week and a half we’ll recognise how social divisions intersect, overlap and change throughout the life course. We’ll understand how social divisions are fundamentally related to both power and status. We’ll complement Warwick-Booth with other readings. Social stratification “Stratification refers to hierarchically organised social relationships and so entails the analysis of structured social inequality in all its aspects: economic, social and cultural. However, stratification has been dominated by work focusing on economic inequality.” (Bottero, 2005: 11). To understand the complexity of this phenomena, we must consider all aspects of social stratification. Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 Dimensions of inequality As noted in ISSC, IDS, and UNESCO (2016:5), dimensions of inequality can be analyzed in the following contexts: Economic inequality: differences between levels of incomes, assets, wealth, and capital, living standards, and employment; Social inequality: differences between the social status of different population groups and imbalances in the functioning of education, health, justice, and social protection systems; Economic Social Cultural inequality: discriminations based on gender, ethnicity and race, religion, disability, and other Cultural group identities; Political Political inequality: the differentiated capacity for individuals and groups to influence political Spatial Environmental decision-making processes and to benefit from those decisions, and to enter into political action; Knowledge Spatial inequality: spatial and regional disparities between centers and peripheries, urban and rural areas, and regions with more or less diverse resources; Environmental inequality: unevenness in access to natural resources and benefits from their exploitation; exposure to pollution and risks; and differences in the agency needed to adapt to such threats; and Knowledge-based inequality: differences in access and contribution to different sources and types of knowledge, as well as the consequences of these disparities. Bhandari, M.P., & Hanna, S. (Eds.). (2021). Inequality – the unbeatable challenge (1st ed.). River Publishers. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1201/9781003338543  Inequalities are interlinked ▪Gender inequality leads to economic and social inequalities. ▪Inequality between households might be increased by environmental Economic inequality since location does matter: if the household is in the zone of Knowledge Social possible environmental or climate disaster or an area with ample accumulation resources for living. Environmental Cultural ▪Social and cultural inequalities have a tremendous impact on living standards all around the world. One of the most destructive phenomena is the inequality in the access to health care services, depending on the origin, Spatial Political ethnicity, age, etc., disguised as wealth-related access. ▪Spatial and political inequalities are highly intercorrelated as housing wealth is defined by income, amount of investments, and housing market dynamics. That leads to the differences between social groups in cities, between cities and rural areas, and different communities with different capacities to accumulate capital gains. Bhandari, M.P., & Hanna, S. (Eds.). (2021). Inequality – the unbeatable challenge (1st ed.). River Publishers. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1201/9781003338543 Unequal relations “There are many dimensions to inequality, because we value many different resources and attributes (cultural, social, and economic) which all serve to stratify our social relations. Unequal social relations occur along lines of prestige, reputation, property, income, occupation, education, skill, gender, race, ethnicity, age, disability, and sexuality, to name just a few. And to complicate things, these dimensions of inequality do not straightforwardly map onto each other, but nor are they completely independent. This gives us a series of highly differentiated and stratified social relations which intersect and combine to influence an individual’s overall stratification position. Our social position, then, is the product of all our social relations, of our gender, age, race, class, sexuality, and so on.” Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 Stratification order How do these combine to produce an all-embracing stratification order, an overall space of unequal social relations – and how is this ordering best understood? This is a paramount question to understand social stratification. Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 Differential association This process is an essential feature of stratification. People sharing a similar social position, in terms of social class or status group membership, are more likely to interact socially with members of the same group than with members of other groups. People may actively seek to exclude certain groups from their social circles, for reasons of prejudice or snobbery, but this is bound up with the uneven levels of prestige, resources and social standing of different groups. However, differential association is not just based on the deliberate exclusion of others. It also happens because people with different social resources (whether economic, social or cultural) tend to travel in different social circles, and have different lifestyles, so they are less likely to bump into those from different social groups and, when they do, they often don’t have much in common. Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 Differential association Differential association acts as a conservative force on the distribution of opportunities and resources, circulating them within groups rather than across them. What this means is that the persistence of inequality is not simply a matter of material advantage and disadvantage; along with it goes a range of attitudes, social relationships and styles of life, so the persistence of inequality over time is partly about the continual reproduction of these social relationships and styles of life. Because social hierarchy acts as a constraint on all close social relationships, in turn, the patterning of such relationships helps to transmit and reproduce hierarchy itself Bottero, Wendy. Stratification : Social Division and Inequality, Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 Social divisions by: “Social class is defined as “Educational inequalities “Ethnicity is associated “Status is a social division ‘social stratification are evident along gender with cultural identities. within contemporary resulting from the lines, between different Ethnic identity results in society, associated with unequal distribution of ethnic groups and social divisions between money, prestige, material wealth, power and between different social societal groups. Different possessions, home and prestige’ (Macionis and classes” ethnic groups are lifestyle. Status is a marker Plummer 2008: 238).” clustered in specific of position within a occupations and consumerist world. Those geographical areas, with the least social status signifying social division.” are socially excluded and viewed negatively.” Warwick-Booth, L. 2013. Social divisions and inequality: an overview. In Social Inequality (pp. 27-52). SAGE  Social divisions by: “Inequalities exist between “Disabled people are “Heterosexuality is “Globally, people are generally men and women. Men and effectively excluded from viewed as normal within living longer. Existing social women have different many areas of social life society at many levels, divisions, such as gender and social roles and and society. Disabled such as via the institution class divides, become occupations, but these are individuals are less likely of marriage, social exaggerated in later life. Older not natural; they are to be employed when security systems and people can face negative structural and based upon compared to able-bodied popular culture. Gay and attitudes in some societies. power differentials. individuals. Disabled lesbian sexualities are Childhood is also socially Notions of masculinity and people are more likely to marginalised, resulting in constructed and affected by femininity influence and experience poverty and discrimination (Scott and power differentials.” constrain both men and discrimination (Hyde Jackson 2000).” women in different ways” 2000).” Warwick-Booth, L. 2013. Social divisions and inequality: an overview. In Social Inequality (pp. 27-52). SAGE Case study. Disabled people and inequality Impact of COVID-19 In Canada, people with disabilities face discrimination, unemployment and underemployment, higher rates of poverty, and barriers to accessing many services. Workers with disabilities also often face difficulties receiving proper accommodations and encounter barriers to hiring and promotion. In 2020, the inequities facing people with disabilities were amplified: ◦ More than one third of people with long-term conditions or disabilities experienced a temporary or permanent job loss or reduced hours during the pandemic, according to a recent study by Statistics Canada. ◦ About one third also reported a decrease in their income. In many cases, the reduced income significantly impacted their ability to meet their food, and grocery needs and purchase personal protective equipment. https://psacunion.ca/international-day-of-persons-with-disabilities This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND  Disability and inequality “The academic field of disability studies has brought attention to the ways in which conventional understandings of disability have served to disadvantage those who are disabled. Traditionally, the medical model of disability locates the causes of disability in the individual body. This is linked to individualistic understandings of disability which have formed the dominant discourse of societal understandings. Those who are disabled have different bodies and it is these bodies that cause them problems. Comparatively, This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY a social model of disability locates the causes of disability as a form of social oppression and discrimination. Individualistic understandings see disability as located in the individual – a tragedy – and thus disabled individuals need professional help. Comparatively, the social model suggests that disability needs to be seen as a consequence of social attitudes, design and a lack of civil rights” (Warwick-Booth, 2013) Legislation: Accessible Canada Act June 2019 Definitions from the Act Barrier “means anything—including anything physical, architectural, technological or attitudinal, anything that is based on information or communications or anything that is the result of a policy or a practice—that hinders the full and equal participation in society of persons with an impairment, including a physical, mental, intellectual, cognitive, learning, communication or sensory impairment or a functional limitation.” Disability “means any impairment, including a physical, mental, intellectual, cognitive, learning, communication or sensory impairment—or a functional limitation—whether permanent, temporary or episodic in nature, or evident or not, that, in interaction with a barrier, hinders a person’s full and equal participation in society.” Legislation: Accessible Canada Act Purpose The purpose of the Accessible Canada Act is to make Canada barrier-free by January 1, 2040. This involves identifying, removing