Cog Psych Briefing Doc PDF
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This document provides a briefing on cognitive psychology, focusing on learning and long-term memory. It covers concepts such as memory systems, implicit/explicit learning, levels of processing, and different memory types.
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Week 6: Learning and Long-Term Memory Core Concepts: Long-Term Memory (LTM):Described as the "archive"of past events and learned knowledge, working in conjunction with working memory. It covers information from r...
Week 6: Learning and Long-Term Memory Core Concepts: Long-Term Memory (LTM):Described as the "archive"of past events and learned knowledge, working in conjunction with working memory. It covers information from recent moments to the distant past. Incidental vs. Intentional Learning:Learning canbe either intentional (deliberate and purposeful, like studying for an exam) or incidental (unplanned and often arising as a by-product of other activities, like learning the layout of a new house). Implicit vs. Explicit Learning:Explicit learninginvolves conscious awareness of what is being learned, while implicit learning occurs without conscious awareness (e.g., learning complex patterns in a serial reaction time task). The distinction between incidental and implicit learning lies in the potential for conscious awareness. Assessing Implicit Learning: The serial reaction time task is used to study implicit learning. Participants respond to stimuli appearing in a complex, repeating sequence. Their response time improves over trials, indicating learning, even though they are unaware of the pattern. Slower responses to novel sequences further support the presence of implicit learning. Key Differences Between Implicit and Explicit Learning (Reber, 1993): Robustness:Implicit learning is less susceptibleto disruption. Age independence:Less affected by age than explicitlearning. Low variability:Shows less individual variation. IQ independence:Less influenced by intelligence. Commonality of process:Similar underlying mechanismsacross species. While evidence suggests these are distinct learning types, much learning likely involves both. Levels of Processing: Craik & Lockhart's (1972) Levels of Processing Theory posits that memory retention depends on the depth of information processing: Deep processing:Focus on meaning and semantic analysisleads to better memory. Shallow processing:Focus on physical features resultsin poorer memory. Studies like Craik & Tulving (1975) using tasks varying in depth of processing (e.g., uppercase/lowercase, rhyming, sentence fit) support this theory. However, Challis et al. (1996) suggest implicit memory may be less affected by the level of processing, as seen in word-fragment tasks where prior exposure aids completion regardless of processing depth. Memory Systems: Moving beyond a single LTM store, researchers propose multiple LTM systems: Non-declarative Memory:Includes procedural memory(memory for motor skills) and other forms like priming. Evidence comes from patients like H.M. who retain procedural learning despite severe episodic memory impairments. Declarative Memory:Comprises episodic memory (personalevents) and semantic memory (general knowledge). While often intertwined, evidence from amnesia studies suggests these are distinct systems. For example, individuals with amnesia may have impaired episodic memory but intact semantic memory. mnesia: A Amnesia involves severe memory problems due to brain damage, often affecting episodic memory. Retrograde amnesia:Impaired memory for events beforethe injury. Anterograde amnesia:Impaired learning of new informationafter the injury. While some research suggests separate episodic and semantic systems, others argue for a single system with differences in binding or associative learning. Eye-tracking studies in amnesia patients reveal an inability to implicitly remember scene information. Forgetting: Decay:Memory fades over time. Ebbinghaus's (1885/1913)studies using nonsense syllables showed the relationship between forgetting and retention interval. Interference:Competition from other material disruptsmemory. Proactive interference:Old learning interferes withnew learning. Retroactive interference:New learning interfereswith recalling old information. Encoding Specificity: Retrieval is enhanced when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding (Thomson & Tulving, 1970). Godden & Baddeley's (1975) study with divers showed that recall was best when learning and testing occurred in the same environment (underwater or on shore). Consolidation and Reconsolidation: Consolidation:The process of stabilising new memories in LTM, involving the hippocampus and potentially sleep. Reconsolidation:When a consolidated memory is reactivated,it becomes fragile again, susceptible to modification, leading to potential errors like hindsight bias and the misinformation effect. Key Quotes: "Archive of information about past events and knowledge learned"(definition of LTM) "Memory depends on how information is encoded"(Levelsof Processing Theory) "Recall is better if retrieval context matches encoding context"(Encoding Specificity Principle) "New encoded memories (unstable) -> Consolidation -> Stored memories (stable)" "Reactivation (retrieval or