Personality Development PDF

Personality Personality Is the set of long-lasting traits that shape how we consistently think, feel, and act, making each person unique. It’s generally stable over time and resistant to change. The word "personality" comes from *persona*, Latin for "mask," used in ancient theater...

Personality Personality Is the set of long-lasting traits that shape how we consistently think, feel, and act, making each person unique. It’s generally stable over time and resistant to change. The word "personality" comes from *persona*, Latin for "mask," used in ancient theater to project a character’s traits—just as our personality shows our distinctive qualities to the world.  Historical Perspective Hippocrates (370 BCE): Suggested personality Galen: Expanded Hippocrates, idea, he believed stems from four temperaments tied to body that imbalances in humors could lead to mood fluids (humors) and personality disorders, shaping a person’s overall character and tendencies. Choleric (Yellow Bile - Liver): Passionate and ambitious In summary, Hippocrates laid the groundwork Melancholic (Black Bile - Kidney) : Anxious and for the theory of the Four Temperaments with reserved his humoral theory, while Galen further Sanguine (Blood - Heart): Optimistic and joyful elaborated on how these temperaments Phlegmatic (Phlegm - Lungs): Calm and reliable manifest (i.e. choleric, melancholic, sanguine, phlegmatic) in personality traits and behavior. Remember How It Started Franz Gall: Proposed phrenology, suggesting skull bumps reveal personality—later discredited and was considered pseudoscience. Immanuel Kant: Built on temperaments, categorizing people into four fixed types. Wilhelm Wundt: Introduced two axes (emotional/non-emotional and changeable/unchangeable) to further classify personalities.  Hysteria In the early years of his career, Freud worked Freud theorized that hysteria stemmed from with Josef Breuer and became interested in the repressed traumatic memories, often related case of Bertha Pappenheim, known as Anna to childhood sexual abuse, which were hidden O., who developed symptoms like paralysis, from consciousness. Breuer disagreed with headaches, blurred vision, amnesia, and Freud’s focus on repressed trauma, leading to hallucinations while caring for her dying father. a split in their collaboration. Despite this, Freud These symptoms were labeled as "hysteria", a continued to refine talk therapy, which later condition with no clear medical cause. Breuer became known as psychoanalysis, and found that discussing Anna O.'s emotional developed his theory of personality, distress helped alleviate her symptoms, leading emphasizing the role of unconscious conflicts to what she called the "talking cure." Although and repressed memories in mental health. Freud never met Anna O., her case inspired his work and contributed to the 1895 book Studies on Hysteria, co-authored with Breuer.  Levels of Consciousness Freud compared the mind to an iceberg One example Freud used to illustrate this to explain the concept of conscious is the "Freudian Slip", or an unintentional versus unconscious experience. He speech error, where we substitute one proposed that only about one-tenth of word for another. Freud believed these our mind is conscious, while the majority, errors reflect hidden sexual or the unconscious, contains mental activity aggressive urges that unintentionally slip we are unaware of and cannot access. out of our unconscious. Although According to Freud, unacceptable urges Freudian slips are common, linguists and desires are kept in the unconscious today suggest that such speech errors through a process called repression. occur more frequently when we are tired, nervous, or cognitively impaired, offering a more modern explanation of these mistakes.  Freud's Theory on Personality The id and superego are in constant conflict Imbalances in this system can lead to because the id seeks instant gratification mental health issues like neurosis, anxiety without regard for consequences, while the disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For superego urges us to behave in socially example, a person dominated by the id may acceptable ways. The ego acts as the be impulsive and narcissistic, while mediator, balancing the demands of both by someone with a dominant superego might finding rational ways to satisfy the id's be excessively guilt-ridden, denying even desires without causing guilt. Freud acceptable pleasures. If the superego is believed that a strong ego, capable of weak or absent, it could result in balancing the id and superego, results in a psychopathy. An overly dominant superego healthy personality. can lead to an over-controlled individual, unaware of emotional needs, or a neurotic person using excessive defense mechanisms to protect themselves. Conflict Freud believed that anxiety arises when the ego fails to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. In response, the ego seeks to restore balance using defense mechanisms—unconscious protective behaviors aimed at reducing anxiety. These mechanisms help shield the ego from being overwhelmed, and we are typically unaware of when we use them. Defense mechanisms distort reality in various ways, but according to Freud, everyone uses them to cope with stress and emotional conflict. Defense Mechanisms (Primitive, Neurotic, Mature) Reaction Formation Denial Acting opposite to your true feelings. Refusing to accept unpleasant events "Counteract" Displacement Rationalization Shifting emotions to a safer target Making excuses to justify behavior Projection Repression Pushing unpleasant thoughts into the Attributing your own feelings to others unconscious Regression Sublimation Redirecting negative feelings into positive Returning to earlier behaviors when stressed activities.  