Psychology's Roots - Ch. 1 & 2 Notes PDF

Ch. 1: Psychology’s Roots Critical Thinking Critical thinking is the thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions. Structuralism Structuralism was an early s...

Ch. 1: Psychology’s Roots Critical Thinking Critical thinking is the thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions. Structuralism Structuralism was an early school of thought promoted by Wundt that focused on the structure of the human mind. Functionalism Functionalism is an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin that focused on how the mind functions. ​ Behaviorism the view that psychology​ (1) should be an objective science that​ (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). Humanistic Psychologists A historically important perspective that emphasized human growth potential. Cognitive Psychology The study of mental processes, such as those that occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems. Cognitive Neuroscience The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). Biopsychosocial Approach An approach that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints. Nature-Nurture Issue The age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. Dual Processing The principle that our mind processes information at the same time on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. Theory An explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events. ​ Hypothesis A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. ​ Operational Definition A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. ​ Replication The repeating of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. ​ Case Study A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. ​ Naturalistic Observation A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situations. Survey A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group. ​ Population All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) ​ Random Sample A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. ​ Correlation Experiments (inc., correlate, and positive and negative correlation) A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either one predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, with O indicating no relationship. Placebo Effect An inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group. ​ Experimental Group In an experiment, the group was exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Control Group In an experiment, the group is not exposed to the treatment; the control group serves as a comparison with the experimental group for judging the effect of the treatment. ​ Double-Blind Procedure In an experiment, a procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo. Dependent Variable In an experiment, the factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. Independent Variable In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Confounding Variable In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied might influence a study's results. Informed Consent The act of giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate. Debrief After an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study's purpose and any deceptions researchers used. Plasticity The brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. Neuron A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. Cell Body The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center. Dendrites Neuron extensions that receive and integrate messages and conduct them toward the cell body. Axon The neuron extension that sends messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands. Action Potentials A nerve impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Glial Cells Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. Synapses The junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter Neuron-produced chemicals that cross the synaptic gap to carry messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands. All-or-None Law A neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. Threshold The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. Refractory Period In neural processing, a brief resting pause occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. Nervous System The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Peripheral Nervous Systems The sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body. Central Nervous Systems The brain and spinal cord. The Endocrine System The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. The Limbic System Neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. Frontal Lobes The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. Parietal Lobes The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. Occipital Lobes The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. Temporal Lobes The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears. Motor Cortex The cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements. Somatosensory Cortex The cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. Association Areas Cerebral cortex areas involved primarily in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking Corpus Callosum A large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. Neurogenesis The formation of new neurons. Consciousness Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment. Selective Attention Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Inattentional and Change Blindness Failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness. SLEEP & SLEEP Cycles Regulated by suprachiasmatic nucleus Circadian Rhythms (Internal biological clock) — Natural 24-hour cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that occur in the body Fluctuations of biological and psychological processes (e.g., sleep-wake cycle); occur on 24 hour cycles REM (active or paradoxical sleep) ​ Muscle activity suppressed ​ Rapid eye movement ​ Physiological arousal fluctuates NREM (quiet sleep) STAGE 1: drifting into sleep, process of falling sleep, may experience hallucinations — i.e: hearing your name called, feeling like you’re falling etc. — activity in the motor cortex STAGE 2: Onset of true sleep, but shallow — i.e: it doesn’t take much to wake someone up STAGE 3: Physiological arousal drops to lowest point, deep sleep Why do we sleep? -​ Recovery -​ Boosts creative thinking -​ Supports growth -​ Restores and rebuilds memories Insomnia Inability to fall or stay asleep, or feel rested. Narcolepsy Suddenly slipping into REM sleep (“sleep attacks”) Sleep Apnea Sleeper repeatedly stops breathing, causing momentary awakening. Sleepwalking Episode of walking or performing other activities. Night Terrors Spike of physiological arousal, inc. intense fear & hallucinations. DREAMS ​ Sequences of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. ​ Dreams feature people and places from one’s daily experiences. ​ Our two-track mind continuously monitors the environment during sleep. ​ Sensory stimuli can be instantly woven into the dream’s content.