reminder) -> Reconsolidation -> Modification -> Altered memories (Stable)" Week 7: Knowledge in Semantic Memory hat are Concepts? W Concepts are the fundamental units of symbolic knowledge. They are mental representations of categories, allowing us to understand and organise the world around us. Categories are classes of similar things sharing essential features or functionalities. For example, "birds" is a natural category while "vehicles" is an artefact category. Why are Concepts Useful? Organisation:Concepts structure our declarative,semantic knowledge in long-term memory. Efficiency:As "pointers to knowledge", categoriesprovide general information, reducing cognitive load during learning, perception, and recall. pecialisation:Concepts enable us to identify unique characteristics of individual items S within a category. Defining Concepts: Theoretical Approaches Several approaches attempt to explain how concepts are defined: 1. Common Features Approach: This approach posits that category membership is determined by necessary and sufficient defining features. For instance, a bachelor is defined as an unmarried adult male. Strengths:Offers a clear-cut classification system. Weaknesses:Difficulty in establishing universallyagreed-upon defining features for many concepts. Fuzzy boundaries between categories. Doesn't reflect the way we naturally think – consider the pumpkin example where participants had varying and changing opinions on its categorisation as fruit or vegetable. 2.Prototype Approach: Concepts are represented by a mental "prototype" – an idealised average of category members encountered previously. Categorisation involves comparing new items to this prototype. Strengths: Handles "fuzzy concepts" (e.g., "monster", "games") well. Explains the typicality effect:prototypical objectsare processed faster and judged more quickly. Empirical Evidence: Rosch (1975):Participants rated apples and orangesas the "best" examples of the "fruit" category. Rosch & Mervis (1975):Strong correlations found betweenprototype ratings and shared attributes, indicating that more typical items share more features. Smith, Shoben & Rips (1974):Sentences about prototypicalinstances were verified faster. Weaknesses: Prototypes may not represent the features of most category members (e.g., tall trees rated as more typical than average-height trees). Familiarity can override prototype matching. Challenges in applying this approach to abstract concepts (e.g., "justice"). 3. Exemplar Approach: Concepts are represented by multiple concrete examples (exemplars) rather than an abstract prototype. Categorisation involves comparing new items to stored exemplars. Strengths:Explains difficulty in categorising atypical instances due to dissimilarity to stored exemplars. Accounts for the typicality effect:numerous similarexemplars facilitate faster classification. Weaknesses:Lacks clarity on which instances are storedas exemplars. Unclear how different exemplars are recalled during categorisation. Limited explanation of how concepts are organised. 4.Knowledge-Based Approach: his approach considers the relationship between concept features, including causal relations T and contextual influences. For example, Ahn et al. (2000) demonstrated that causal relationships between features influence categorisation decisions. Strengths:Accounts for factors like causal relations,context, and non-obvious features in categorisation. Explains ad hoc categories (e.g., "things to sell at a garage sale"). Key Points:Knowledge of concepts goes beyond justlisting features. Context influences concept representation (Barsalou, 2008). Yee and Thompson-Schill (2016) argue against a single core representation across all contexts. Organisation of Concepts: Concepts are often organised hierarchically: Superordinate level:Most general (e.g., "furniture"). Basic level:Intermediate level (e.g., "chair", "table"). Subordinate level:Specific types (e.g., "kitchenchair"). Special properties of basic level concepts: Spontaneously named. Acquired first by children. Share similar shapes. Faster recognition compared to other levels. Limitations of hierarchical organisation: Familiarity and expertise can influence the "basic" level. Perceptual distinctiveness can favour superordinate categories for certain tasks. Semantic Networks: Collins & Loftus (1975) proposed a semantic network model where concepts are interconnected nodes, with shorter links between closely related concepts. Spreading activation:Activating one node spreadsto connected nodes, priming them for easier access. Schemas: Schemas are packets of knowledge about the world, events, or people based on past experiences. They guide recall, often leading to consistency bias. Bartlett (1932): Demonstrated that memory is reconstructed based on existing schemas. Brewer & Treyans (1981): Showed that schemas influence recall and can lead to false memories. Stereotypes: Stereotypes are oversimplified generalisations about certain groups. They reduce processing demands but can be inaccurate and harmful. Semantic Dementia: A condition characterised by widespread loss of knowledge about concepts and words, distinct from Alzheimer's disease. Key Takeaways: Defining and organising concepts is complex. Multiple theoretical approaches contribute to our understanding. ur knowledge