Psychosexual Stages Age Stage Erogenous Major Conflict Adult Fixation (years) Oral 0–1 Mouth Weaning off breast or bottle Smoking, overeating Retentive (neatness), Expulsive Anal 1-3 Anus Toilet training (messiness) Phallic 3-6 Genitals Oedipus/Electra Complex/Desire for opposite sex Vanity, overambition Sexual feelings are dormant, and children None/Involves identifying with the Latency 6-12 None focus on developing gender roles same-sex parent. Sexual reawakening, with urges directed None/Balanced adult with mature Genital 12+ Genitals toward socially acceptable partners. sexual interests Neo-Freudians: Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney Theories built upon Freud's ideas but differs in significant ways, is expanded or modified. Alfred Adler Alfred Adler, a former colleague of Freud and first president of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, broke away from Freud’s ideas and developed Individual Psychology, focusing on the drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority. He introduced the concept of the inferiority complex, which refers to feelings of lacking worth or not meeting societal standards. Unlike Freud, who emphasized sexual and aggressive motivations, Adler believed that striving to overcome childhood feelings of inferiority is the driving force behind thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.  Core of Adler's Contribution Adler emphasized the importance of social connections in development, viewing childhood growth as rooted in social, rather than sexual, development. He advocated working together for collective welfare, suggesting that happiness lies in contributing to the common good. Adler outlined three fundamental social tasks—occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (long-term relationships)—that he believed are consciously pursued. One significant contribution was his idea that birth order influences personality: Oldest children often become overachievers to compensate for shared parental attention. Youngest children may be spoiled. Middle children have the advantage of avoiding extremes experienced by siblings. Although Adler acknowledged unconscious processes, he prioritized conscious motivations, focusing on explicit goals. His belief in the equal rights of all individuals and the importance of collaboration remains a cornerstone of his theory, despite debates around some ideas, such as the impact of birth order. Erik Erikson Erikson is known for his Psychosocial Theory of development, which diverges from Freud's theories by proposing that personality develops throughout the lifespan rather than being fixed in early childhood. Erikson emphasized the importance of social relationships at each stage of development, contrasting Freud’s focus on sexual drives. In his theory, Erikson outlined eight stages of psychosocial development, each representing a specific conflict or developmental task. Successfully navigating these stages leads to a healthy personality and a sense of competence, highlighting the lifelong nature of personal growth.  Psychosocial Stages Developmental Stage Age Description Task Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, 1 1 Trust vs. mistrust will be met Autonomy vs. 2 1-3 Sense of independence in many tasks develops shame/doubt Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not 3 3-6 Initiative vs. guilt met or boundaries overstepped Industry vs. Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of 4 7-11 inferiority inferiority when not Identity vs. 5 12-18 Experiment with and develop identity and roles confusion Intimacy vs. 6 19-29 Establish intimacy and relationships with others isolation Generativity vs. 7 30-64 Contribute to society and be part of a family stagnation Integrity vs. 8 65+ Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions despair Carl Jung Carl Jung, a Swiss Psychiatrist and Freud’s protégé, broke away to establish analytical psychology, which focuses on balancing conscious and unconscious elements of personality. He viewed this process as lifelong, particularly significant in the second half of life, and aimed at achieving self-realization by integrating unconscious elements into consciousness.  