and preventing barriers in federal jurisdiction in the following priority areas: employment the built environment (buildings and public spaces) information and communication technologies communication, other than information and communication technologies the procurement of goods, services and facilities the design and delivery of programs and services, and transportation (airlines, as well as rail, road and marine transportation providers that cross provincial or international borders) Legislation: Accessible Canada Act Principles The Act is to be implemented in recognition of, and in accordance with, the following principles: everyone must be treated with dignity everyone must have the same opportunity to make for themselves the life they are able and wish to have everyone must be able to participate fully and equally in society everyone must have meaningful options and be free to make their own choices, with support if they desire laws, policies, programs, services, and structures must take into account the ways that different kinds of barriers and discrimination intersect persons with disabilities must be involved in the development and design of laws, policies, programs, services, and structures, and accessibility standards and regulations must be made with the goal of achieving the highest level of accessibility. https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/accessible-canada/act-summary.html Watch the video https://www.csps-efpc.gc.ca/video/disability-inclusion-psc- intro-eng.aspx Discussion in groups (10 min) SOCIAL DIFFERENCES, DIVISIONS, AND INEQUALITIES (Part 2) Module I. Lecture 4. Jan 23 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B. Case study: Age and inequality Social class intersects the division of age in that groups of people of the same age have distinct sets of life chances as a result of their position in the social strata. The material deprivation and inequality structured by class and gender, become exaggerated in later life. Therefore, those who found it difficult to enter the labour market and who achieved poor rewards for their labour tend in their old age to be among the most materially deprived in the population. The challenges of an ageing society are raising humanitarian concerns in lower income countries because change is occurring rapidly and many older people have low incomes, poor health and little social protection, such as welfare or health care services. Consequently, older people within these societies are much more likely to be ignored because of the multitude of other problems that exist, resulting in age being a more significant social division for inhabitants of these countries (Harper 2006).” Warwick-Booth, L. 2013. Social divisions and inequality: an overview. In Social Inequality (pp. 27-52). SAGE  Sociological theories Functionalist theorists suggest that older people must adjust to their changing role within the broader societal context. o Disengagement theory builds on these arguments by suggesting that older people should disengage from society when they are no longer useful, as this enables society to function more effectively (Cumming and Henry 1961). This is a very negative conceptualisation of the ageing process and not necessarily how older people view themselves or their age-related transitions (Howard et al. 1986). Theoretical interpretations have developed more positively, with the life-course This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY perspective viewing ageing as a process that continues from birth to death (Giddens 2009). Old age is by no means the only age category in which disadvantage is an issue. Evidence also demonstrates how younger people are often excluded and face many social divisions. Warwick-Booth, L. 2013. Social divisions and inequality: an overview. In Social Inequality (pp. 27-52). SAGE Aging and inequality “as the global population gets older, creating a world more supportive for all is more important than ever: by 2030, one in six people worldwide will be aged 60 years or over, and the number of people over 80 years old is expected to triple between now and 2050, according to the World Health Organization. (…) Unequal aging is often reinforced, and even amplified, by how social programs and policies are structured (…) and by embedded systemic racism, sexism, ageism, and other forms of discrimination. (…) Huge gaps in access to quality healthcare, affordable and accessible housing, and livable wages accumulate over a person’s whole life—so there’s no easy starting point.” Jessica Colarossi. Feb. 21, 2024. “The Ingredients of Unequal Aging: Housing, Income, and Health”. Interview with Judith Gonyea. The Brink. University of Boston. https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/the-ingredients-of-unequal-aging/#:~:text=Unequal%20aging%20is%20often%20reinforced,and%20other%20forms%20of%20discrimination Pillars of unequal aging PILLAR 1: ‘It’s hard to talk about unequal aging without talking about income.’ “Research shows that it becomes more difficult for a person to escape poverty in their later years (…) causing economic inequality among older adults to remain inescapable without outside assistance. (…) ending unequal aging and income inequality is INCOME. both a race and a gender justice issue. ‘Historical and ongoing structural racism and sexism in the labor market have placed persons of color and women at greater risk of poverty’ (Goynea).” PILLAR 2: ‘Housing affordability is an issue that transcends age. I think it’s one of the great challenges we face.’ “For older adults, it’s particularly tough to find affordable housing that’s also accessible. But well-suited and well- located housing can have a positive impact on quality of life—like being near a bus stop, being within walking HOUSING. or driving distance of a grocery store and doctor’s office, having an elevator to high floors, and having sidewalks.” PILLAR 3: ‘Poverty is a core social determinant of health. One’s work history, including the type of occupation and employment stability, affects retirement income and health in old age.’ Is important to understand “the impossibility of separating health from other aspects of people’s lives—economic stability, where they live, HEALTH. the food they eat, the people they spend time with. (…) loneliness increased depression significantly and placed people at elevated risk of being food insecure.” Jessica Colarossi. Feb. 21, 2024. “The Ingredients of Unequal Aging: Housing, Income, and Health”. Interview with Judith Gonyea. The Brink. University of Boston. https://www.bu.edu/articles/2024/the-ingredients-of-unequal-aging/#:~:text=Unequal%20aging%20is%20often%20reinforced,and%20other%20forms%20of%20discrimination. Age-Friendly Cities and Communities The number of older adults is increasing rapidly, and this demographic shift places an increased level of strain and tension on the various international healthcare and welfare systems. Most older adults wish to age in place. Many make use of long- term care services, including homecare, rehabilitation services, and social support, as well as home modifications and technology, although, contrary to popular belief, this is not the majority of older people. One way to support older people to live the lives they wish to live is through the Age-Friendly Cities and Communities initiative, a world-wide programme launched by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2007 in order to make cities more tuned to the needs and requirements of older citizens. van Hoof, J.; Marston, H.R. Age-Friendly Cities and Communities: State of the Art and Future Perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph18041644 Age-Friendly Cities and Communities The World Health Organization defines Age-Friendly Cities and Communities as follows: ‘In an age-friendly community, policies, services, and structures related to the physical and social environment are designed to support and enable older people to ‘age actively’—that is, to live in security, enjoy good health and continue to participate fully in society.’ van Hoof, J.; Marston, H.R. Age-Friendly Cities and Communities: State of the Art and Future Perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph18041644 Age-Friendly Cities and Communities “Membership to the Network is not an accreditation for age-friendliness. Rather, it reflects cities’ commitment to listen to the needs of their ageing population, assess and monitor their age-friendliness and work collaboratively with older people and across sectors to create age-friendly physical and social environments. Membership is also a commitment to share experience, achievements and lessons learnt with other cities and communities.” Age-Friendly World https://extranet.who.int/agefriendlyworld/who-network/  Age-Friendly Cities and Communities What does this map show? Despite the Age-friendly Cities and Communities seems to be an attractive initiative to address aging, the map shows the geopolitics of inequality. https://extranet.who.int/agefriendlyworld/who-network/ Only wealthy and medium income countries had established cities, communities, and organizations or showed commitment to create age-friendly environments Other challenges “(…) there are many unanswered questions and challenges lying ahead. For instance, how is the complex interplay of needs and demands of older persons included into the design of age- friendly solutions in every possible domain? In order to create age-appropriate living environments, it is of the utmost importance to involve older people in the design of their living environment, particularly because the importance given to neighbourhoods in old age can vary greatly. Another question is what the age-friendly agenda and its recommendations mean for older people living in such age-friendly cities and communities. In short, what do citizens notice in their everyday lives of the efforts to be or become an age-friendly city? Additionally, how can you really tell that a city is age-friendly, for instance, by measuring the age-friendliness of cities using core indicators, and that being part of this global network of cities is not just a tokenistic attempt of urban governments to show a friendly image to the outside world? Do age-friendly cities and communities really offer better living conditions and environments to their older citizens and the overall population than non-age-friendly cities? In short, what does it truly mean to be age-friendly in practice? Relevant for various stakeholders is the question whether the programme is still up to date after being in use for nearly a decade and a half.” van Hoof, J.; Marston, H.R. Age-Friendly Cities and Communities: State of the Art and Future Perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18, 1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph18041644 Group discussion Watch the video (15 min) Watch: https://youtu.be/WXELgwHQ34o https://extranet.who.int/agefriendlyworld/researching-age-friendly-cities/ Thinking about van Hoof and Marston’s questions discuss the Film: Researching Age-friendly Cities: o What does the film show about the complex interplay of needs and demands of older persons to design age-friendly Group discussion solutions? 