of concepts is dynamic and influenced by experience, context, and O individual differences. Semantic memory is crucial for our understanding and interaction with the world. Week 8: Exploring Everyday Memory I. Everyday Memory: Definition and Characteristics Unlike traditional memory studies focusing on lists and isolated items, everyday memory examines how we remember experiences and information relevant to our daily lives. Distant Past and Memory of Memories:Everyday memoriesoften reach back to the distant past, encompassing memories of past memories. Implicit Acquisition:Acquisition of everyday memoriesis often implicit, occurring as a by-product of daily activities rather than through deliberate memorisation. Social Element:A significant characteristic of everydaymemory is its inherent social dimension, reflecting the interconnectedness of our experiences with others. Goal-Dependent Accuracy:The accuracy of everydaymemory is often shaped by the specific goals at play, with absolute accuracy not always being the primary objective. II. Autobiographical Memory: A Subset of Episodic Memory? Autobiographical memory refers to the memory of our own life, intertwined with our sense of self, goals, and emotions. Two Perspectives:The relationship between autobiographicalmemory and episodic memory (memory for specific events) is debated. Some argue that autobiographical memory is a distinct and more complex system, while others view episodic memory as a component within the broader framework of autobiographical memory. The "What, When, Where" with Personal Significance:The latter perspective suggests that episodic memory provides the "what, when, and where" of events, which then integrates with autobiographical information about our self-concept, emotions, and beliefs. III. The Variability of Autobiographical Memory "Good Enough": While generally reliable, autobiographical memory is far from perfect and subject to various influences. Hyperthymestic Syndrome:The case of AJ (Jill Price),with her exceptional ability to recall detailed information from almost every day of her life, highlights the potential for superior autobiographical memory. Researchers coined the term "hyperthymestic syndrome" to describe this phenomenon, speculating potential contributing factors such as obsessional tendencies, difficulty with inhibition, spatial conceptualisation of time, and specific brain structure variations. Strengths and Weaknesses:Research reveals inconsistenciesin autobiographical memory accuracy. While individuals can accurately recognise classmates from yearbook pictures even after 25 years, they tend to overestimate their college grades. This highlights the influence of personal biases and emotions on memory recall. IV. Flashbulb Memories: Vivid but Not Necessarily Accurate Flashbulb memories, highly vivid and detailed memories of dramatic events, are often considered more accurate due to their emotional intensity. However, research challenges this assumption. eptember 11th Study:A study examining memories of the September 11th attacks S revealed that while the vividness of flashbulb memories remained high over time, their consistency (accuracy of details) was actually lower compared to everyday memories. V. Recovered Memories: The Debate of Repression and Accuracy The concept of repressed traumatic memories being recovered later in life is highly debated. False Memories:Researchers like Loftus argue thatrecovered memories are more likely to be false memories, influenced by suggestion, therapy techniques, or other external factors. A study involving fabricated childhood stories demonstrated the susceptibility of individuals to forming false memories based on suggestive information. VI. Childhood Amnesia: The Limits of Early Memory Retrieval Childhood amnesia refers to the inability of adults to recall autobiographical information from early childhood. Two Stages:Research suggests two stages of childhoodamnesia: full amnesia for the first two years of life and partial amnesia for the remaining pre-school years. This phenomenon is potentially attributed to the immaturity of the hippocampus and the underdeveloped sense of self in early childhood. Early Memory in Children:Studies indicate that children'sfirst memories also occur later than their actual earliest experiences, with first memories reported around 1.5 years for children aged 5-9, 2.5 years for adolescents, and just over 3 years for adults. VII. Reminiscence Bump: The Significance of Youthful Memories The reminiscence bump describes the tendency for older individuals to recall a disproportionate number of autobiographical events from adolescence and early adulthood. Cultural Consistency:This phenomenon appears consistentacross different cultures, suggesting universal influences. Life Script Theory:One explanation is the "life script"theory, proposing that cultural expectations about major life events guide and organise autobiographical memory retrieval. Supporting this theory, a study found that children predominantly wrote about life-script events when asked about their future lives. VIII. Self-Memory System Model: A Multi-Level Framework The self-memory system model offers a comprehensive theory of autobiographical memory. It proposes a hierarchical structure comprising: Autobiographical Knowledge Base:This base