Jung’s disagreements with Freud were rooted in two key differences: Jung, like Adler and Erikson, rejected Freud’s emphasis on sexual drive as the primary motivator in mental life. Jung expanded Freud’s concept of the personal unconscious by introducing the collective unconscious, universal, inherited part of the unconscious mind. This shared aspect of the psyche contains archetypes, which are universal mental images or symbols that shape human thought and behavior. According to Jung, these archetypes manifest across cultures in myths, religions, art, and dreams.  Four Key Archetypes The Persona The Shadow The persona is the social "mask" individuals wear to navigate societal The shadow encompasses the repressed and often hidden aspects of the expectations, shaped by cultural norms and external demands. It psyche, including desires, instincts, and qualities considered socially or functions as a tool for adapting to different environments, such as morally unacceptable. Formed from cultural and personal rejection of adopting a professional demeanor at work versus a casual one with these elements, it embodies the darker side of the self, such as envy or friends. While it helps people fit into society, over-identifying with the aggression. Jung argued that acknowledging and integrating the shadow persona can result in losing touch with their authentic self, as they may is vital for personal growth; denying it can lead to projecting these traits suppress personal traits that conflict with societal standards. onto others The Anima and Animus The Self The anima and animus represent the gendered aspects of the The self is the archetype of unity, symbolizing the integration of the unconscious: the anima reflects the feminine qualities within men, such as conscious and unconscious mind. It represents the totality of the psyche intuition and empathy, while the animus embodies the masculine traits in and is the ultimate goal of individuation, where all other archetypes are women, like logic and assertiveness. They serve as bridges to the harmonized into a cohesive identity. Often symbolized by mandalas or collective unconscious and are crucial for achieving balance in personality. balance-centric imagery, the self embodies wholeness and the full Integrating these archetypes helps individuals harmonize emotional and realization of an individual’s potential​ rational components of their identity  Another concept proposed by Jung was the persona, which he referred to as a mask that we adopt. According to Jung, we consciously create this persona; however, it is derived from both our conscious experiences and our collective unconscious. What is the purpose of the persona? Jung believed that it is a compromise between who we really are (our true self) and what society expects us to be. We hide those parts of ourselves that are not aligned with society’s expectations. Jung’s view of extroverted and introverted types serves as a basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Ways to direct and received energy Extraversion Introversion Ways to take in information Sensing Intuition Ways to decide and come to conlusion Thinking Feeling Ways to approach the outside world Judging Perceiving Karen Horney Karen Horney, a pioneering female psychoanalyst, initially trained in Freudian theory but later rejected Freud’s ideas, particularly the concept of penis envy. She believed gender differences in personality were culturally, not biologically, based and suggested that men experience womb envy. Horney emphasized self-realization and the development of a healthy self rather than focusing on childhood dysfunction.  Three Coping Styles Horney’s theories focused on how unconscious anxiety, caused by unmet childhood needs like loneliness and isolation, can hinder normal growth. She identified three coping styles for managing this anxiety: Moving Toward People Moving Against People Moving Away from People This style involves seeking affection and This style involves aggression and This style involves detachment and dependence. A child may seek positive manipulation. A child may fight or bully isolation. A child may withdraw from the attention from a parent, while an adult may others, while an adult may be abrasive, world, and as an adult, they may prefer have an intense need for love and verbally hurtful, or exploit others. being alone. acceptance.  Behaviorism centered on observable behavior, emphasizing the role of environmental stimuli and reinforcement in shaping behavior.  The Behavioral Perspective Behaviorists, including B.F. Skinner, reject the idea of biological determinism and do not view personality traits as inborn. Instead, they believe personality is shaped by external reinforcements and consequences. According to Skinner, consistent behavior patterns develop because of learned response tendencies. People engage in behaviors that lead to positive outcomes and avoid those that lead to negative consequences. Skinner argued that personality evolves throughout life, not just in childhood, and can change with new experiences. For example, Greta, a young woman who once took risks like speeding and extreme sports, becomes more cautious after changes in her environment, such as marriage and children, which no longer reinforce her risk-taking behaviors.  