Chapter 6: Efficiency and Fairness of Markets PDF

© 2021 Pearson Should ticket scalping be illegal? © 2021 Pearson Efficiency and Fairness of Markets 6 CHAPTER CHECKLIST When you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be abl...

© 2021 Pearson Should ticket scalping be illegal? © 2021 Pearson Efficiency and Fairness of Markets 6 CHAPTER CHECKLIST When you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be able to 1 Describe the alternative methods of allocating scarce resources, and define and explain the features of an efficient allocation. 2 Distinguish between value and price, and define consumer surplus. 3 Distinguish between cost and price, and define producer surplus. © 2021 Pearson When you have completed your study of this chapter, you will be able to 4 Evaluate the efficiency of the alternative methods of allocating resources. 5 Explain the main ideas about fairness, and evaluate the fairness of alternative methods of allocating scarce resources. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY < Resource Allocation Methods Scarce resources might be allocated by Market price Sharing equally Command Lottery Majority rule Personal characteristics Contest Force First-come, first-served How does each method work? © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Market Price When a market allocates a scarce resource, the people who get the resource are those who are willing to pay the market price. Most of the scarce resources that you supply get allocated by market price. You sell your labor services in a market, and you buy most of what you consume in markets. For most goods and services, the market turns out to do a good job. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Command Command system allocates resources by the order (command) of someone in authority. For example, if you have a job, most likely someone tells you what to do. Your labor time is allocated to specific tasks by command. A command system works well in organizations with clear lines of authority but badly in an entire economy. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Majority Rule Majority rule allocates resources in the way that a majority of voters choose. Societies use majority rule for decisions about tax rates that allocate resources between private and public use and tax dollars between competing uses such as defense and health care. Majority rule works well when the decision affects lots of people and self-interest must be suppressed to use resources efficiently. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Contest A contest allocates resources to a winner (or group of winners). The most obvious contests are sporting events but they occur in other arenas: For example, the Oscars are a type of contest. Contest works well when the efforts of the “players” are hard to monitor and reward directly. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY First-Come, First-Served A first-come, first-served allocates resources to those who are first in line. Casual restaurants use first-come, first served to allocate tables. Supermarkets use first-come, first-served at checkout. Airlines use first-come, first-served to allocate standby seats. First-come, first-served works best when scarce resources can serve just one person at a time in a sequence. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Sharing Equally When a resource is shared equally, everyone gets the same amount of it. You might use this method to share a dessert in a restaurant. To make sharing equally work, people must be in agreement about its use and implementation. It works best for small groups who share common goals and ideals. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Lottery Lotteries allocate resources to those with the winning number, draw the lucky cards, or come up lucky. State lotteries and casinos reallocate millions of dollars worth of goods and services each year, but lotteries are more widespread. For example, tickets to Michael Jackson’s memorial service were allocated by lottery. Lotteries work well when there is no effective way to distinguish among potential users of a scarce resource. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Personal Characteristics Personal characteristics allocate resources to those with the “right” characteristics. For example, people choose marriage partners on the basis of personal characteristics. But this method gets used in unacceptable ways: allocating the best jobs to white males and discriminating against minorities and women. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Force Force plays a role in allocating resources. For example, war has played an enormous role historically in allocating resources. Theft, the taking property of others without their consent, also plays a large role. But force provides an effective way of allocating resources—for the state to transfer wealth from the rich to the poor and establish the legal framework in which voluntary exchange can take place in markets. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY < Using Resources Efficiently Allocative efficiency is a situation in which the quantities of goods and services produced are those that people value most highly. It is not possible to produce more of one good or service without producing less of something else. Efficiency and the PPF Production efficiency—producing on PPF Producing at the highest-valued point on PPF The PPF tells us what can be produced, but the PPF does not tell us about the value of what we produce. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Marginal Benefit Marginal benefit is the benefit that a person receives from consuming one more unit of a good or service. People’s preferences determine marginal benefit. The marginal benefit from a good is what people are willing to forgo to get one more unit of the good. Marginal benefit decreases as the quantity of the good increases—the principle of decreasing marginal benefit. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Possibility A and point A tell us that if we produce 2,000 pizzas a day, … people are willing to give up 15 units of other goods and services to get one more pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Point B tells us that if we produce 4,000 pizzas a day, people are willing to give up 10 units of other goods and services to get one more pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Point C tells us that if we produce 6,000 pizzas a day, people are willing to give up 5 units of other goods and services to get one more pizza. The line through points A, B, and C is the marginal benefit curve. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Marginal Cost Marginal cost is the opportunity cost of producing one more unit of a good or service and is measured by the slope of the PPF. The marginal cost of producing a good increases as more of the good is produced. The marginal cost curve shows the amount of other goods and services that we must give up to produce one more pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Possibility A and point A tell us that if we produce 2,000 pizzas a day, we must give up 5 units of other goods and services to produce one more pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Point B tells us that if we produce 4,000 pizzas a day, we must give up 10 units of other goods and services to produce one more pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Point C tells us that if we produce 6,000 pizzas a day, we must give up 15 units of other goods and services to produce one more pizza. The line through points A, B, and C is the marginal cost curve. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Efficient Allocation The efficient allocation is the highest-valued allocation. That is, the allocation is efficient if it is not possible to produce more of any good without producing less of something else that is valued more highly. To find the efficient allocation, we compare marginal benefit and marginal cost. Figure 6.3 on the next slide shows the efficient quantity of pizzas. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY Production efficiency occurs at all points on the PPF. Allocative efficiency occurs at the intersection of the marginal benefit curve (MB) and the marginal cost curve (MC). Allocative efficiency occurs at only one point on the PPF. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY 1. When 2,000 pizzas are produced, marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost, so the efficient quantity is larger. Too few pizzas are being produced. Increase the quantity of pizzas by moving along the PPF. © 2021 Pearson 6.1 ALLOCATION METHODS AND EFFICIENCY 2. When 6,000 pizzas are produced, marginal cost exceeds marginal benefit, so the efficient quantity is smaller. Too many pizzas are being produced. Decrease the quantity of pizzas by moving along the PPF. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS < Demand and Marginal Benefit Buyers distinguish between value and price. Value is what the buyer gets. Price is what the buyer pays. The value of one more unit of a good or service is its marginal benefit. Marginal benefit can be measured as the maximum price that people are willing to pay for another unit of the good or service. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS The consumer will buy one more unit of a good or service if its price is less than or equal to the value the consumer places on it. A demand curve is a marginal benefit curve. For example, the demand curve for pizzas tells us the dollars worth of other goods and services that people are willing to forgo to consume one more pizza. That is, the demand curve for pizzas shows the value the consumer places on each pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS Figure 6.4 shows demand, willingness to pay, and marginal benefit. The demand curve shows: The quantity demanded at each price, other things remaining the same. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS Figure 6.4 shows demand, willingness to pay, and marginal benefit. The demand curve also shows: 2. The maximum price willingly paid for the last pizza available. The maximum price willingly paid is the marginal benefit. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS < Consumer Surplus Consumer surplus is the marginal benefit from a good or service minus the price paid for it, summed over the quantity consumed. Figure 6.5 on the next slide shows the consumer surplus from pizzas. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS 1. The market price of a pizza is $10. 2. People buy 10,000 pizzas and spend $100,000 a day on pizzas. 3. But people are willing to pay $15 for the 5,000th pizza, so consumer surplus from that pizza is $5. © 2021 Pearson 6.2 VALUE, PRICE, AND CONSUMER SURPLUS 4. Consumer surplus from the 10,000 pizzas that people buy is the area of the green triangle—$50,000. The total benefit of pizzas is $150,000, which equals the $100,000 that people spend on pizzas plus the $50,000 of consumer surplus. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS < Supply and Marginal Cost Sellers distinguish between cost and price. Cost is what a seller must give up to produce the good. Price is what a seller receives when the good is sold. The cost of producing one more unit of a good or service is its marginal cost. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS The seller will produce one more unit of a good or service if the price for which it can be sold exceeds or equals its marginal cost. A supply curve is a marginal cost curve. For example, the supply curve of pizzas tells us the dollars worth of other goods and services that firms must forgo to produce one more pizza. That is, the supply curve of pizzas shows the seller’s cost of producing each unit of pizza. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS Figure 6.6 shows supply, minimum supply price, and marginal cost. The supply curve shows: 1. The quantity supplied at each price, other things remaining the same. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS Figure 6.6 shows supply, minimum supply price, and marginal cost. The supply curve shows: The quantity supplied at each price, other things remaining the same. 2. The minimum price that firms must be offered to supply a given quantity of pizzas. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS < Producer Surplus Producer surplus is the price of a good minus the opportunity cost of producing it, summed over the quantity produced. Figure 6.7 shows the producer surplus for pizza producers. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS 1. The market price of a pizza is $10. At that price producers plan to sell 10,000 pizzas. 2. The marginal cost of producing the 5,000th pizza is $6, so the producer surplus on the 5,000th pizza is $4. © 2021 Pearson 6.3 COST, PRICE, AND PRODUCER SURPLUS 3. Producer surplus from the 10,000 pizzas sold is $40,000 a day—the blue area. 4. The cost of 10,000 pizzas is $60,000 a day—the red area under the marginal cost curve. The cost equals total revenue $100,000 minus producer surplus of $40,000. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Figure 6.8 shows an efficient pizza market 1. Market equilibrium 2. Marginal cost curve 3. Marginal benefit curve 4. When marginal cost equals marginal benefit, quantity is efficient. 5. Consumer surplus plus … 6. Producer surplus is maximized. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? In a competitive market: The demand curve shows buyers’ marginal benefit. The supply curve shows the sellers’ marginal cost. So at the equilibrium in a competitive market, marginal benefit equals marginal cost. Resource allocation is efficient. So the competitive market delivers the efficient quantity. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? < Total Surplus Is Maximized Total surplus is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. The competitive equilibrium maximizes total surplus. Buyers seek the lowest possible price and sellers seek the highest possible price. But as buyers and sellers pursue their self-interest, the social interest is served. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? < The Invisible Hand Adam Smith, in the Wealth of Nations (1776), suggested that competitive markets send resources to the uses in which they have the highest value. Smith believed that each participant in a competitive market is “led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.” © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? < Market Failure Market failure is a situation in which the market delivers an inefficient outcome. Inefficiency can occur because: Too little is produced—underproduction. Too much is produced—overproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Underproduction When a firm cuts production to less than the efficient quantity, a deadweight loss is created. Deadweight loss is the decrease in total surplus that results from an inefficient underproduction or overproduction. The deadweight loss is borne by the entire society. It is a social loss. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Figure 6.9(a) shows the effects of underproduction. Efficient quantity is 10,000 pizzas. If production is 5,000 pizzas a day: Deadweight loss arises. Total surplus is reduced by the deadweight loss. Underproduction is inefficient. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Overproduction When the government pays producers a subsidy, the quantity produced exceeds the efficient quantity. A deadweight loss arises that reduces total surplus to less than its maximum. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Figure 6.9(b) shows the effects of overproduction. Efficient quantity is 10,000 pizzas. If production is 15,000 pizzas: A deadweight loss arises. Total surplus is reduced by the deadweight loss. Overproduction is inefficient. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? < Sources of Market Failure Markets generally do a good job of sending resources to where they are most highly valued. But obstacles to efficient that bring market failure are: Price and quantity regulations Taxes and subsidies Externalities Public goods and common resources Monopoly High transactions costs © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Price and Quantity Regulations Price regulations sometimes put a block on the price adjustments and lead to underproduction. Quantity regulations that limit the amount that a farm is permitted to produce also leads to underproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Taxes and Subsidies Taxes increase the prices paid by buyers and lower the prices received by sellers. So taxes decrease the quantity produced and lead to underproduction. Subsidies lower the prices paid by buyers and increase the prices received by sellers. So subsidies increase the quantity produced and lead to overproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Externalities An externality is a cost or benefit that affects someone other than the seller or the buyer of a good. An electric utility creates an external cost by burning coal that creates acid rain. The utility doesn’t consider this cost when it chooses the quantity of power to produce. Overproduction results. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? An apartment owner would provide an external benefit if she installed a smoke detector. But she doesn’t consider her neighbor’s marginal benefit and decides not to install the smoke detector. The result is underproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Public Goods and Common Resources A public good benefits everyone and no one can be excluded from its benefits. It is in everyone’s self-interest to avoid paying for a public good (called the free-rider problem), which leads to underproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? A common resource is owned by no one but used by everyone. It is in everyone’s self interest to ignore the costs of their own use of a common resource that fall on others (called tragedy of the commons), which leads to overproduction. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? Monopoly A monopoly is a firm that is sole provider of a good or service. The self-interest of a monopoly is to maximize its profit. To do so, a monopoly sets a price to achieve its self- interested goal. As a result, a monopoly produces too little and underproduction results. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? High Transactions Costs Transactions costs are the opportunity costs of making trades in a market. To use market prices as the allocators of scarce resources, it must be worth bearing the opportunity cost of establishing a market. Some markets are just too costly to operate. When transactions costs are high, the market might underproduce. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? < Alternatives to the Market No one method allocates resources efficiently. But supplemented by other methods, markets do an amazingly good job. Table 6.1 on the next slide shows some possible remedies for market inefficiencies. © 2021 Pearson 6.4 ARE MARKETS EFFICIENT? © 2021 Pearson 6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR? Two broad and generally conflicting views of fairness are: It’s not fair if the rules aren’t fair. It’s not fair if the result isn’t fair. © 2021 Pearson 6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR? < It’s Not Fair if the Rules Aren’t Fair This idea translates into “equality of opportunity.” Harvard philosopher, Robert Nozick, in Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974), argues that the rules must be fair and must respect two principles: The state must enforce laws that establish and protect private property. Private property may be transferred from one person to another only by voluntary exchange. © 2021 Pearson 6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR? < It’s Not Fair if the Result Isn’t Fair The fair rules approach is consistent with allocative efficiency, but the distribution might be “too unequal.” Most people recognize that there is no easy answer or principle to guide the amount of equality. The fair results approach conflicts with efficiency and leads to what is called the “big tradeoff.” © 2021 Pearson 6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR? The big tradeoff is a tradeoff between efficiency and fairness that recognizes the cost of making income transfers. The tradeoff is between the size of the economic pie and the degree of equality with which it is shared. The greater the amount of income redistribution through income taxes, the greater is the inefficiency—the smaller is the economic pie. © 2021 Pearson 6.5 ARE MARKETS FAIR? Taking all the costs of income transfers into account, the fair distribution of the economic pie is the one that makes the poorest person as well off as possible. The “fair results” ideas require a change in the results after the game is over. Some say that this in itself is unfair. © 2021 Pearson Ticket scalping is the practice of reselling a concert or sports ticket at a higher price than the original ticket. The Internet has provided a platform that makes scalping easy and profitable. Should scalping be illegal? The standard economist view is that ticket scalping should not be illegal. Why? The tickets are sold in two markets: 1. The primary market in which event organizers sell the tickets. 2. The secondary market in which buyers in the primary market resell tickets. © 2021 Pearson Figure 1 illustrates the primary market. The supply is perfectly inelastic at the capacity of the event venue. Demand for tickets is D. The price of a ticket is $50 and the equilibrium quantity is 4,000 tickets. Consumer surplus is shown by the green area. © 2021 Pearson Figure 2 illustrates the secondary (resale) market. Supply in the secondary market is the flip-side of demand in the primary market. For a ticket holder, the opportunity cost of using the ticket is not the price paid for the ticket but the price at which it can be sold. So the price in the secondary market determines the quantity of tickets bought in the primary market that are supplied to the secondary market. © 2021 Pearson Supply in the resale market shows the surplus of tickets at each ticket price in the primary market. © 2021 Pearson Demand and supply in the resale market determine the scalping price and quantity of tickets resold. © 2021 Pearson In the primary market, buyers use 3,000 tickets and forgo consumer surplus of area A. © 2021 Pearson In the resale market, area A + B is the cost of reselling 1,000 tickets and area C is the producer surplus. © 2021 Pearson Total surplus in the two markets exceeds the total surplus in the primary market with no scalping. Scalping is efficient. © 2021 Pearson