consistsof three levels of specificity: Lifetime periods:Extended situations like studyingat a particular university. General events:Ongoing activities (e.g., weekly danceclass) or one-off events (e.g., a holiday). Event-specific knowledge:Detailed sensory information,feelings, and other specifics associated with general events. Working Self:The working self represents our currentgoals and future aspirations. It influences how autobiographical information is stored and recalled, ensuring alignment with our personal identity and objectives. IX. Evidence and Challenges of the Self-Memory System Model Support from Amnesia:The model finds support in observationsof individuals with retrograde amnesia (impaired memory for events preceding brain injury). Despite pisodic memory impairments, they often retain access to general events, lifetime e periods, autobiographical knowledge about their lives, and even their personality traits. Ongoing Questions:The model faces ongoing challenges,particularly regarding the neural mechanisms involved and the precise interaction between the working self and the autobiographical knowledge base. X. Eyewitness Testimony: The Illusion of Reliability Despite common beliefs about the reliability of eyewitness testimony, research reveals significant vulnerabilities. Post-Event Misinformation Effect:Eyewitness memoriesare highly susceptible to distortion by misleading information presented after the event. A classic study showed that simply changing the verb used to describe a car accident (e.g., "smashed" versus "contacted") significantly influenced participant's estimations of speed and their recollection of broken glass. Central vs. Peripheral Details:Research demonstratesthat even central details of events can be distorted by post-event misinformation, with participants accepting a significant percentage of false statements about both central and peripheral aspects of a witnessed event. XI. Source Misattribution: Confusing the Origins of Memory Source misattribution occurs when we misremember the source or origin of a retrieved memory. Overlapping Traces:When memories from different sourcesshare similarities, retrieving one memory can activate overlapping traces, leading to confusion about which source the information originated from. Narrative Sideshow Study:A study using narrativesideshows with similar details demonstrated source misattribution, with participants mistakenly recalling details from one sideshow when describing the other. XII. Challenges in Remembering Faces Accurately remembering faces is crucial for eyewitness testimony, but poses significant challenges. CCTV Identification:Research shows that even whenpresented with a target face from CCTV footage alongside high-quality photographs, identification accuracy remains relatively low. Factors Impacting Accuracy:Several factors contributeto difficulties in facial recognition: Unconscious transference:Misidentifying a familiarbut innocent face as the perpetrator. Cross-race effect:Reduced accuracy in rememberingfaces of individuals from other racial groups. Confirmation bias:Distortions in memory driven bypre-existing expectations. Schemas:Influence of generalised mental frameworks about specific situations or people. XIII. Stress, Anxiety, and Weapon Focus The emotional state of an eyewitness significantly influences their memory accuracy. eapon Focus:The presence of a weapon can draw attention away from other crucial W details, impairing memory for those aspects. This effect is heightened when the weapon is unexpected. Stress and Anxiety:High stress and anxiety generallyimpair eyewitness testimony. A meta-analysis found that the identification of perpetrators was significantly worse under high-stress conditions. This impairment is attributed to the narrowing of attention towards central, threatening stimuli at the expense of peripheral details. XIV. Cognitive Interview: Enhancing Eyewitness Recall The cognitive interview is a technique designed to maximise the amount of accurate information obtained from eyewitnesses. Four Retrieval Rules:The technique employs four keyprinciples: Mental reinstatement:Encouraging the witness to mentallyrecreate the context of the event. Report all details:Emphasizing the importance ofreporting even seemingly minor details. Describe in different orders:Asking the witness torecount the event in various sequences, including reverse chronological order. Different viewpoints:Prompting the witness to describethe event from different perspectives. Effectiveness and Considerations:While generallyeffective, the cognitive interview must be used cautiously. Context reinstatement can potentially lead to false recognitions based on perceived familiarity. Additionally, the technique is less effective when the event was highly stressful. XV. Prospective Memory: Remembering to Remember Prospective memory refers to our ability to remember to perform intended actions in the future. Distinct from Retrospective Memory:Unlike retrospectivememory, which focuses on past experiences and knowledge, prospective memory centres on future intentions. Low Informational Content:Prospective memory ofteninvolves minimal information, primarily concerning the "when" of an action rather than the "what." Lack of External Cues:Prospective memory often operateswithout external