Reciprocal Determinism James is preparing for a school presentation. Believing that with Cognitive processes, behavior, and practice, he can improve (cognitive Albert Bandura agreed with environment all interact and influence factor), James practices and receives Skinner that personality each other simultaneously. Our beliefs, positive feedback from classmates actions, and the context in which they develops through learning, occur are interdependent. (behavioral factor), which boosts his confidence (cognitive factor). He but he disagreed with observes Sarah, a skilled presenter, and Observational Learning Skinner's strict behaviorism. learns by imitating her clear speaking We learn by observing others and the style (observational learning, behavioral Bandura emphasized the consequences of their actions. This type factor), hoping to receive similar praise importance of cognitive of learning shapes our behavior and (cognitive factor). With confidence in his personality, as we imitate behaviors abilities (self-efficacy) (cognitive factor), processes—thinking and based on whether the model is James feels motivated to do well in the reasoning—in personality reinforced or punished. presentation, while someone with low development. He introduced Self-Efficacy self-efficacy might avoid it (behavioral factor, situational factor). This example the social-cognitive theory, Our confidence in our abilities, which illustrates how reciprocal determinism, which combines learning and influences how we approach challenges. observational learning, and self-efficacy High self-efficacy leads to greater influence James's personality and cognition as key sources of persistence and a positive view of actions. personality differences. : challenges, while low self-efficacy can cause avoidance and a focus on failure. Julian Rotter Julian Rotter (1966) introduced locus of control, a cognitive factor influencing learning and personality development. It differs from self-efficacy, focusing instead on whether people believe they control their own lives. Those with an Internal locus of control believe their outcomes result from their efforts, while those with an External locus of control attribute outcomes to external factors like luck or other people. Studies show that individuals with an internal locus of control tend to achieve more academically and professionally, are healthier, cope better, and experience less depression compared to those with an external locus of control. Walter Mischel Walter Mischel, a prominent personality psychologist, challenged the idea that personality traits are consistent across all situations. His research revealed that while behavior varies across different contexts, it tends to remain consistent within similar situations. This sparked the person-situation debate, encouraging psychologists to reconsider how they study personality. Marshmallow Test A key contribution was his work on self-regulation, or willpower, a framework for describing how people manage their behavior to move away from undesired outcomes, and to reach desired goals. In the study, preschoolers could eat one marshmallow immediately or wait to receive two. Children who delayed gratification showed greater self-control and were found to have better outcomes later in life, such as higher SAT scores, positive relationships, and stable marriages. However, later research emphasized the importance of situational factors, such as family background and cognitive capacity, in shaping self-regulation and long-term success. This highlights the interplay between individual traits and external influences in understanding behavior.  Humanism richness and depth of human experience, focusing on personal growth, free will, and the capacity for self- directed change Abraham Maslow One of his most well-known contributions is the Hierarchy of needs Theory, which outlines a progression of human needs, starting with basic survival requirements (e.g., food, safety) and culminating in self-actualization—the realization of one’s full potential. Maslow distinguished between deficiency needs (those that motivate us to fulfill something lacking) and growth needs (those that drive personal development). He believed that unmet needs within this hierarchy could lead to emotional or behavioral issues.  Self-Actualized 1 Autonomy and Independence 5 Authenticity They make decisions based on their own values, They are true to themselves and express their not external pressures. thoughts and feelings openly. 2 Realism 6 Acceptance of Others They have a clear understanding of both the They are open-minded and nonjudgmental good and bad aspects of life. toward others. 3 Problem-Solving Ability 7 Sense of Purpose They use creativity and critical thinking to tackle They pursue meaningful goals that bring challenges. fulfillment. 