20 min o Considering the project Researching Age-Friendly Cities, how is it possible to involve older people in the design of their living environment? o What can you tell from the video about the meaning for the participants on the project to build an age-friendly solution? o Discuss how can we really tell that a city is age-friendly? o Based on the film and the group discussion, do you think age-friendly cities and communities offer better living conditions and environments to their older citizens and the overall population than non-age-friendly cities? SOCIAL DIFFERENCES, DIVISIONS, AND INEQUALITIES (Part 3) Module I. Lecture 5. Jan 28 SOCI 365 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION LAURA B. MONTES DE OCA B.  What do you see? https://www.instagram.com/reel/DBPPf4rMnYO/?igsh=OG1tcHgyeHJ5YWtt “Area effects” Location + unequal housing opportunities → social problems. o The area where → a social division and lead to social exclusion. o The type of housing that you occupy is associated with social status. → the conceptual framework of social capital. Social capital is a concept defined in a variety of ways, for Location, housing example as levels of trust (Fukuyama 1999), networks (Putnam, 2000) and family relationships (Coleman 1998). and geography While ongoing debates exist in the academic literature about what social capital is and how it can best be measured, some commentators argue that all forms of social capital matter because the processes that prevent poverty and social exclusion depend on capital in many forms (Piachard 2002).” Warwick-Booth, L. 2013. Social divisions and inequality: an overview. In Social Inequality (pp. 27-52). SAGE Disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada “Since the 1990s, neoliberalism has dominated policy discourses across the globe, characterized by the state’s retreat from various welfare provisions and support and the assertion of the superiority of the free- market mechanism of distribution (Harvey, Citation2007). Housing, the ‘wobbly pillar of the welfare state’ (Harloe, Citation2008), has been at the forefront of neoliberalization. Housing policy orientation in many industrialized societies has shifted from supply-side interventions to demand-side policies that encouraged homeownership, deregulation, and privatization (Jacobs, Citation2019). The restructuring of the state and market in resource allocation has a far-reaching impact on society’s social stratification and inequality.” (Zhu et al, 2021: 1860) Zhu, Y., Yuan, Y., Gu, J., & Fu, Q. (2021). Neoliberalization and inequality: disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada 1981– 2016. Housing Studies, 38(10), 1860–1887. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1080/02673037.2021.2004093  Disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada “…neoliberalism transforms ‘a model of social citizenship, where all citizens are entitled to a basic level of benefits, to a model of market citizenship’ where citizenship entitlement is contingent on a person’s attachment to the labour market and economic status. Since housing remains central to a society’s opportunity structures, neoliberal housing policies perpetuate housing unaffordability and accentuate inequality.” (Zhu et al, 2021: 1860) This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND Zhu, Y., Yuan, Y., Gu, J., & Fu, Q. (2021). Neoliberalization and inequality: disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada 1981– 2016. Housing Studies, 38(10), 1860–1887. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1080/02673037.2021.2004093 Disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada “Canada’s housing market is among the most unaffordable, with a top- ranking house-price-to-income ratio among OECD member nations in 2019 (OECD, Citation2020). Homeownership has become increasingly unaffordable over the past two decades. Housing prices increased by over 230% between 2000 and 2019 (Teranet & NBC, 2020), whereas median nominal income rose by 74% during the same period” (Zhu et al, 2021: 1861) Zhu, Y., Yuan, Y., Gu, J., & Fu, Q. (2021). Neoliberalization and inequality: disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada 1981– 2016. Housing Studies, 38(10), 1860–1887. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1080/02673037.2021.2004093 Disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada “Until the mid-1980s, Canada had a welfare housing regime with pronounced state intervention in housing supply, first in the form of massive public housing funded and managed by government, then in community housing developed by a mix of community groups with sustained federal funding and finance. At this stage, social housing policy, alongside assisted homeownership programs, subsidies to private rental development, subsidies to private-rental tenants, and public land development, was an integral part of a broader agenda that maintained a market-state balance in housing supply.” (Zhu et al, 2021: 1861) Zhu, Y., Yuan, Y., Gu, J., & Fu, Q. (2021). Neoliberalization and inequality: disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada 1981– 2016. Housing Studies, 38(10), 1860–1887. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1080/02673037.2021.2004093 Disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada “Social stratification in Canada is present along the lines of gender, race and ethnicity, and the intersectionality of multiple identities. Persistent inequalities faced by these groups are likely to perpetuate inequalities in the housing system. Research shows that female-headed households, young adults, lone seniors, recent immigrants, minorities, and Indigenous peoples face more difficulties obtaining homeownership and decent housing, net of economic status and household characteristics.” (Zhu et al, 2021: 1864). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC Zhu, Y., Yuan, Y., Gu, J., & Fu, Q. (2021). Neoliberalization and inequality: disparities in access to affordable housing in urban Canada 1981– 2016. Housing Studies, 38(10), 1860–1887. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.1080/02673037.2021.2004093  Calgary: the most income- unequal CMA in Canada* Neighbourhood Change in Calgary: An Evolving Geography of Income Inequality oIn 2015, the Calgary metropolitan area had the highest average and Social Difference household income in Canada. However, the spatial separation of Ivan Townshend, Byron Miller and Derek the poor is becoming more evident in Canadian cities (Fong and Shibuya 2000, 2003). Cook oCalgary is Canada’s most income-unequal CMA. Income inequality between individuals (i.e., non-spatial inequality) was higher than for any other CMA. oIn terms of spatial (i.e., neighbourhood) income inequality, Calgary was a close second to Toronto. oCalgary experienced a rapid rise in levels of income segregation since 1980, and a major spike in income segregation in the mid- 2000s just prior to the economic crisis of 2007. oRising levels of income inequality and income segregation have been important drivers of the changing social ecology of Calgary. (Townshend, Miller & Cook, 2020: 196). *Census Metropolitan Areas Geography of Income Inequality and Social Difference Maps of Calgary, 1980 compared to 2015, show socio-spatial differentiation related to socio-economic status that intersects with ethnic or racial dimensions, education and occupation. “There is little doubt that spatial separation and segregation according to visible minority status has intensified in Calgary.” “The dominant node of visible minority concentration occurs in the northeast of the city. In 2016, this area included tracts ranging from 35% to 90% visible minority.” Townshend, Ivan, Byron Miller and Derek Cook (2020). Neighbourhood Change in Calgary: An Evolving Geography of Income Inequality and Social Difference. In Grant, Jill, Walks, Alan and Ramos, Howard. Changing Neighbourhoods: Social and Spatial Polarization in Canadian Cities, University of British Columbia Press, 2020. https://doi-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/10.59962/9780774862042  Gaining-ground neighbourhoods Neighbourhoods that have seen their income ratios rise substantially over time are described as up-grading or “gaining ground.” Losing-ground neighbourhoods Neighbourhoods that have witnessed substantial relative decline in their income ratios are obviously “losing ground.” Townshend, Ivan, Byron Miller and Derek Cook (2020). Neighbourhood Change in Calgary: An Evolving Geography of Income Inequality and Social Difference. In Grant, Jill, Walks, Alan and Ramos, Howard. Changing Neighbourhoods: Social and Spatial Polarization in Canadian Cities, University of British Columbia Press, 2020. Calgary: 1980-2015 The geography of inequality Inequality is expressed in: High incomes in the westward and northwest expansion, as well as the inner-city revitalization, gentrification, and high-rise condominium development. At the same time, the middle and outer suburbs (with the exception of northwestern neighbourhoods) are generally experiencing income decline. A pattern of income gains in the central city while suburban areas are losing ground is not unique to Calgary Townshend, Ivan, Byron Miller and Derek Cook (2020). Neighbourhood Change in Calgary: An Evolving Geography of Income Inequality and Social Difference. In Grant, Jill, Walks, Alan and Ramos, Howard. Changing Neighbourhoods: Social and Spatial Polarization in Canadian Cities, University of British Columbia Press, 2020. Gaining-ground Losing-ground neighbourhoods neighbourhoods VS Education: Education: - 40% of people aged 25 or over with at least one - 26% of people aged 25 or over with at least one university degree. university degree. - 10% of people aged 25 or over who did not - 17% of people aged 25 or over who did not complete high school. complete high school. Labour force: Labour force: Professional white-collar jobs: Professional white-collar jobs: - 32% managerial (including business, finance, and - 26% managerial (including business, finance, and administration) administration) -30% professional occupations (including education, -24% professional occupations (including education, health, science, and government) health, science, and government). - 20% employment in sales and service occupations - 26% employment in sales and service occupations - 12% manufacturing, trades, transport, and - 20% manufacturing, trades, transport, and construction construction - 6% unemployment - 7% unemployment Gaining-ground Losing-ground neighbourhoods neighbourhoods VS Family and age: Family and age: - 14.5% of children aged 0–14 in the neighbourhood. - 17.3% of children aged 0–14 in the neighbourhood. - 19.6% of young adults aged 25–34. - 14.7% of young adults aged 25–34 *“youthification” - 31% single-person households. of central cities. - 12.8% single-parent families. - 20% single-person households. - 16.9% single-parent families. Ethnic, Racial & Visible Minority: Ethnic, Racial & Visible Minority: - 22% visible minority populations. - 38% visible minority populations. - 7% East Asians. - 10% East Asians. - 4% South Asians. - 9% South Asians. - 3% Latin American and Caribbean groups. - 4% Latin American and Caribbean groups. - 48% Western European ethnic groups. - 37% Western European ethnic groups. - 10% whose mother tongue is neither English nor - 19% whose mother tongue is neither English nor French. French.  Some solutions The city and numerous NGOs and community organizations attempt to intervene to empower marginalized communities and neighbourhoods. The City of Calgary Community and Neighbourhood Services department worked with United Way to develop the Strong Neighbourhoods initiative. o This t