cues, relying on internal reminders and self-initiated retrieval. XVI. Event-Based vs. Time-Based Prospective Memory Prospective memory research distinguishes between: Time-based prospective memory:Remembering to performan action at a specific time. Event-based prospective memory:Remembering to carryout an action when a particular event occurs. External Cues as Triggers:Event-based tasks tendto be more easily studied and often involve external cues that trigger the intended action. A study comparing event-based and time-based tasks in a real work setting found that performance was significantly better for event-related tasks. XVII. Neurological Differences and Real-Life Implications istinct Neural Processes:Research using ERPs suggests that event-based and D time-based prospective memory may involve different neural processes, further supporting the distinction between these two types. Aviation Accidents:Prospective memory failures areimplicated in a significant proportion of fatal aircraft accidents, often due to interruptions and the demanding cognitive load of piloting. Research highlights the importance of pausing after interruptions to re-establish intended actions and minimise errors. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Individuals with OCDoften exhibit compulsive checking behaviours, potentially stemming from both poor prospective memory functioning and low confidence in their memory abilities (meta-memory). Repeated checking can further worsen memory by interfering with the formation of vivid, detailed memories of previous actions. XVIII. Improving Prospective Memory and Conclusion The document concludes by offering strategies to enhance prospective memory, including: Using external cues (notes, alarms, visual reminders). Minimising interruptions. Utilising "pause and plan" strategies after interruptions to regain focus. Considering the context and anticipating potential challenges. eek 9: Key Themes and Ideas in Language Production and W Comprehension A. Speaking Efficiency We speak at a rate of 150-200 words per minute, utilising strategies to minimise processing demands. Preformulation:Repetitive use of word combinations. Altenberg (1990) estimated that up to 70% of speech consists of such combinations. Underspecification:Using simplified expressions that rely on context for complete understanding, like "polish the shoes then put them away." Syntactic priming:Unconsciously mirroring the sentence structure previously heard or read. This was highlighted by Pickering and Ferreira (2008). B. Speech Planning Planning occurs at different levels: Phrase level:Planning groups of words that express a single idea. Clause level:Planning groups of words containing subject and verb within a phrase. Research by Martin et al. (2004) suggests planning occurs at the phrase level, as evidenced by longer pauses before uttering complex phrases compared to simple ones. Speech errors provide insight into planning processes: Word exchange errors:Indicate planning ahead, as words appearing later in the sentence are erroneously produced early. Sound exchange errors (spoonerisms):Suggest a level of phonological planning within short word spans. Flexibility in Planning:The level of planning adjusts based on factors like: Speaker's pace:Slower speakers tend to plan more than rapid speakers. entence complexity:Simple sentences are planned more thoroughly. S Cognitive load:Lower cognitive load allows for more extensive planning. C. Speech Errors The average person makes a speech error every 1,000 words (Viggliocco and Hartsuiker, 2002). Spreading activation theory (Dell, 1986):Errors occur due to the simultaneous activation of multiple words and sounds during utterance planning. Lexical bias effect:Speech errors rarely result in non-words, suggesting an inherent bias towards existing words. D. Speech Perception Challenges: Rapid pace of spoken language. Difficulty in segmenting speech sounds. Interference from background noise. Models:Trace model (McClelland and Elman, 1986; McClelland, 1991): Posits three processing levels: features of sounds, phonemes, and words. Distributed cohort model:Argues against dedicated phoneme neurons, proposing activity across a layer of nodes representing meaning. Realistic Listening Conditions:Research by Mattys et al. (2009) highlights the impact of: Energetic masking (bottom-up):Interference from external noise. Informational masking (top-down):Cognitive distractions. Orthographic Information:Slower processing of words with inconsistent spelling and pronunciation suggests activation of orthographic information during speech perception. II. Language Comprehension A. Reading Average reading speed surpasses speech perception, reaching 200-300 words per minute due to: Clear word boundaries (spaces). Ability to revisit previously read text. Eye Tracking:Reveals patterns in reading: Saccades:Rapid eye movements across text. Fixations:Pauses where information is extracted. Regressions:Eye movements back to previously read text. Higher fixation rate on content words than function words. B. Word Processing Influenced by: Word frequency effect: Faster processing of familiar words. Age of acquisition:Words learned early in life are processed faster. Word length:Shorter words are recognised faster. Context effects:Semantic congruency with