4 Peak Experiences They often have profound experiences that lead to personal growth. Carl Rogers Rogers divided the self into the Ideal Self (who a person aspires to be) and the Real Self (who they actually are). He emphasized that achieving congruence—alignment between the real and ideal selves—leads to higher self- esteem, a sense of worth, and a productive, healthy life. Conversely, incongruence, or a significant mismatch between these selves, can lead to maladjustment. Rogers stressed the role of unconditional positive regard —unconditional love and acceptance—in fostering a healthy self-concept. He argued that individuals who experience unconditional acceptance, especially from parents, are more likely to develop self-worth and a caring attitude toward themselves.  Biological Perspective inherited predispositions as well as physiological processes can be used to explain differences in our personalities Evolutionary Perspective: Life-History Theory Evolutionary psychology examines how personality traits have evolved to enhance survival and reproduction, highlighting both universal traits and individual differences. David Buss developed theories such as Life- History Theory, which looks at how people allocate time and energy to areas like reproduction or parenting, influencing personality traits. A person raised in a high-stress environment may develop a "fast" strategy, showing personality traits geared toward short-term survival. A person raised in a stable environment may adopt a "slow" strategy, with traits focused on future-oriented planning and risk aversion. Evolutionary Perspective: Cost Signaling Theory Another theory, Costly Signaling Theory, focuses on how individuals signal their value to others, like potential mates, through traits that require effort or resources to display, ensuring these signals are honest and help in mate selection or social. Twin Study: Reared Apart The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (1979– 1999) investigated the genetic basis of personality by studying 350 pairs of identical and fraternal twins, raised both together and apart. Results showed that identical twins, regardless of upbringing, share remarkably similar personalities, indicating a strong genetic influence on traits like leadership, stress resistance, and fearfulness. These findings highlight heritability—the proportion of trait variation due to genetics—though personality is shaped by many genes and influenced by epigenetic factors. Additionally, studies link personality to broader factors, such as identifying Type A and Type B personality traits, which are explored further in stress and health contexts.  Temperament is a personality trait (biologically-based) that determines how a person reacts to the world Contemporary psychologists recognize that temperament has a biological basis, as it emerges early in life. Thomas and Chess (1977) categorized infants into three temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. However, environmental factors, such as family interactions, and maturation influence how personality traits are expressed. Two key dimensions of temperament relevant to adult personality are reactivity—how individuals respond to new or challenging stimuli—and self-regulation—the ability to control those responses. For instance, one person might react to new stimuli with high anxiety, while another remains unbothered.  Trait Theorists understanding personality thru specific traits Gordon Allport Trait theorists propose that personality can be understood through identifying specific traits, which are consistent patterns in how individuals think, feel, and behave. Allport classified approx. 18,000 terms then identified over 4,500 words in the English language to describe these traits, which he categorized into three types: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.  Three Levels of Traits According to Allport Cardinal Central Secondary These are rare and dominate a person’s These are the major traits that shape our These are situational and less consistent entire personality and life. i.e. Mother personality, such as being loyal, kind, traits, such as specific preferences or Theresa, Machiavellian, Imeldific, Christ- friendly, or grouchy. They are more attitudes. i.e. easy going in normal situation Like common and influential in daily but short-tempered in a lot of pressure interactions Raymond Cattell Raymond Cattell refined the list of personality traits, narrowing it down to 171 traits and later identifying 16 key dimensions of personality, including warmth, emotional stability, dominance, and self-reliance. These dimensions are assessed on a continuum (spectrum), rather than being binary, reflecting the varying degrees to which each trait is expressed in individuals. For example, a high score on warmth indicates being caring and supportive, while a low score suggests being more distant or cold. Cattell's 16PF assessment measures these dimensions across a spectrum from high to low.  16 Personality Factors by Cattell Factor Low Score High Score Warmth Reserved, detached Outgoing, supportive Intellect Concrete thinker Analytical Emotional stability Moody, irritable Stable, calm Aggressiveness Docile, submissive Controlling, dominant Liveliness