surrounding text facilitates processing. C. Morphological Complexity Derivation creates new words by adding morphemes (e.g., "un-drink-able"). ebate exists on whether complex words are stored in the mental lexicon or assembled D on the spot. Bertram and Hyönä (2003) propose a hybrid view: High frequency and short words are stored in the lexicon. Polymorphemic words with difficult-to-extract meanings are also stored. D. Sentence Parsing Involves understanding the grammatical structure of sentences. Challenges: Ambiguous sentences pose difficulties for the parser. Theories:Garden path theory: Syntactic analysis precedes semantic interpretation. Constraint-based models:All sources of information (syntax, semantics, world knowledge) contribute simultaneously. E. Discourse Processing Comprehension of longer texts relies on: World knowledge:General understanding of concepts and events. Schemas:Mental frameworks representing knowledge about specific situations. Inferences:Drawing conclusions based on available information. F. Schemas and Story Comprehension Bransford and Johnson (1972) demonstrate the importance of schemas: Presenting a picture related to a vague text passage enhances comprehension and recall. Titles also activate schemas and improve comprehension. G. Pragmatics Using social context and shared knowledge to infer the intended meaning. Common Ground:Shared knowledge and beliefs between speaker and listener. Lack of common ground leads to miscommunication. Egocentric Heuristic:Listeners sometimes rely solely on their own knowledge, neglecting the common ground. Individuals with lower inhibitory control or ASD may struggle with pragmatics and common ground usage. Week 10: Problem-Solving I. Understanding Problems Defining Problems:Not all problems are created equal. Well-defined problems have clearly specified initial states, goal states, and possible actions. An example is solving the Tower of Hanoi puzzle. Ill-defined problems lack clear specifications, making it difficult to define the initial state, goal state, and potential solutions. An example is the problem of "not being happy enough." Knowledge and Problems:Knowledge-rich problems require specific domain knowledge for successful resolution (e.g., fixing a car engine). Knowledge-lean problems provide all necessary information within the problem statement itself (e.g., finding a parking space). II. Problem-Solving Strategies lgorithms vs. Heuristics:Algorithms are step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a A solution for well-defined problems. They are systematic but can be time-consuming and computationally expensive for humans. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb based on past experience. They offer speed and efficiency but may not always lead to accurate solutions. Types of Heuristics:Means-end analysis: involves breaking down a problem into smaller subgoals, ultimately bridging the gap between the current state and the goal state. Hill climbing:focuses on taking steps that move closer to the goal state, even when the complete problem space is not clear. This approach is less sophisticated than means-end analysis. Progress monitoring:involves evaluating the rate of progress towards the goal and changing strategies if deemed too slow. This can be problematic, as initial progress can lead to fixation on ineffective strategies, as seen in the nine-dot problem. Availability heuristic:relies on readily available information in memory to make judgments. For example, overestimating the danger of flying due to vivid media coverage of airplane crashes. Analogical problem-solving:leverages similarities between the current problem and past experiences to find solutions. Gick and Holyoak's (1980) study demonstrated that explicitly highlighting the relevance of an analogous problem can significantly improve solution rates. Success depends on recognising relevant analogies and identifying the appropriate level of similarity: superficial, structural, or procedural. III. Insight and Incubation Insight:characterised by the "Aha!" moment, where a solution suddenly emerges after a period of impasse. Debate exists whether insight problems are fundamentally different from non-insight problems or simply involve less clear solution paths. Incubation:temporarily setting aside a problem can facilitate finding a solution. While effects are generally small, incubation is more beneficial for problems with multiple solutions and when preparation time is longer. Sleeping on a problem can also contribute to problem-solving, likely by facilitating the forgetting of misleading information. Representational Change Theory:posits that blocks in problem-solving stem from incorrect problem representation. Overcoming these blocks involves: Constraint relaxation:removing self-imposed limitations on what is permissible. Re-encoding:reinterpreting aspects of the problem. Elaboration:adding new information to the problem representation. IV. Expertise and its Limitations Expertise:achieved through extensive practice and exposure to diverse problems, allowing experts to store vast amounts of domain-specific knowledge in long-term memory. Chess experts, for instance, utilise "templates" - abstract structures representing common board configurations - to efficiently evaluate potential moves. edical experts transition from explicit to implicit reasoning with experience, M demonstrating increased efficiency in eye movement patterns. Deliberate Practice:crucial for developing expertise, involves engaging in tasks with appropriate difficulty, receiving feedback, repeating tasks, and correcting errors. Limitations of Expertise:While practice is essential, other factors like IQ, task type, and genetic predisposition also contribute to expertise. Functional fixedness:a tendency to fixate on an object's usual function, hindering its application in novel ways for problem-solving. Mental set:persistence in using previously successful strategies even when simpler solutions are available. V. Hypothesis Testing and Confirmation Bias Verification vs. Falsification:The tendency to seek confirming evidence (verification) can lead to confirmation bias, as demonstrated by Wason's (1960) study. Actively seeking disconfirming evidence (falsification) is a more robust strategy for hypothesis testing. VI. Counteracting Biases Awareness of functional fixedness and mental set can help us overcome these limitations. The generic-parts-technique, involving generating function-free descriptions of problem elements, encourages creative problem-solving and reduces functional fixedness. Week 11: Judgement, Decision Making, and Reasoning udgement Under Uncertainty: J Humans often estimate the likelihood of events to guide their actions. This is known as judgement. Psychology investigates errors and limitations in this process. Factors like information quantity, wording, and emotions can influence judgement. Heuristics and Biases: Availability Heuristic:We tend to overestimate the frequency of events based on how easily we can recall them. This is influenced by factors like direct experience, media coverage, and the affect heuristic (emotional intensity). For example, we might overestimate the likelihood of dying in a plane crash due to media coverage. Quote:"Recall from last week, the availability heuristic is a rule of thumb whereby there is a tendency to incorrectly overestimate the frequency of an event based on how easily the information can be accessed in LTM." Base-Rate Neglect:We often ignore general probabilities (base rates) when making judgments. Studies show that even when presented with base rate information, vivid descriptions can lead us to ignore this crucial data. Representativeness Heuristic:We judge the probability of an event based on how representative it seems of a category, often ignoring sample size, base rates, and the conjunction rule. The "Linda Problem" exemplifies this, where individuals deem it more likely that Linda is both a bank teller and a feminist, than just a bank teller. Quote:"Because feminist bank tellers are a subset of bank tellers, it is always more likely that someone is a bank teller than a feminist bank teller." onjunction Fallacy:This occurs when we judge the probability of two events occurring C together as higher than the probability of one event occurring alone. For example, it is always more probable that someone is a bank teller than a feminist bank teller, even if they fit the description of a feminist. The Dual Nature of Decision Making: Losses and Gains:We strive to maximise gains and minimise losses. However, we are more sensitive to losses, a phenomenon known as "loss aversion." Prospect Theory:This theory posits that our decisions are influenced by a reference point (usually our current state) and our aversion to losses. Framing Effects:The way information is presented (framed) influences our choices. Positive framing tends to be more effective. For example, we are more likely to buy meat labelled "95% lean" than "5% fat." Quote:"Positive frames cause you to set a different reference point than negative frames do. And in general, we take 'losses' more seriously than 'wins' of the same amount." Sunk-Cost Effect:We often continue investing in something (time, money, effort) based on past investments, even if it's not the optimal choice. This is known as "throwing good money after bad." Emotional and Social Influences:Emotions, particularly anxiety, can make us risk-averse. Social context also plays a role, as we often feel accountable for justifying our decisions to others, which can lead to sunk-cost behaviour. Reasoning: Logic vs. Human Tendencies: Deductive Reasoning:This involves drawing logically valid conclusions from given premises. It doesn't generate new information, but rather makes implicit information explicit. Examples include syllogistic and conditional reasoning. Inductive Reasoning:We draw general conclusions from specific observations in inductive reasoning. These conclusions are not always true but can be evaluated through hypothesis testing. Quote:"Does the argument go: general specific or specific general?" Mental Models and Heuristics:Mental models, representing possible states of affairs, guide our reasoning. However, our reliance on heuristics and biases can lead to errors. For instance, the "belief bias" demonstrates how we are more likely to accept believable conclusions even if they are logically invalid. Informal Reasoning:In real-world scenarios, we use informal reasoning based on our knowledge and the context. This is less about formal logic and more about drawing plausible conclusions based on available