Somber, prudent Adventurous, spontaneous Dutifulness Unreliable Concientious Social assertiveness Shy, retrained Uninhibited, bold Sensitivity Tough-minded Sensitive, caring Paranoia Trusting Suspicious Abstractness Conventional Imaginative Introversion Open, straightforward Private, shrewd Anxiety Confident Apprehensive Openmindedness Closeminded, traditional Curious, experimental Independence Outgoing, social Self-sufficient Perfectionism Disorganized, casual Organized, precise Tension Relaxed Stressed Mr. and Ms. Eysenck Psychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck focused on temperament and believed that personality is largely influenced by biology. They identified two key dimensions of personality: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability. Extroverts are sociable and outgoing, while introverts prefer solitude and limit social interactions. In the neuroticism/stability dimension, individuals high in neuroticism tend to be anxious, with a sensitive sympathetic nervous system, while those high in stability are emotionally stable and require more stimulation for a flight-or-fight reaction. Four Quadrants According to Eysenck The Eysencks divided people into four quadrants based on these traits, paralleling the four temperaments: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine. Later, they introduced a third dimension—psychoticism versus superego control—where individuals high in psychoticism are impulsive and antisocial, and those high in superego control are empathetic, cooperative, and conventional. Summary While Cattell's 16-factor model is considered too broad and the Eysencks' two-factor system too narrow, the Five Factor Model, or Big Five, provides a middle ground. It identifies five key personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, summarized by the mnemonic OCEAN. This model is regarded as the most accurate approximation of fundamental personality dimensions.  Extroversion reflects Openness to experience Neuroticism represents the sociability, assertiveness, and encompasses imagination, tendency to experience emotional expressiveness. creativity, and curiosity, negative emotions. High Individuals scoring high on scorers often report emotional extroversion are outgoing and with high scorers having instability, anxiety, and often drawn to adventure and diverse interests and an unhappiness, whereas low high-risk activities, supported eagerness for scorers tend to be emotionally by findings that link exploration. stable and even-tempered. extroversion and openness to excitement-seeking behavior Conscientiousness involves traits like Agreeableness measures traits such as competence, self-discipline, and goal- trustworthiness, cooperation, and pleasantness. While directed behavior. Research consistently low agreeableness is associated with rudeness and shows that conscientiousness is uncooperativeness, studies suggest men scoring lower positively correlated with academic on agreeableness tend to earn more money than their agreeable counterparts, indicating potential success, highlighting its importance in advantages in competitive or assertive environments. personal achievement and reliability.  Summary on OCEAN Model The Big Five personality traits represent a continuum, with most people falling somewhere in the middle rather than at the extremes. These traits remain relatively stable throughout life, though subtle changes occur with age. Research indicates that conscientiousness increases from young adulthood to middle age, reflecting improved management of relationships and careers. Similarly, agreeableness peaks between ages 50 and 70. In contrast, neuroticism and extroversion show slight declines over time. Notably, the Big Five traits have been found to be universal, appearing consistently across different ethnicities, cultures, and age groups. Studies suggest that these traits may have significant biological and genetic underpinnings. This reinforces the idea that while environmental factors influence personality, biological components play a critical role in shaping individual differences.  HEXACO Michael C. Ashton and Kibeom Lee The HEXACO model of personality identifies six traits: honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. It provides a broad framework for understanding individual personality differences. The model added Honesty- Humility as it was not captured in the OCEAN Model represented by the facets of sincerity, fairness, greed avoidance, and modesty.  