information. Conclusion: Human judgement, decision making, and reasoning processes are complex and influenced by numerous factors beyond pure logic. While heuristics can be efficient, they often lead to biases and errors. Understanding these processes is crucial for making better judgments and more informed decisions in all aspects of life. Week 12: Cognition and Emotion heories of emotion perception:How we understand and label our emotional T experiences. he structure of emotions:Different approaches to classifying and understanding T emotions. The interplay between emotion and cognition:How emotions influence various cognitive processes. Cognitive biases in anxiety:The role of attentional and interpretive biases in anxiety disorders. Theories of Emotion Perception The source highlights Schachter & Singer's Two-Factor Theory of Emotion, which posits that emotions arise from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal.A key takeaway is: "Emotion = arousal + cognition" This is supported by their 1962 experiment where participants injected with epinephrine experienced different emotions depending on the behaviour of a confederate, demonstrating the importance of contextual information in shaping emotional responses. The "Creaky Bridge Experiment"(Dutton & Aron, 1974) further exemplifies this theory. Men on a dangerous, swaying bridge were more likely to attribute their physiological arousal to attraction towards a female confederate compared to men on a stable bridge. This highlights how: "Physiology has been interpreted as emotion" The Structure of Emotions The source presents two contrasting approaches to understanding the structure of emotions: Dimensional Approach:Emotions exist on a continuum of valence (positive-negative) and arousal (low-high). Categorical Approach:Emotions are distinct categories like happiness, sadness, and anger. Emotion, Mood, and Affect The source distinguishes between emotions, which are short-lived and intense, and moods, which are less intense but more enduring. Affect is used as a broader term encompassing the experience of emotions, moods, and personality traits. Cognitive Processes and the Brain The source emphasises the bidirectional relationship between cognition and emotion, stating: Two possible interactions between emotion and cognition: Effects of cognitions on emotions Effects of emotions on cognitions" Theamygdalais highlighted as a key brain region in emotional processing, supported by brain imaging studies and research on patients with amygdala damage. Appraisal Approach The source explains that our emotional experiences are shaped by our appraisals of situations in relation to our goals and well-being.A crucial point is: "According to appraisal theories, appraisals can cause emotional states rather than emotional states causing appraisals" An example of failing an exam illustrates this:blaming the teacher evokes anger, while blaming oneself evokes guilt, demonstrating the influence of appraisal on the resulting emotion. Non-conscious Emotional Processing he source presents evidence that emotional processing can occur below conscious T awareness. Studies using subliminal stimuli demonstrate that exposure to negative words or phobia-related images can influence mood and emotional responses, even without conscious perception. Emotional Regulation The source discusses the importance of regulating our emotional responses and introduces Gross and Thompson's (2007) process model, which categorises emotional regulation strategies based on when they are employed: Situation Selection:Avoiding potentially stressful situations. Situation Modification:Altering aspects of the situation. Attention Deployment:Shifting focus away from emotional stimuli. Cognitive Change:Reinterpreting the situation to change its emotional impact. Response Modulation:Controlling outward expression of emotions. Two specific strategies, distraction and reappraisal, are discussed in detail, highlighting their effectiveness in regulating emotions.However, it is noted that: "There is no one size fits all" and the effectiveness of a strategy depends on the specific situation and individual differences. Emotion's Influence on Cognition The source provides examples of how emotions can affect various cognitive processes, including attention, memory, judgement, and decision-making. For example, anxiety is associated with reduced attentional breadth and increased risk aversion, while sadness can lead to more risky decisions and altered perceptions of worth. Anxiety and Cognitive Biases The source delves into two key cognitive biases in anxiety: Attentional Bias:Preferential attention to threatening stimuli. Interpretive Bias:Tendency to interpret ambiguous information negatively. Research by Ohman and colleagues demonstrates that even non-anxious individuals exhibit attentional biases towards threatening images. However, these biases are amplified in individuals with anxiety disorders. In conclusion, the source provides a comprehensive overview of key concepts in the field of cognition and emotion, highlighting the intricate interplay between these two domains and their influence on human behaviour. It emphasises the importance of understanding how emotions are generated, structured, and regulated, as well as their impact on various cognitive processes.