Cultural Understandings of Personality culture specific influence, understanding variations in beliefs, customs, art, and traditions Variations of Personality Across Cultures Considering cultural influences on personality is essential because Western ideas may not apply universally. Research shows personality traits vary across cultures. For example, people in collectivist cultures, such as in Asia, are typically less extroverted, while Central and South Americans score higher in openness, and Europeans tend to score higher in neuroticism. Selective Migration Selective migration plays a role in regional personality differences. People often move to areas that align with their personality traits, such as agreeable individuals living near family or open individuals seeking diverse, innovative regions. Studies also reveal regional differences within the United States, identifying three personality clusters: "friendly and conventional" in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, "relaxed and creative" in the West, and other variations reflecting unique geographic psychological profiles. These differences influence factors like political views, economic vitality, and entrepreneurial rates. Personality in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures Studies reveal these cultural values influence personality. For instance, people in individualist cultures exhibit more personally oriented traits, while those in collectivist cultures demonstrate socially oriented traits. Research using the Eysenck Personality Inventory in collectivist settings, such as Papua New Guinean students, highlights the importance of cultural context for meaningful analysis. Similarly, assessments of Native Americans must consider tribe-specific cultural responses to avoid bias, requiring assessors to understand historical, cultural, and acculturation differences comprehensively. Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context There are three approaches to studying personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the combined approach. The cultural-comparative approach tests personality theories in other cultures to assess their generalizability and cultural validity. The indigenous approach, in contrast, emerged to focus on developing personality assessment tools based on constructs relevant to specific cultures. The combined approach integrates both Western and indigenous perspectives, aiming to understand universal traits and cultural variations in personality. Personality Assessment identifying traits through personality tests How are Personality Tests Used? Roberto is quiet, lacks self-confidence, and follows others; he lacks motivation. Mikhail is loud, impulsive, and works hard but struggles with alcohol. Nat is thoughtful, trustworthy, but slow to make decisions. Key qualities for a good police officer include leadership, emotional stability, and good decision-making. Dangerous traits include impulsivity and lack of motivation. Personality testing helps law enforcement agencies assess suitability for the job and is also used in criminal cases and psychological evaluations. Self-Report Inventories Self-report inventories are objective personality tests that use multiple-choice items or numbered scales (e.g., 1 to 5, from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree"). They are easy to administer, cost-effective, but can be influenced by social desirability bias, where test-takers may exaggerate or present themselves more favorably, especially in situations like job applications. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), first published in 1943 with 504 questions, was updated to MMPI-2 in 1989 with 567 questions and a more representative sample. The MMPI-2 takes 1-2 hours and includes 10 clinical scales. In 2008, the MMPI-2-RF reduced the questions to 338 and shortened the time. Despite this, MMPI-2 remains more commonly used. Initially for clinical diagnosis, it is now also used in occupational screening, including law enforcement, and counseling. See next slide for scale.  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Description What is measured Additional Details Hypochondriasis Concern with bodily symptoms excessive concern with health despite negative medical findings. signs of clinical depression, hopelessness, disinterest in activities, worthlessness, Depression Depressive symptoms and life dissatisfaction. awareness of problems and Hysteria response to stress cause physical and mental symptoms vulnerabilities Conflict, struggle, anger, respect Psychopathic Deviate social maladjustment, antisocial behaviors, authority. for rules stereotypical masculine or Masculinity/Femininity examines sensitivity to determine their conformity to traditional gender roles feminine interest or behaviors Level of trust, suspiciousness, suspiciousness, and psychotic symptoms, including paranoid thoughts, delusions, Paranoia and feelings of persecution. sensitivity Worry, anxiety, tension, doubts, measures compulsive behaviors, fears, self-criticism, anxiety, and guilt, reflecting Psychasthenia symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder obsessiveness Odd thinking and social Schizophrenia assesses hallucinations, delusions, and symptoms like bizarre thoughts alienation evaluates excitement, including an unstable mood, rapid speech, impulsivity, Hypomania Level of excitability grandiosity, and cognitive and behavioral overactivity. measures a person's social introversion or extroversion, focusing on traits like Social Introversion People orientation competitiveness, compliance, timidity, and dependence.  Summary In addition to clinical scales, the MMPI includes validity and reliability scales. The Lie Scale (or "L" Scale), with 15 items, is used to detect if respondents are "faking good" by underreporting psychological issues to appear healthier. For example, answering "yes" to overly positive statements like "I have never told a lie" may indicate an attempt to present oneself in a better light than reality. Beutler, Nussbaum, and Meredith (1988) administered the MMPI to newly recruited police officers and then again 2 years later. The results showed increased vulnerability to alcoholism, somatic symptoms, and anxiety. After an additional 2 years, the officers' responses indicated a higher risk for alcohol- related issues. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions). Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).  Projective Test projecting feelings, impulses, and desires onto ambiguous images or prompts Projective Testing Projective testing assesses personality through Freud's defense mechanism of projection. In this method, individuals are shown ambiguous images or prompts and are encouraged to project their feelings and desires onto them, often through storytelling or interpreting images. Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These tests are less prone to distortion, as it’s difficult to fake responses. However, they are more time-consuming for evaluators, and while the Rorschach test can be valid and reliable, the validity of other projective tests is debated, especially for use in court. Rorschach Inkblot Test The Rorschach Inkblot Test, developed in 1921 by Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach, presents a series of symmetrical inkblot cards to a client. The psychologist asks, “What might this be?” to uncover unconscious feelings and struggles. Standardized using the Exner system, the test is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.  "It's not what you see but how you perceive it" 1. Rorschach was initially intended 2. Using Determinants: Color, 3. Should be used by trained to aid in the diagnosis of Form, Movement, Pairs and individuals. schizophrenia Reflections, Shading Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray in 1930's The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan in the 1930s, involves showing a person 8–12 ambiguous pictures and asking them to tell a story about each one. These stories provide insights into the person's social world, revealing their hopes, fears, and goals. The test is used in both clinical and counseling settings to assess psychological disorders and promote self-understanding. However, it lacks standardization in administration and has modest to low validity and reliability, despite being widely used.  Condition for the Story (Compulsory) Present Situation, Thoughts and feelings of the character(s), Preceding events, Final Outcome Scoring: The Hero, Need for the Total time duration assigned Each Image yields out information Hero, Identifying the for 10 pictures is 50 minutes. on specific concepts or themes. presses, Scoring for Descriptive, Interpretative, Interpretation based on repetitive Themes, Scoring for Outcome Diagnostic Interpretations patterns. Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB) The Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB), developed by Julian Rotter in 1950, includes 40 incomplete sentences for individuals to complete quickly (1-2 words). There are versions for different age groups: school, college, and adult forms. The test, taking about 20 minutes to complete, is designed to reveal desires, fears, and struggles, similar to a word association test. It is used in screening college students for adjustment problems and in career counseling. What "Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank" Looks Like Starting Point Response I feel.... I regret.... At home.... My mother.... My greatest worry.... Is culture important in Projective Tests? Traditional projective tests have faced limitations in cross-cultural personality assessments due to test bias. These tests, based on data from a single culture, may not accurately reflect the personalities of people from diverse ethnic groups. For example, African-American test takers often produced shorter stories and showed low cultural identification when using the TAT. To address this, Robert Williams developed the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C- TCB) in 1972, which uses 20 images reflecting African- American lifestyles. The C-TCB has shown improved results in terms of story length, positive feelings, and cultural identification compared to the TAT. TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test The TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test is another tool designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths. TEMAS— standing for “Tell Me a Story” but also a play on the Spanish word temas (themes)—uses images and storytelling cues that relate to minority culture.  "Who are you?" is the most complex question to ask. No single theory can fully explain the depth of who we truly are.